HYBRIDi GENSETSi FORi CELLi TOWERS

1i Abstracti

Thei dieseli generatori setsi currentlyi drivei celli toweri systems,i especiallyi thosei ini thei ruggedi
terrain.i Dieseli poweri generatingi hasi variousi drawbacksi thati doi noti makei iti thei besti
alternative.i Kenyai isi generallyi giftedi withi renewablesi thati cani bei usedi fori deliveryi ofi poweri
oni suchi towers.i Thei researchi wasi conductedi ati Aitongi ini Naroki andi comparedi thisi toi datai
fromi secondaryi sourcesi fori windi speedi andi solari insolation.i Ini orderi toi registeri thei actuali RESi
oni site,i ai prototypei Hybridi Poweredi Systemi (HPS)i wasi assembledi andi installed.

Basedi oni thei datai acquired,i ani HPSi systemi wasi designed.i Basedi oni theiri costi andi poweri
characteristics,i thei designi procedurei comprisedi mainlyi choosingi thei ideali mixi ofi HPSi systemi
parts.i Thei studyi alsoi examinedi thei costi ofi implementingi andi runningi thei intendedi poweri
systemi asi welli asi thei currenti onlinei systemi oni site.

Currenti on-sitei statisticsi showi thati thisi locationi containsi ani abundancei ofi RES.i Thei collectedi
datai isi consistenti withi thei datai obtainedi fromi thei secondaryi sources.i Ini thei casei ofi Nationali
Aerospacei andi Spacei Administrationi (NASA)i data,i thei correlationi isi veryi close.i Thei
optimisationi ofi thei systemi structurei suggestsi thati ai costi ofi KES2.6i millioni fori Neti Presenti
Costi cani bei expectedi comparedi toi thei existingi systemi ofi KES21i million.i Fori thei monthi ofi
October,i thei simulatedi Costi ofi Energyi (COE)i isi roughlyi 10/kWhi fori Kenyai Shillingsi (KES),i
whichi isi betteri theni 21/kWhi fori thei Kenyai Poweri andi Lightingi Companyi (KPLC).

Table of Contents
i i

1i Abstract ...................................................................................................................... i

Listi ofi Figures ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Listi ofi Tables.............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

2i Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

2.1i Backgroundi information ........................................................................................ 1

2.2i Problemi Statement ................................................................................................. 2

3i Researchi Objectives .................................................................................................. 3

4i Literaturei Review ...................................................................................................... 3

4.1i Renewablei energyi sourcesi (RES) .................................................................... 3

4.2i Hybridi Poweri Systemsi (HPS) .......................................................................... 3

4.2.1i HPSi design .......................................................................................................... 6

4.2.2i HPSi Designi Optimization ................................................................................... 7

4.3i HOMERi andi NPC............................................................................................ 8

4.4i Summary .......................................................................................................... 9

5i Researchi Methodology.............................................................................................. 9

5.1i Energyi demandi andi renewablei resourcesi availability ..................................... 9

5.1.1i Load/demandi assessment .................................................................................. 10

5.2i Hybridi poweri systemi design .......................................................................... 10

5.3i Cost-Benefit-Analysis.................................................................................... 10

6i Resultsi andi Discussions .......................................................................................... 11

6.1i Toweri systemi BTSi andi Transmissioni load .................................................... 11

6.2i Renewablei energyi sourcesi availability .......................................................... 15

6.2.1i Primaryi datai collectioni andi analysis ................................................................. 15

6.3i HPSi design ..................................................................................................... 16

6.3.1i HPSi modelling .................................................................................................. 16

6.4i Economici viabilityi ofi thei HPS ....................................................................... 22

7i Conclusionsi andi Recommendation ......................................................................... 22

7.1i Conclusions.................................................................................................... 22

ii
7.2i Recommendations.......................................................................................... 23

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 26

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 24

iii
2i Introduction

2.1i Backgroundi informationi

Energyi musti bei createdi andi efficientlyi usedi fori thei growthi ofi thei communityi andi thei
nationi asi ai wholei [1].i Energyi isi supposedi toi bei ai fundamentali requirementi fori thei
moderni wayi ofi life.i [2].i RESi [3]i wasi increasinglyi interestedi ini thei costsi andi
environmentali problemsi ofi conventionali electricityi sourcesi [3].i Technologiesi
consequentlyi needi toi bei developedi toi createi energyi fromi alli energyi sourcesi ini ani
environmentallyi sustainablei manner.i Thei efficienti conservationi ofi energyi resourcesi
shouldi likewisei bei giveni adequatei importancei [4].

Dieseli generatori setsi arei fulfilledi withi electricali poweri requirementsi fori mosti rurali
communicatingi towers.i Thei maini gridi expansioni intoi smalli populations,i especiallyi ini
harshi terrain,i isi linkedi toi substantiali capitali expendituresi [1].i However,i thei usagei ofi ai
gasolinei generatori leadsi toi severali environmentali problemsi andi toi significanti O&Mi
expenses,i asi outlinedi ini Tablei 1.1[5].i

i i

Tablei 1-1:i Comparisoni ofi RESi withi Dieseli Generationi [5]i

Itemi RESi Dieseli Generationi

Costi Lowi Oi &i Mi costsi Highi Oi &i Mi costi

Pollutioni Noi emissionsi GHGs,i sound,i andi oili spillagei

Dependencyi i Dependsi oni naturali andi RESi Dependsi oni oili supplyi

Fueli transportationi Noi transportationi costsi Costlyi toi transporti usingi tankers,i
lossesi andi poori qualityi duei toi
thefti duringi transportation.i

Maintenancei Lowi maintenancei Costly,i lossesi duei toi theft,i andi oili
spillage.i

Lifei Longeri usefuli lifei Seveni yearsi ori shorteri

1
 Poweri supplyi Dependsi oni availabilityi ofi RESi Noi guaranteedi uninterruptedi

generationi
i

Hillsi havingi ani estimatedi elevationi ofi 1943i mi abovei seai leveli arei Aitong,i Rifti Valley,i
Kenyai (Latitude:i 1.18o;i Length:i 35,25o).i Twoi 8i kVAi dieseli enginesi arei nowi
supplyingi electricityi fromi thei Telkomi Kenyai toweri systemi ini Aitong,i buti therei arei
plentyi ofi RES[6].i Fori thei twoi dieseli generatorsi thei annuali Capitali Expenditurei
(Capex)i andi Operationali Expenditurei (OPEX)i amountsi toi aroundi KESi 5i millioni andi
KESi 3.1i millioni each.i Thei presenti dieseli generatori isi describedi ini Appendixi 1.i Thisi
systemi hasi ani averagei poweri demandi ofi aroundi 1.5i kW.
Ini thei study,i thei viabilityi ofi replacingi thei Aitongi toweri system'si dieseli generationi withi
solar-windi poweri HPSi andi thei usagei ofi dieseli asi ai back-upi sourcei withi batteryi banki
storagei wasi studied.i Fori comparisoni withi secondaryi datai fromi pasti studiesi andi
weatheri stations,i ai prototypei wasi manufacturedi andi deployedi ati thei site.i Thei solari andi
windi statisticsi andi thei economici viabilityi ofi thei examinedi systemi werei theni usedi toi
developi ani HPS.
Thei resultsi ofi thei studyi providei Telkomi withi newi poweri possibilitiesi Kenyai Thei
optioni proposedi byi suchi resultsi isi likelyi toi resulti ini decreasedi O&Mi costsi fori
communicationi towers.i Thei costi reductionsi realizedi cani subsequentlyi bei transferredi toi
clientsi byi reducingi telephonei charges,i whichi leadi toi ani increasei ini marketi sharei andi
profits.i Ai furtheri benefiti isi thei reductioni ini emissionsi ofi GHGsi thati demonstratesi
Telkomi Kenya'si greati sociali responsibility.i
2.2i Problemi Statementi

Electricityi generationi utilizingi dieseli enginesi isi linkedi toi pollutioni whilei electricityi
suppliesi toi remotelyi positionedi towersi fromi nationali gridsi arei expensive.i Thusi ani
environmentallyi acceptable,i cost-effectivei andi widelyi availablei sustainablei poweri
supplyi systemi isi needed.i

2
3i Researchi Objectivesi

Thisi studyi focusedi oni thei designi ofi ani HPSi madei upi ofi photovoltaici (PV)i systems,i
windi turbinei andi batteryi bank.i Ini casei ofi failures,i substitutioni andi othersi whichi makei
upi thei RESi capturingi componentsi noti available,i thei existingi dieseli generatori seti isi
replacedi withi ani optimali dieseli generator,i whichi actsi asi ai backupi poweri supply.

1. Toi examinei thei sitei ofi thei Aitongi toweri systemi fori solari andi windi energyi
sources.
2. Toi developi andi optimizei ai communicationi toweri systemi HPS
3. Toi evaluatei HPSi asi ai poweri sourcei fori thei touri system'i si economici viabilityi
i

4i Literaturei Reviewi

4.1i Renewablei energyi sourcesi (RES)i

Sun-derivedi renewablei energyi cani bei utilizedi directlyi ini thei wayi solarsi andi
hydroelectrici energy,i windi energyi andi biomassi energyi arei usedi indirectlyi asi isi thei
case.i RESi comprisesi solar,i wind,i hydro,i geothermal,i bio-energy,i seai energyi andi soi on.i
Therei arei otheri optionsi toi non-renewablei energyi sources.i Althoughi theyi arei
"alternativei energy"i insteadi ofi "renewablei energies,"i theyi arei morei effectivei thani
earlieri technologiesi ini usingi existingi energy.i Thei utilizationi ofi renewablei andi alternatei
energyi sourcesi cani savei money,i conservei energy,i savei thei environmenti andi minimizei
excessi energyi dependencei abroadi [10]i [9],i [10].i

4.2i Hybridi Poweri Systemsi (HPS)i

Thei hybridi poweri systemi includesi ai mixi ofi twoi ori morei electricityi generationi modesi ori
sourcesi [2],i suchi asi windi turbines,i photovoltaici systems,i micro-hydrogeni generationi
and/ori fossili fuels.i Theyi arei ofteni independenti ofi centralizedi gridsi andi arei suitablei fori
usei ini rural/remotei regionsi [11],[12].i Thei utilizationi ofi RESi ini hybridi poweri systemsi
reducesi dependencei oni costlyi fuels,i whilei permittingi cleaneri electricali poweri
generationi [13].i HPSi addressesi fueli flexibility,i efficiency,i trustworthiness,i emissions,i

3
economiesi andi cost-effectivenessi limitationsi [12].i Thei schematici charti ofi ai simplei
HPSi withi numerousi sourcesi illustratedi ini Figurei 2-1i [11].i

Figurei 2-1:i Basici HPSi

Ai hybridi poweri systemi usuallyi consistsi ofi alternativei poweri generators,i CCi
distributioni system,i DC,i charges,i RES,i poweri storage,i converters,i rotaryi converters,i
couplingi diesel,i dumpi loads,i loadi managementi optionsi ori supervisoryi systemsi [14].

Thei schematici designi depictingi thei functionalityi ofi thesei componentsi andi thei
interactioni betweeni themi isi presentedi ini Figurei 2-2.i

4
 Figurei 2-2:i HPSi possibilitiesi [15]i

Ini ani HPS,i ai dieseli generatori servesi asi ai backupi systemi ini circumstancesi thati mayi
preventi thei availabilityi ofi RESi capturei components.i Usuallyi thei systemi isi adjustedi toi
avoidi constantlyi requiringi ai dieseli generator,i buti otheri componentsi musti bei installed.i
Somei windi turbinesi providei DCi electricityi asi theiri maini output.i Typicallyi thesei
devicesi arei withini ai 10i kWi ori lessi range.i Theyi cani accommodatei bothi ACi andi DCi
loadsi withi appropriatei controllersi ori converters.i Ini somei hybridi poweri systems,i PVi
panelsi arei ai valuablei additioni toi windi turbines.i Inherently,i PVi panelsi createi DCi
power,i andi consequentlyi generatei ai separatei DCi busi andi storage.i Theyi cani bei linkedi toi
ai specializedi converteri ini largeri systemsi andi servei ini suchi instancei asi ai dei factoi ACi
power.
Excessi electricali poweri isi dissipatedi ini thei networki viai ai dumpi load.i Duringi periodsi ofi
highi renewablesi andi ai lowi load,i suchi ai surplusi couldi resulti ini insecurityi ini energyi
supply.i Fori hybridi electricityi systems,i therei arei twoi differenti typesi ofi poweri

5
transformationi functions:i rectifyingi andi inverting,i rechargingi batteriesi fromi ACi
sourcesi ori providingi ACi loadsi fromi DCi sourcesi suchi asi bateriesi andi solari panels.
Thei rangei ofi controli functionsi isi incorporatedi intoi mosti hybridi poweri systems.i Somei
controli functionsi arei performedi byi speciali controlsi thati arei componentsi ofi thei system.i
Thei systemi monitoringi controli isi performedi ini generali (SSC).
Windi andi solari PVi isi ani individuali HPSi fori mosti applicationsi whichi isi ani appropriatei
hybridi combinationi fori seasonali changesi [16].i [16].i [16].i Theyi arei alsoi
complementaryi duringi leani times,i becausei bothi arei seasonal.i Thei HPSi consistsi ofi
windi andi solari PVi andi otheri componentsi ini Figurei 2–3.i

Figurei 2-3:i Solar-windi hybridi poweri system1i

4.2.1i HPSi designi

Thei renewablei andi conventionali energyi sourcesi usedi ini telecommunicationsi arei ini
severali configurations:i Dieseli Battery;i Solari Battery;i Dieseli Batteryi Wind;i Solari
Dieseli Windi ori Solari Battery.i Thei setupi ofi ani HPSi dependsi oni threei factors:i RESi
accessibility,i loadi andi costi (i.e.i CAPEXi andi OPEX)i [11].i Thei HPSi isi thereforei choseni

6
toi optimizei thei resourcesi availablei againsti differenti restrictionsi ini orderi toi increasei
performance,i economiesi andi dependability.i

4.2.2i HPSi Designi Optimizationi

HPSi optimizationi examinesi processesi fori NPC,i Totali Annualizedi Costi (TAC)i andi
Costi Savingsi selectioni ofi componentsi (SV).i Then,i thei RESi componentsi arei designedi
toi deliveri energyi efficiency,i reliabilityi andi economyi [18].i Severali toolsi havei beeni
employedi ini thei designi ofi hybridi systemsi suchi asi toolsi fori dimensioning,i simulatingi
instruments,i researchi toolsi andi mini-gridi designi tools.i However,i thei techniquei toi
manuali designi isi arduous,i time-consumingi andi error-prone.
Ai dimensionsi tooli (alsoi calledi ai sizingi tool)i cani measurei HPS,i i.e.i thei optimumi sizei ofi
eachi componenti ini thei system-basedi searchi areai cani bei determinedi byi usingi thisi tooli
fori ai particulari demandi fori energy.i Thei searchi areasi arei comprisedi ofi ani adjustablei
numberi ofi designeri componentsi andi ratings.i Thei designeri musti specifyi thei naturei andi
sizei ofi eachi componenti withi thei simulationi tooli insteadi ofi ai dimensioningi tool.i Thei
tooli theni analyzesi thei behaviori ofi thei systemi ini detail.i Componenti andi systemi leveli
researchi andi developmenti (R&D)i demandsi ai highi degreei ofi flexiblei interactioni
betweeni thei components.i Whilei traditionali toolsi cani undertakei comprehensivei
sensitivityi analyses,i theyi usuallyi doi noti allowi thei useri toi changei thei algorithmsi toi
whichi thei separatei componentsi andi researchi toolsi havei toi rely.i Thei designi ofi ai minii
gridi electricityi distributioni system[18]i isi supportedi byi thei inventioni ofi mini-gridi
designi tools.i Tablei 2-1i providesi ai categoryi overviewi ofi somei ofi thesei tools.i
Tablei 2-1:i Overviewi ofi simulationi toolsi [18]i

Tooli Typei

RETScreeni Dimensioningi tooli

HOMERi Simulation/dimensioningi tooli

Hybrid2i Simulationi tooli

Vipor* i
Designi tooli

Jpelec* i
Designi tooli

7
4.3i HOMERi andi NPCi

Thei Nationali Renewablei Energyi Laboratoryi (NREL)i hasi developedi thei Hybraidi
Optimizationi Modeli (HOMER)i program,i andi iti isi beingi enhancedi fromi timei toi
time[19].i HOMERi isi mainlyi ai softwarei optimizationi applicationi whichi simulatesi andi
scalesi differenti RESi systemi setupsi basedi oni NPC[20].i HOMERi calculatesi thei
renewablei poweri availablei andi comparesi iti withi thei electricityi chargesi necessary.i Anyi
limitationsi oni thei user'si systemi arei theni assessed,i e.g.i thei fractioni ofi thei totali servedi
electricityi demandi ori thei proportioni ofi electricityi generatedi fromi renewablei sources.

Thei lifei cyclei costsi ofi ai systemi arei representedi byi NPC.i Thei estimatei evaluatesi alli
costsi incurredi overi thei projecti life,i includingi initiali costi ofi installation,i projecti lifespani
componenti substitution,i maintenancei andi fuel.i Futurei cashi flowsi arei nowi beingi
discounted.i HOMERi calculatesi thei NPCi by

wherei Capitali recoveryi factori (CRF)i ini equationi 2.1i isi definedi asi

HOMERi assumesi thati alli pricesi arei risingi ati thei samei rate,i usingi thei "annuali reali
interesti rate"i insteadi ofi thei "nominali rate."i HOMERi NPCi estimatesi alsoi takei intoi
considerationi salvagei costs,i whichi ati projecti lifetimei representsi thei residuali valuei ofi
thei poweri systemi components.i Thei rescuei valuei (SV)i isi indicatedi as

Annuali savingsi arei computedi byi removingi thei annualizedi costsi fromi thei annualizedi
earningsi andi makingi thei overalli annuali savingi ori loss.i Thei reportedi paybacki

8
 timeframesi fori small-scalei networkedi systemsi rangei fromi seveni yearsi (ICsi assistedi
throughi bigi discounts)i toi 11.2i years,i 15i years,i ori upi toi 30i yearsi [20].i

4.4i Summaryi

Renewablei energyi isi freei ofi chargei ini nature,i isi continuouslyi replenished,i doesi noti
contaminatei thei environmenti andi reducesi dependencei oni energyi sourcesi thati arei noti
renewablei andi polluting.i Thei usagei ofi RESi alsoi savesi investorsi money.i Differenti
formsi ofi RESi arei utilizedi successfullyi throughouti thei world.i Althoughi thisi cani bei
foundi ini ani abundancei ofi RESi regions,i whichi isi ai pollutingi source,i mosti toweri systemsi
ofi Telkomi Kenyai arei suppliedi throughi dieseli productioni ini remotei areas.i Informationi
oni thei availabilityi ofi RESi isi essentiali ini orderi toi developi ani HPSi system.i Thei systemi isi
optimizedi oni thei basisi ofi differenti expenses.i Thei ultimatei choicei isi basedi oni thei
estimatedi savingsi toi bei generatedi byi thei implementationi ofi thei HPSi system.i Thisi
inspiredi thei aimsi andi thei orderi ofi thei studies.i

5i Researchi Methodology

5.1i Energyi demandi andi renewablei resourcesi availabilityi

Thei startingi pointi fori thei designi phasei ofi thei HPSi treatedi wasi thei evaluationi ofi thei
renewablei resourcesi availablei oni thei site.i Solari andi windi speedsi werei obtainedi andi thei
severali HPSi partsi werei dimensionedi accordingi toi thei tower'si energyi consumptioni andi
thei on-sitei averagei RES.
Ini orderi toi measurei RESi potential,i ani HPSi prototypei wasi createdi andi installedi ati thei
location.i Thei HPSi consistedi ofi ai windi turbinei ofi 50W,i ai solari paneli withi 20Wi andi
batteryi ofi 40AH.i Thei RESi potentiali wasi basedi oni thei actuali generationi percentagei ofi
eachi componenti fori ai certaini period.i Thei energyi generatedi byi eachi sourcei wasi readi
andi loggedi byi thei energyi metersi afteri thei installationi ofi thei prototype.i Thisi representedi
thei reali systemi performancei andi servedi asi ai basei fori similari systemsi whichi cani bei
implementedi irrespectivei ofi theiri ratingsi ati thisi location.i

9
5.1.1i Load/demandi assessmenti

Thei energyi requirementsi ofi thei toweri componentsi werei basedi oni thei existingi energyi
usei ratingi ofi thei toweri systemi equipment.i Thei overalli energyi requirementsi fori kWi
werei calculatedi andi thei basisi fori thei HPSi designi wasi employed.i HOMERi theni
employedi monthlyi peaki poweri demand,i asi thisi musti continuallyi bei meti byi thei HPS.i

5.2i Hybridi poweri systemi designi

Ini thei fronti end,i HOMERi sizei ofi thei wind,i solari andi batteryi systemsi wasi calculatedi oni
thei basisi ofi thei correspondingi averagei monthlyi RESi datai ini accordancei withi thei
procedurei seti outi ini [4],i [20].i Differenti HPSi componentsi werei theni comparedi toi thei
costi andi poweri characteristicsi ofi variousi manufacturers.i

5.3i Cost-Benefit-Analysisi

Ini tryingi toi optimizei thei scalei ofi integratedi poweri generationi systems,i iti isi importanti toi
justifyi thisi economically[4].i Thei economici studyi ofi thei HPSi wasi conductedi andi thei
costi considerationsi werei consideredi ini orderi toi optimizei thei systemi size.i Ini viewi ofi thei
lifetimei andi replacementi costsi ofi thei systemsi asi indicatedi ini [4]i andi [20],i severali costsi
werei calculatedi usingi thei HOMERi modeli created,i namelyi NPC,i CE,i SVi andi TAC.
Ini thisi study,i thei HPSi setupsi includedi windi power,i solari power,i batteryi banki andi thei
optimali dieseli generatori asi ai backupi poweri supplieri ifi RESi capturei componentsi arei noti
available.i Thesei designsi havei theni beeni designedi andi studiedi toi establishi thei mosti
viablei systemi set-upi basedi oni thei NPCi andi dieseli fueli usagei overi itsi lifetime.i Thei
researchersi werei helpedi byi thei HOMERi softwarei toi evaluatei thei technicali feasibilityi
ofi thei systemi andi thei NPC.i Whilei RETScreeni andi Hybrid2i softwarei arei ablei toi
simulatei thei samei thingi asi HOMER,i HOMERi isi ablei toi dimension,i andi hencei hasi beeni
choseni fori thisi project.i Iti mighti alsoi bei accessedi freei ofi charge.i

10
6i Resultsi andi Discussionsi

6.1i Toweri systemi BTSi andi Transmissioni loadi

Fori thei Aitongi station,i energyi consumingi equipment:

Thei poweri requiredi fori radioi sitesi variesi fromi 1i 000-1200i watts,i dependingi oni thei kindi
ofi BTS,i generation,i traffic,i andi outputi poweri andi fori thei set-upi ofi thei S222i BTS,i thei
electricityi consumptioni ofi thei radioi oni microwavesi isi capacityi andi rangesi fromi 200-
350i watts.i Thei lightingi fori thei toweri safetyi andi aircrafti alerti variesi betweeni 20i andi 25i
wattsi ini linei withi manufactureri specificationsi andi operatesi ati night.
Thei averagei dailyi energyi consumptioni ofi thei toweri BTSi wasi aroundi 36i kWhi withi +vi
(positive)i ori -vi (negative)i errorsi ofi 10i percent.
Thei averagei dailyi poweri consumptioni andi thei loadi oni thei BTSi Turmi wasi aroundi 36i
kWhi withi +vei (positive)i ori –vei (negative)i errorsi ofi abouti 10%.i Thisi wasi basedi oni
statisticsi oni thei monitoringi ofi poweri usei fori thei lasti 15i yearsi ati Telkomi installationsi ini
Kenya.i Thisi meanti thati thei turbinei systemi neededi 1,5i kWi ofi power.i Thei safetyi lightsi
andi warningi lightsi ati thei topi ofi thei toweri reflectedi ani averagei night-timei loadi ofi 50i W,i
asi measuredi byi thei maintenancei specialistsi ati thei sitei fori ai longi timei fromi historicali
data.i Figurei 4-1i illustratesi thei BTSi loadi patterni fori thei hourlyi time,i whereasi Figurei 4-
2i showsi thei Telecomi toweri illuminationi loadi patterni modeledi usingi HOMERi
software.i

11
 i

Figurei 4-1:i Hourlyi BTSi loadi patterni fori thei toweri

17i
i

Figurei 4-2:i Hourlyi lightingi loadi patterni fori thei toweri

18i
i
6.2i Renewablei energyi sourcesi availabilityi

Thei RESi availabilityi wasi dividedi intoi secondaryi datai andi actuali datai ini thei studyi area.i
Thei secondaryi informationi wasi basedi oni thei publishedi historicali datai fromi NASA,i
publishedi datai fromi thei Kenyai Meteorologicali Departmenti (KDM)i andi priori researchi
oni RESi accessibilityi ini thei Aitongi region[6],[21][22],[23]i and[23].i Reali informationi
wasi gatheredi usingi HPSi prototypesi puti oni thei screeningi site.i Basedi oni thei
examinationi ofi thei twoi datai sets,i conclusionsi havei beeni drawni concerningi thei averagei
RESi potential,i basedi oni whichi HPSi hasi beeni designed.i

6.2.1i Primaryi datai collectioni andi analysisi

6.2.1.1i HPSi prototypei assemblyi

Figurei 4-5i showsi thei HPSi prototypei blocki diagrami whilei Appendixi 3i showsi thei
circuitryi ofi thei same.i Appendixi 4i highlightsi thei specificationsi ofi thei HPSi prototypei
components.i i

Figurei 4-6:i Prototypei HPSi

15
6.3i HPSi designi

Thei HPSi wasi designedi withi HOMER.i Thei RESi datai wasi basedi oni NASAi datai thati
wasi downloadedi fromi thei NASAi websitei toi thei software.i Thei optimisationi wasi basedi
oni manyi sensitivityi studies,i includingi thei costsi andi thei RES.i

6.3.1i HPSi modellingi

Thisi modeli comprisesi ofi ai windi turbinei XL6R,i Pv,i FB10-130i andi thei BDIi converteri
asi showni ini Figuresi 4-2-i 4-6,i whichi reflectsi HOMERi simulationi outcomes.i Thei
modeli consistsi ofi ai diesel-generator.i Fori thei variousi elementsi fromi thei HOMERi
simulationi results,i Tablei 4-7i presentsi eighti (8)i optimali NPC-basedi combinationsi
(bothi CAPEXi andi OPEX).i

16
i

Tablei 4-7:i Thei eighti (8)i besti simulationi resultsi

Autoi
Architecturei Costi (KES)i Systemi
Genseti
No.i Autoi BDIi RESi
PVi Operatingi Initiali
XL6Ri Genseti FB10130i 3Pi Dispatchi COEi NPCi Fractioni Hoursi
(kW)i costi capitali i
(kW)i (kW)i (%)i
iii iiiii

1i 6i 1i 3.4i 4i 15i CCi 10i 2,600,080i i iiiii 27,410i i 2,067,500i i 100i 0i

iii iiiii

2i 10i ii 3.4i 4i 15i CCi 10i 2,658,371i i iiiii 30,410i i 2,067,500i i 100i 0i
iii iiiii

3i ii 1i 3.4i 32i 15i CCi 34i 8,776,689i i iii 319,563i i 2,567,500i i 57i 1695i
iii iiiii

4i 7i 1i 3.4i ii 15i CCi 37i 9,583,642i i iii 389,401i i 2,017,500i i 47i 5686i
i iiiii

5i 8i ii 3.4i ii 15i CCi 40i 10,434,250i i iii 456,338i i 1,567,500i i 33i 6033i
i iiiiiiii

6i ii 1i 3.4i ii 15i CCi 46i 11,864,990i i iii 560,852i i 967,500i i 21i 8379i
i iiiiiiii

7i ii ii 3.4i ii 15i CCi 53i 13,725,680i i iii 687,495i i 367,500i i 0i 8760i

i iiiiiiii

8i ii ii 3.4i 4i 15i CCi 54i 13,925,360i i iii 687,478i i 567,500i i 0i 6031i

i
 30i
i
 i

Figurei 4-2:i Costi summaryi

19
 i

Figurei 4-3:i Batteryi operationi

Figurei 4-4:i RESi penetrationi dailyi profilei

20
 i

Figurei 4-5:i Excessi electricali productioni

Figurei 4-6:i Totali RESi outputi dailyi profilei

21
6.4i Economici viabilityi ofi thei HPSi

Thei costi ofi thisi HPSi isi thei HOMER-generatedi CAPEX,i OPEX,i COEi andi NPC,i whichi
arei thei mosti suitablei combinationi ofi differenti components.i Thei currenti costi ofi thei
componentsi andi thei reducedi costsi overi thei lifei cyclei ofi thei HPSi isi responsiblei fori
thesei prices.

Figurei 4-9,i whichi presentsi thei costi summaryi basedi oni thei besti mixi ofi thei HPSi
elements,i indicatesi thati ani excessi ofi 5%i ofi energyi generationi cani bei expected.i Ai totali
ofi 17,133i kWhi ofi yearlyi energyi production,i withi ani NPCi ofi KESi 2.6i million,i isi
forecast.i Ai COEi (energyi costs)i ofi KESi 10/kWhi withi KESi 437,180i totali runningi costs.i
Thus,i bothi renewablei energyi streamsi cani fullyi meeti thei load.

Thei CAPEXi ofi thei currenti turbinei poweri systemi hasi beeni calculatedi ati KES5i millioni
andi thei annuali costi ofi operationi (OPEX)i isi projectedi ati KES3i million.i Annexi 1i showsi
thei breakdowni ofi thei O&M.i Withi ai ratei ati 17.5%,i ai 15-yeari lifei cyclei andi ani Equationi
appliedi (2.1),i thei OPEXi NPCi amountsi toi somei KESi 16i million.i Ifi ani expenditurei ofi
KESi 21i millioni (OPEXi andi CAPEXi NPC)i fori thei currenti systemi isi toi occuri today,i
comparedi toi KESi 2,6i millioni fori thei HPS,i ini thisi studyi iti willi bei necessaryi toi doi so.i
Thei COEi ofi thei existingi systemi ini thisi studyi willi bei significantlyi greateri thani thei COEi
oni thei basisi ofi thei samei rationale.i Currenti O&Mi isi KESi 3i millioni fori thei currenti
system,i whereasi thei O&Mi fori HPSi isi KESi 27i 410.i Therei isi thereforei ai neti savingi ofi
KESi 2.972,590i wheni thei presenti systemi isi replacedi withi thei HPS.i Oni thisi basis,i
investmenti returnsi willi bei aroundi 9i months.

7i Conclusionsi andi Recommendationi

7.1i Conclusionsi

Thisi investigationi showedi thati thei Telkomi Kenyai BTSi systemi hasi enoughi RESi ati
Aitongi location.i Duringi thei triali period,i thei RESi measuredi andi reportedi oni thei sitei
correlatesi welli withi NASAi documentsi andi withi otheri secondaryi sourcesi consideredi ini
thei coursei ofi thisi investigation.i Iti isi worthi noting,i asi thei datai acquiredi fromi NASAi hasi
beeni utilisedi ini thei constructioni ofi thei HPS.i Thei NASA-documentedi meani windi

22
speedi fori thei sitei wasi 3.33i m/s,i howeveri thei actuali averagei speedi measuredi duringi thisi
investigationi wasi 3.27i m/s.i NASA'si averagei sunseti wasi 5,95i kWh/m2/day,i comparedi
toi thei actuali averagei studyi sunseti ofi 6,0i kWh/m2/day.i Iti cani alsoi bei concludedi thati
NASAi datai cani bei usedi ati otheri locationsi toi decidei whetheri currenti poweri sourcesi
shouldi bei replacedi withi economicallyi efficienti poweri sources.

HOMERi wasi supportedi ini thei creationi ofi thei HPSi system.i Iti comprisedi thei costi
analysisi andi costi analysisi ofi thei besti combinationi ofi variousi HPSi components.i Thei
designi alsoi influencedi technologicali developmentsi ini futurei modificationsi ofi thei
toweri loads.i Thei adoptioni ofi BTSi electricity-savingi equipmenti willi includei ini
particulari modificationsi ini technology.i Basedi oni thei attractivei NPCi systemi costs,i thei
HOMERi optimizationi modeli wasi adopted.

Ini comparisoni withi 21i millioni KESi fori thei currenti systemi employedi ini thei toweri
system,i thei NPCi wasi KESi 2.6i millioni fori thei presenti system.i Thei COEi fori otheri
similari Telkom-Kenyai locationsi wasi determinedi toi bei KESi 10/kWhi morei thani thei
KPLCi ratei ofi Octoberi 2015.i Thei costi analysisi ini thisi studyi didi noti includei
environmentali costs,i andi actuali costi peri uniti kWhi isi probablyi significantlyi loweri thani
estimatedi cost.i Thei costi analysisi shouldi bei noted.i Investmenti returnsi werei determinedi
toi bei beneficiali ati 9i months.

Iti wasi observedi thati thei resultsi ofi simulationi softwarei varyi dependingi oni thei pricingi ofi
RESi components.i Thisi isi becausei thei pricesi ofi HPSi componentsi differi betweeni
regions.i Thei modificationsi ofi costi andi otheri propertiesi ofi thei variousi HPSi
componentsi arei thereforei noti automaticallyi updated.i Thisi hasi thereforei beeni
identifiedi asi ai HOMERi softwarei flaw.i

7.2i Recommendationsi

Thei followingi arei thei recommendationsi basedi oni thei study:i

a) Basedi oni thei study,i therei isi ai goodi regimei ofi RESi ati thei studyi areai whichi cani bei
utilizedi asi ai sourcei ofi poweri fori remotelyi locatedi toweri system.i

23
 b) Finally,i iti isi recommendedi thati mappingi ofi RESi ini alli otheri sitesi bei carriedi outi toi
ensurei thati thei besti system(s)i arei selectedi fori eachi toweri system.i

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Electrificationi ini Northerni Kenya,”i Smarti Gridi Renew.i Energy,i vol.i 05,i
no.i 05,i pp.i 89–106,i 2014.i

[2] M.i M.i Hoque,i I.i K.i A.i Bhuiyan,i R.i Ahmed,i A.i A.i Farooque,i andi S.i K.i Aditya,i

“Design,i Analysisi andi Performancei Studyi ofi ai Hybridi PVDieseli Windi Systemi fori ai
Villagei Gopali Nagari ini Comilla,”i vol.i 12,i no.i 5,i pp.i 0–5,i 2012.i

[3] S.i Kumari andi V.i K.i Garg,i “Ai Hybridi Modeli ofi Solar-Windi Poweri Generatingi

System,”i IJAREEIE,i vol.i 2,i no.i 8,i pp.i 4107–4116,i 2013.i

[4] M.i Muralikrishnai andi V.i Lakshminarayana,i “Hybridi (solari andi wind)i energyi

systemsi fori rurali electrification,”i J.i Eng.i Appl.i Sci.,i vol.i 3,i no.i 5,i pp.i 50–58,i 2008.i

[5] G.i Notton,i S.i Diaf,i andi L.i Stoyanov,i “Hybridi Photovoltaic/Windi Energyi Systemsi Fori
Remotei Locations,”i Energyi Procedia,i vol.i 6,i pp.i 666–677,i Jan.i 2011.i

[6] D.i Choge,i S.i Rotich,i andi J.i Tonui,i “Smalli Windi Turbines:i Ai Simulationi fori Optimali
Selectioni ini Uasin-Gishu,i Kenya.,”i Pacifici J.i Sci.i Technol.,i vol.i 14,i no.i 2,i 2013.i

[7] M.i O.i Omae,i E.i N.i Ndungu,i andi P.i L.i Kibet,i “Ai Surveyi ofi Internali andi

Externali Challengesi Experiencedi byi Kenya‟si Telecommunicationi Industry,”i Int.i J.i Sci.i
Eng.i Res.,i vol.i 4,i no.i 6,i pp.i 1732–1741,i 2013.i

[8] J.i Dingi andi J.i Buckeridge,i “Designi considerationsi fori ai sustainablei hybridi

energyi system,”i Aust.i Bus.i Counc.i Sustain.i Energy,i vol.i 1,i no.i 7,i 2000.i

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[9] A.i F.i Zobaai andi R.i C.i Bansal,i Eds.,i Handbooki ofi Renewablei Energyi

Technology.i Worldi Scientifici Publishingi Co.i Pte.i Ltd.,i 2011.i

[10] I.i ai Adejumobi,i S.i G.i Oyagbinrin,i F.i G.i Akinboro,i M.i B.i Olajide,i andi O.i

State,i “Hybridi Solari andi Windi Power :i ani Essentiali fori Informationi Communicationi
Technology,”i vol.i 9,i no.i October,i pp.i 130–138,i 2011.i

[11] N.i Faruk,i A.i A.i Ayeni,i M.i Y.i Muhammad,i A.i Abdulkarim,i andi O.i Moses,i

“Hybridi poweri systemsi Fori Celli Sitesi Ini Mobilei Cellulari Networks,”i 2012.i

[12] A.i Setiawani andi C.i Nayar,i “Designi ofi Hybridi Poweri Systemi fori ai Remotei Islandi ini
Maldives,”i ini Thei Proceedingsi ofi thei HOMERi Webcast-NRELi USA.,i 2006,i pp.i 1–5.i

[13] S.i Goeli andi S.i M.i Ali,i “Costi Analysisi ofi Solari /i Windi /i Dieseli Hybridi Energyi Systemsi
fori Telecomi Toweri byi Usingi HOMER,”i Int.i J.i Renew.i Energyi Res.,i
vol.i 4,i no.i 2,i 2014.i

[14] G.i Deb,i R.i Paul,i andi S.i Das,i “Hybridi poweri generationi system,”i Int.i J.i

Comput.i Electr.i Eng.,i vol.i 4,i no.i 2,i pp.i 141–144,i 2012.i

[15] J.i F.i Manwell,i J.i G.i McGowan,i andi A.i L.i Rogers,i Windi energyi explained:i theory,i
designi andi application.i 2002.i 2002.i

[16] P.i G.i Dalwadii andi C.i R.i Mehta,i “Feasibilityi Studyi ofi Solar-Windi Hybridi Poweri
System,”i Int.i J.i Emerg.i Technol.i Adv.i Eng.,i vol.i 2,i no.i 3,i pp.i 125–128,i

2012.i

[17] J.i Razak,i K.i Sopian,i andi Y.i Ali,i “Optimizationi ofi renewablei energyi hybridi systemi byi
minimizingi excessi capacity,”i Int.i J.i Energy,i vol.i 1,i no.i 3,i pp.i 3–7,i 2007.i

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 [18] G.i Boppi andi A.i Lippkau,i “World-widei overviewi abouti designi andi simulationi toolsi fori
hybridi PVi systems,”i ini Ini 4thi Conferencei oni PVi Hybridi Systemsi andi Mini-Grids,i 2008.i

[19] O.i H.i Mohammed,i Y.i Amirat,i M.i Benbouzid,i A.i Elbast,i O.i H.i Mohammed,i andi Y.i
Amirat,i “Optimali Designi ofi ai PVi /i Fueli Celli Hybridi Poweri Systemi fori thei Cityi ofi Bresti
ini Francei Optimali Designi ofi ai PVi /i Fueli Celli Hybridi Poweri
Systemi fori thei Cityi ofi Bresti ini France,”i Greeni Energy,i 2014i Int.i Conf.i IEEE,i pp.i 119–
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[20] S.i Rehmani andi L.i M.i Al-Hadhrami,i “Studyi ofi ai solari PV–diesel–batteryi hybridi poweri
systemi fori ai remotelyi locatedi populationi neari Rafha,i Saudii Arabia,”i Energy,i vol.i 35,i
no.i 12,i pp.i 4986–4995,i Dec.i 2010.i

[21] D.i Theuri,i “Kenyai Countryi Report:i Solari andi Windi Energyi Resourcei

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[22] WindForcei Managementi Servicesi Private,i “Windi sectori prospectus-Kenyai

(Windi energyi datai analysisi andi developmenti programme)-MoE,”i 2013.i

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Developmenti Plansi ini Kenya,”i 2007.i

i i

Appendicesi

Annuali Uniti Costi Overalli

Itemi Itemi Descriptioni Uniti
(KES)i O&Mi Costi

26
 Consumptioni (KES)i
Ratei
Airi Elementi Eachi 24i 4,500.00i i 108,000.00i i
Oili Filteri Eachi 24i 1,500.00i i i 36,000.00i i
Oili Litersi 7*24i 300.00i i 50,400.00i i
Fueli Filteri Eachi 24i 1,600.00i i 38,400.00i i
Starteri Batteryi Eachi 1i 9,000.00i i 9,000.00i i
Fani Belti Eachi 1i 1,000.00i i 1,000.00i i
Coolanti Litersi 2i 1,000.00i i i 2,000.00i i
Transporti 100kmi 24i 2,000.00i i 48,000.00i i
Labouri 2i Techi 24i 3,000.00i i 72,000.00i i
ii
Collectivei Labour,i Transporti Andi
Peri Calli 60,000.00i i
Maintenancei Minori Sparesi 12i 5,000.00i i
Supplyi Andi Deliveryi Ofi
Sitei Fuelingi Litersi
Fueli 3*24*365i 100.00i i 2,628,000.00i i
i Totali 3,052,800.00i i
i

Appendixi 1:i Oi &i Mi fori thei existingi twoi 8kVAi Duali planti (recordedi data)i
i
i

27
 i

Appendixi 3:i HPSi prototypei circuit

44i
i
NO:i Componenti Specifications/purposei ini thei systemi Numberi ofi
componentsi

1i Solari paneli 20W,i 18V,i withi 1.28i mi toweri 1i

2i Windi 50W,i 12Vi DC,i withi 3mi toweri 1i

turbinei
3i Energyi 60Vi 100Ai Digitali LCDi Displayi Voltage,i Current,i Power,i Batteryi 3i
meter(s)i Voltagei
i Analysis:i

Voltage:i (0)i V-4V-60Vi 0.01Vi (Resolution);i Current:i 0-100i Ai

peaki 0.01Ai (Resolution);i Power:i 0-655.4i Wi 0.1Wi (Resolution);i
Charge:i 0-65i Ahi 0.001Ahi (Resolution);i Energy:i 0-655.4i Whi 0.1i

Whi (Resolution);i Measurementi Updatei period:i 400mS;i Signali

Samplingi Rate:i sample/s;i Datai Queuei Sequencei time:i 2i seconds;i

Ini Circuiti Resistance:i 0.001i Ohms;i Operationi Current:i 7i mA;i

Auxiliaryi Poweri Voltagei :i 4.0Vi ~i 60V;i Sizei :i 8.3i xi 4.7i xi 2cmi /i

3.27i xi 1.85i xi 0.79inch;i Displayi Screeni :i 1602i STNi LCDi

4i Batteryi 12V,i 40AHi deepi cycle,i maintenancei freei 1i

5i Solari Solari Paneli Regulatori Chargei Controlleri 10Ai 12V/24Vi Autoi 1i

chargei
Switchi Safei
controlleri

6i Loadsi Threei 9Wi DCi bulbsi andi onei 11Wi DCi bulb.i Totali ofi 38Wi ofi DCi 4i DCi bulbsi
loadsi

7i Inverteri 30i Ai inverteri 1i

8i Busi bari Twini stripi fori +vei andi –vei sides.i 1i

Appendixi 4:i Componentsi specification

30
31