Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Molecular Liquids

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/molliq

The impacts of nanotechnology on the improvement of liquid insulation

of transformers: Emerging trends and challenges
Muhammad Rafiq a,⁎, Muhammad Shafique b,⁎, Anam Azam c, Muhammad Ateeq d
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila, Pakistan
b
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
c
School of Economics and Management, North China Electric Power University, Beijing, China
d
Department of Mechanical Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus, Pakistan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The rise in transmission voltages levels, the demand for insulating reliability of the transformer is getting more
Received 28 October 2019 and more critical. The mineral oil (MO) together with paper is the main insulation constituents in oil-
Received in revised form 15 December 2019 immersed transformers. To enhance the insulation level of ultra-high voltage (UHV) transformers and to de-
Accepted 7 January 2020
crease its weight and size, it is highly required to increase the insulating conduct of transformer oil (TO) and
Available online 15 January 2020
oil-impregnated cellulose. Lately, a distinctive novel venture of application of nanotechnology with liquid insula-
Keywords:
tion of transformer has been conducted and the results have displayed marvelous enhancement in the insulation
Transformer oil based nanofluids properties of transformer oil. The transformer oil-based nanofluids research domain (i.e., NFs) has been attracting
Improvement huge attention during recent years both in theoretical and practical fields. NFs may be applied as a potential sub-
Liquid insulation stitute for MO in the near future. To recognize various brunts of NFs and show evolving developments and chal-
Trends lenges, the study demonstrates a scientometric review established on 210 published features from 2004 to 2019
Challenges through co-author, co-occurring and co-citation investigations. The significance of the editorial lies in compiling
former inquiries, categorizing research nature, motivations and forecasting impending research orientations.
Lastly, some recommendations for future NFs research and application are suggested.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Electricity is considered the basic need of human society and it is
generally the backbone for economic growth and prosperity of society.
The smart grid is the one that integrates metropolises and entertains so-
cial accomplishments pairing with economic, communal and ecological
systems with population growth and sprawl. Furthermore, the electric
system grants towards socio-economic growth and enriched standard
of living through generating inter- to intra-city networks during subur-
banization. Therefore the evolution of prospectus high voltage networks
has raised demands on conduct and reliability of insulating constituents
applied in electric systems to survive with vigorous and elusive working
circumstances [1]. The transformer which transfers energy and trans-
forms voltage levels is the most indispensable element of an electric
network. The failure of this essential component may be disastrous
[2]. Many of transformers in operation around the planet are impending
their projected life; consequently, it is in the prime focus of researchers
⁎ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: muhammad.rafiq@uettaxila.edu.pk (M. Rafiq),
m.shafique@my.city.edu.hk (M. Shafique).
to enhance the operational security of these entities [3]. All possible
transformer failure facts confirm that lifespan of the transformer is
highly dependent on its insulation system and the life of units which
were failed due to insulation issues is 17.8 years, which is practically
half of anticipated life expectancy of 35 to 40 years [3,4]. The life and re-
liability of transformers generally depend on stature and attributes of
insulation material [5–8]. Fig. 1 indicates the data for the key sources
of transformer breakdowns based on 964 prominent failures. According
to transformer reliability survey, 2015 by Council on Large Electric Sys-
tems (CIGRE), it was concluded that the major reason for transformer
collapse was insulation failure.
MO/paper insulation system has been broadly applied as the major
insulating material in HV equipment, such as cables, transformers, ca-
pacitors, circuit breakers, bushing etc. due to their high mechanical
strength and better dielectric traits [9] (Fig. 2). However, the demand
for a smaller size, larger capacity and high reliability of equipment by
the electric industry has challenged the electrical attributes of this typ-
ical insulation system. In MO/paper insulation system, distinction be-
tween permittivity of liquid (~2.2) and solid one (ranging, 3.6–4.5)
has remained a crucial matter that might restrain the compacted design
of HV apparatus since the liquid insulation endure a greater strain than

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.112482
0167-7322/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Fig. 1. Most important reasons of transformer collapse.
(Source: Transformer Reliability survey, 2015 by CIGRE.)
the solid insulation at alternating current (AC) and/or lightning impulse
(LI) voltages, however breakdown strength (BDS) of the liquid insula-
tion is generally lower than that of solid one.
The liquid insulation typically performs twofold general functions in
HV machinery, i.e., cooling and insulation. MO has been applied as an in-
sulating and cooling medium for above a century in HV machinery
owed to its thermal and insulating quirk [10]. Thermal and insulating
traits of MO generally restrict size miniaturization and maximal power
transfer [10,11]. However, refined MOs commonly used as insulating
fluids in the HV apparatus have lower thermal conductivity and
hence, conclude lower cooling performance [12].
Transformer oil (TO/MO) is one of the most critical components of
transformer, which accomplished the prior mentioned two fundamen-
tal objectives: as cooling liquid, it stands useful in transmitting heat
originated in vigorous elements (magnetic core and windings) towards
the outer walls of transformer where it may possibly be depleted; as an
insulating medium, MO obstructs course of current outside of electrical
Transformer
•Minera oils
•Silicone oil
•Vegetable oil
•Synthetic ester oil
Capacitor
•Synthetic hydrocarbons
•Vegetable oil
•Organic ester
•Ether
Miscellaneous (CB, Bushing, OLTC etc)
•Paraffin based high density hydrocarbons
•Mineral oil
•Synthetic ester
•Alkylbenzenes
Fig. 2. Categorization of liquid insulation on the basis of application. The choice of liquid insulation be governed by application constraint and commerce of enactment.
components [13]. A small value of thermal conductivity of MO induces
constraints in the operation of transformers, because during loading
conditions, the huge rise in temperature may lead to an extreme local
upsurge in temperature in MO (hotspot), hence performance of MO is
restrained.
Through brisk expansion of the electric power structure, transmis-
sion capacity and voltage level are increasing which not simply in-
creases weight and volume of power machinery constantly
nevertheless condenses its reliability and security. The oil-cellulose in-
sulation system as an established insulation tool has existed generally
in electrical apparatus but it is exposed to serious integrated aging is-
sues, particularly thermal aging problems due to severe thermal, electri-
cal and mechanical stresses [14]. Generally, MO has been applied as
insulating and cooling material for nearly above a century in trans-
formers due to its thermal and insulating attributes [15]. However,
MO has the tendency to catch flame or even blast accidents in power ap-
paratus because of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons present in it,
which don't conform to essentials of fire and security. MO is normally
a derivative of petroleum yields which are non-sustainable source and
it is considered to be harmful to atmosphere. Vegetable oil (VO),
which is an ecofriendly fluid dielectric, has captured massive recogni-
tion as a prospective substitute to conventional MO for electric equip-
ment [16]. Conversely, to cope with growing demand for HV rate and
lesser dimensions for electrical apparatus, progress of TO with encour-
aging dielectric and thermal traits is mandatory [17–19].
Nanofluid (NF), a very familiar term these days, has been in the
prime focus of the research community in the past couple of decades.
This term was first coined by Choi et al. in 1995 [20]. It is generally de-
fined as a fluid with nano-sized particles suspended homogeneously at
a few weight percentages (wt%). Nevertheless, in the HV liquid insula-
tion research, the term nano-liquid and nanofluid are used interchange-
ably to refer to MO/nanoparticle (NP) mixture for cooling and insulation
interest. NFs, a revolutionary liquid with better thermal conductivity
paralleled to conventional liquids. The thermal conductivity enhance-
ment of NFs brands them suitable applicants for performance improve-
ment of thermal equipment, even though simultaneously the rise in
viscosity (which occurs due to the addition of NPs to base fluid) could
be an undesirable feature of NFs application. NFs finds many application
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482 3

Jian Li studeid BDS of

S. Sumathi investigated
vegetable oils dispersed
F. Herchl P et al. DS MO dispersed with
with Fe3O4
P. Kopčanský et al. examined impact of Du et al. suggested hybrid NPs with
Term investigated influence surface modification shallow trap theory to different concentrations
“nanofluid” Segal et al. of aggregation of and volume explain the enhancement Sima et al. proposed
was examined MNPs on the magneto- concentration of NPs in DS of MO containing electron capture by
presented by BDS of MO dielectric behavior and on dielectric properties semi conductive NPs polarized NPs
Choi et al. modified by dielectric BDS of a of MNFs. based on results of TSC
Fe3O4 MNFs. and PEA

1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019
Segal et al. Hwang et al. proposed a Rafiq et al. studied
P.P.C.Sartoratto et al. model to explain the H. F Jin et al. studied the effect of shape, surface
measured LI
investigated influence improvement in DS of AC BDVs of NFs modification and
withstand
of surface modification MO containing prepared by SiO2 NPs as concentration of Al2O3
voltage and
and concentration of conductive NPs compared to MO at high NPs on BDS of TO and
discharge
NPs on DS and moisture. The superior suggested shallow trap
propagation
dielectric properties of AC BD of NFs was theory to describe the
velocity of
MNFs. attributed to hydrophilic results
magnetic NFs
surface of NPs

Fig. 3. Development of NFs as transformer insulating liquids.

in solar energy devices [21,22], micro-channel heat sinks [23,24], car ra-
diators [25,26], medicine [27], different cavities [28,29], and so forth.
The nanotechnology application in HV engineering has been gener-
ally oriented towards the manufacturing and characterization of the so-
called nano-dielectric materials [30]. Nanodielectric (ND) has attained
huge attention due to the present development and progress in nano-
technology after 1990s [31,32]. The research indicated that the adding
of NPs significantly enhances the insulation life expectancy of solid
polymers. A similar technique may be used for dielectric liquid insula-
tion with the aim to improve its thermal and insulating features. Never-
theless, in the beginning, traditional micron-sized particulates were
suspended into liquids for the improvement of thermal conductivity
[33]. The results showed a subsequent decline in BDS [34].
2. Historical background
MO produced from petroleum products with good insulating prop-
erties [35–37] has been used as a dielectric fluid in HV equipment
since 19th century. Many other types of dielectric liquids such as syn-
thetic hydrocarbons [38–40], silicone oils [41–44], synthetic esters
[45–47], vegetable oils [48–51], and hybrid oils were applied and cate-
gorized on the basis of their applications. The improvement in charac-
teristics of dielectric fluids has been investigated for decades. Various
chemicals have been applied as an additive in dielectric liquids to en-
hance their performance [52,53].
The micron-sized particles were used to enhance the dielectric fea-
tures of base liquids before the advent of nanotechnology [54], which
lead to a decline in dielectric features, as the micron-sized particulates
acted as electron trapping locations and accelerate streamer growth
due to local field development. The aim of effective cooling, superior di-
electric strength (DS), size reduction and enhanced effectiveness of HV
apparatus are likely to be obtained by application of NFs [53]. The his-
tory of the term “nanofluid” was started in 1995 when Choi et al. [20]
introduced and investigated that it has better heat exchange features
as compared to micron-sized particles. The majority of researchers
mainly focused on thermal properties of NFs until 1998. In 1998, Segal
et al. [55] found enhancement in BDS of oil-based NFs incorporating
magnetic NPs (Fe3O4). Subsequently, magnetic [56–62], conductive
[63–65], semiconductive [66–68], insulative [69–73] NPs were
suspended in various dielectric fluids to attain enhanced dielectric fea-
tures without conceding physio-thermal traits. The dispersibility
[74–76], moisture effect [77–81], function of surfactant [82] and surface
alteration of NPs [83] were also investigated. Nevertheless, the applica-
tion of NFs applications is still limited by multiple factors including
dearth of conciliation between experimental outcomes, poor
characterization of suspensions, and deficiency of theoretical compre-
hension of the mechanism. A summary of development of NFs as liquid
insulation for the transformer is presented in Fig. 3 below.
3. Methodology
This paper used a three-step literature review technique compiling
the research domain of MO-based NFs. The science mapping method
was used in this study. The detailed workflow of the review is given in
Fig. 4.
3.1. Research methods
The basic technique applied in this analysis is “science mapping”. It is
applied owing to its confirmed abilities in visualizing systematic config-
urations in inclusive bodies of writings and bibliographic units [84]. Sci-
ence mapping (SM) behaves equally a diagnostic and descriptive
instrument for research strategy objectives, handling huge pools of
bibliometric records [85]. It helps academics to carry out methodical
literature-related findings by connecting literature notions that have
been disregarded in manual review investigations [86]. SM use three
overlappings, yet self-regulating approaches: bibliometric analysis,
scientometric inquiry, and informatics. The bibliometric analysis basi-
cally focuses on the literature whereas scientometric analysis extends
afar this and helps in computing and evaluating the literature output
to disclose the practices and organizational structures of scholars [87].
The research practice was arranged to consist of subsequent following
steps: the assortment of tools, data attainment, pre-handling and scru-
tiny of data, modeling, conception and arrangement and communica-
tion of conclusions [88].
3.1.1. Selection of tools
Multiple SM tools are available for bibliometric scrutiny for mapping
and visualization of a specific extensive dataset in an information do-
main [89]. All existing tools have diverse strengths and capabilities. To
choose essential tools for this investigation, characteristics and restric-
tions of numerous scientometric tools counting BibExcel, VOSviewer,
Sci2, CoPalRed, Vantagepoint, and CiteSpace were analyzed [90].
CreateSpace is a scientific literature tool that has the capacity to visual-
ize various arrangements of networks, revealing of clusters and evolving
trends [91].
3.1.2. Data overview
The Web of Science (WOS) databank is applied to obtain written lit-
erature documents related to transformer oil-based NFs. Google
4 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Fig. 4. The workflow of MO-based NFs as liquid insulation for transformer review in this investigation.

Scholar's database is problematic to use for scientometric enquiry be-
cause its citation information is inconsistent and incomplete [92]. More-
over, WOS consists of the most significant and well-known journals
[93,94]. The impact of nanoparticles type, concentration and surface
modification on AC, DC, Impulse BDS and partial discharge (PD) of
transformer oil are studied. Therefore, a broad data outline is given to
indicate the inclination of existing investigations.
A three-step systematic approach was used specifically bibliometric
exploration, scientometric scrutiny, and qualitative argument. The
bibliometric examination consists of three sub-stages to scoping texts
that falls into the range of transformer oil based NF research. Based on
the concluded literature illustration, SM helped by text mining is used
to analyze the crucial outcomes (e.g., major keywords) in the literature.
Eventually, the investigation extended SM (i.e., bibliometric examina-
tion and scientometric inquiry) by providing supplementary
discussions. An explanation of these steps is given in the following
subsections.
WOS is the leading broad educational database on a global scale. It
includes over 8700 core academic journals, seven databases comprising
evidence on natural science, engineering expertise, biomedical and so
on [95,96].
3.2. Bibliometric search (BS)
The BS of nanofluids was executed in the WOS database. WOS pro-
vides the major inclusive academic record on a universal scale. It con-
tains above 8700 fundamental academic magazines, seven databanks
consisting of data on nature science, engineering technology, biomedi-
cal and so on [95,96]. Additionally, “transformer oil based nanofluids”,
“transformer nanofluids” and “nanofluids based on transformer oil”

Fig. 5. Most productive and leading journals working on transformer oil based NFs: 2004–2019.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482 5

Table 1
Most significant studies published in leading journals on transformer oil based NFs.

Journal Name Authors, year, Base liquid NPs Type NPs size NPs Surface modification Comments
[Ref.] concentration

Journal of J. G. Hwang et al., MO Fe3O4 – – – This study proposed an electron scavenger model
Applied 2010, [101] (i.e., Univolt of NPs to explain the enhancement in BDS of MO
Physics 60 and Nytro containing Fe3O4 NPs
10×)
Y. Du et al., 2011, Kelamayi 25 TiO2 d b 20 nm – – This study suggested shallow trap theory to
[102] MO describe the enhancement in BDS of MO
containing TiO2 NPs
J. Miao et al., 2013, (Karamay ZnO 30 nm 0.025%, 0.1%, The relative permittivity of insulating oil
[103] 25#) MO and 0.2% (Vol containing ZnO NPs was measured.
%)
IEEE Y. Zhong et al., natural ester TiO2 0.00625% – The addition of TiO2 NPs in natural ester may
Transactions 2013, [66] (FR3) (Vol%) augment the AC BDV by a factor of 1.3 and increase
on Dielectrics PD features due to high number of shallow trap
and Electrical and charge dissipation introduced by of TiO2 NPs.
Insulation H. Jin et al., 2014, S3ZXIG MO SiO2 15 nm 0.005%, No surface This study proposed a theory of hydrophilic
[77] 0.01%, 0.02%, modification surface of SiO2 NPs. Which was considered
and 0.1% responsible for superior AC BDV of NFs as
mass fraction compared to MO.
E. G. Atiya et al., MO TiO2 100 nm 0.06, 0.18, Cetyl Trimethyl The outcomes indicated an improvement in the
2015, [83] 0.24, 0.36 Ammonium Bromide BDS by almost 27% in comparison to base MO.
(Vol%) (CTAB)
Y. Z. Lv et al.,, (25# TiO2 D b 10 nm 0.075% (Vol Oleic acid (OA) The space-charge field introduced by TiO2 NPs
2016, [104] Karamay) %) largely lessens the electrical field
MO misrepresentation at the positive streamer tip and
hinders the transmission of streamer, enhancing
positive BDS, whereas it accelerates the
propagation of negative streamers and decreases
the BDS.
D. Liu et al., 2016, (25# AlN 40 nm 0.079, 0.127, – The positive LI BDV is increased by around 50% and
[105] Karamay) 0.159 (Vol%) NFs with the concentration of 0.127 vol% shows
MO the highest LI BDV and AC BDV among all NFs
samples.
D. E. A. Mansour (Shell Diala TiO2, Al2O3 50 nm 0.01, 0.04, Cetyl Trimethyl It was found that the addition of surfactant results
et al., 2016, [106] S2-ZU-1 0.07, 0.1 (g/L) Ammonium Bromide in an improvement in BDS for both types of NPs
Dried) MO (for TiO2) (TiO2, Al2O3) but it results in decrease in dielectric
Sodium Dodecyl constant for entire frequency range in comparison
Benzene Sulfonate to samples developed without surfactant.
(Al2O3)
G. D. P. Mahidhar synthetic SiO2 15 nm – Cetyl Trimethyl NFs prepared with Ester base oil and surfactant has
et al., 2018, [107] ester oil Ammonium Bromide higher corona inception voltage and BDS as
(CTAB) compared to base oil under the applied DC and AC
voltages. An improvement of almost 20% rise in
BDV is witnessed with NFs compared with base oil.
P. Thomas et al., SYNTHETIC CaCu3Ti4O12 – 0.001, 0.0025, – Enhancements of 41.6% in AC BD and 17.3% in LI
2019, [108] ESTER OIL (CCTO) 0.005, 0.01 BDV have been noticed with concentration of
and 0.05 (Vol 0.005 vol% CCTO NPs. With increase in vol% of NPs,
%) dielectric features of AC BDV and LI BDV also
enhanced.
Journal of J. Ghasemi et al., Transformer Fe3O4 23.2 nm 0.1 to 0.6% Oleic acid Results showed that in the concentration of 0.3%,
Magnetism 2015, [109] oil NYTRO (Vol%) nano oil LI BDV by 16.1% is improved in
and Magnetic LIBRA comparison to base oil, that was acknowledged as
Materials the optimal volume concentration. Volume
concentrations beyond this value persuade to a
decline in LI BDV.
M. Nazari et al., Transformer Fe3O4 – 0.1 to 0.6% – Results manifested that with concentration of 0.3%,
2015, [110] oil NYTRO (Vol%) dielectric BD under AC and LI of NF was improved
LIBRA by 37.6% and 16.1% as compared to oil. This
concentration was regarded as the optimum
volume concentration. LI BDV tends to decline
beyond this loading.
Colloids and Y. Du et al., 2012, (Karamay TiO2 – – – It is suggested that the strong affinity of a
Surfaces [111] 25#) MO Gouy–Chapman–Stern layer for water molecules
contributes to growth in alteration of NP–oil
interface configuration and the corresponding
greater shallow trap density and higher DS of NFs.
R. Madavan et al., MO, Honge Al2O3, BN, – – – It is perceived that VO with Al2O3, TiO2 and Fe3O4
2018, [112] Oil, Neem Oil, Fe3O4 NPs has improved BDV. When equating the BDV of
Mustard Oil, NFs, Fe3O4 NP dispersed liquid insulations have a
Punna Oil better BDV than others. The oil samples comprising
of MO as base oil have better BDV compared to VO.
Applied Physics Y. Z. Lv et al., 2013, (Karamay TiO2 6 nm 0.075% (Vol oleic acid It was noted that the space charge decline rate in
Letters [113] 25#) MO %) the altered aged oil (by NPs) may be expressively
improved to 1.57 times as compared to aged base

(continued on next page)

6 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Table 1 (continued)

Journal Name Authors, year, Base liquid NPs Type NPs size NPs Surface modification Comments
[Ref.] concentration

oil at first 8 s after the polarization voltage was

detached.
International J. C. Lee et al., (KS C 2301, Fe3O4 – – – It was observed if gap distances between the
Journal of 2018, [114] 1–4), OT-4, electrodes enhanced, BDV with a unit length of gap
Thermal MO space decreases.
Sciences
Journal of B. Du et al., 2015, (FR3) Fe3O4 ~8.6 to – Oleic acid The result showed that by increasing NP size, the
Nanomaterials [115] vegetable oil ~24.4 nm BDV of NFs will improve. The size of NPs could
affect the electrical potential well depth and hence
BDV of NFs.
Journal of You Zhou et al., (Karamay Fe3O4, – – Oleic acid The BD traits of NFs under positive LI voltage were
Physics D: 2018, [116] 25#) MO TiO2,Al2O3 enhanced be influenced by type of NPs. The
Applied inhibited streamer propagation in NFs was due to
Physics the dissipation energy of electrons through
frequent trapping and de-trapping practice in
more shallow traps presented by NPs

were applied as keywords to gather information, primarily. The study
considered obtained literature data in the WOS database from 2004 to
2019. An aggregate of 211 bibliographic reports are obtained in Febru-
ary 2019 from which 210 were used for analysis in CiteSpace, one
paper was out of scope, so it was excluded.
Moreover, all papers available in English in last 15 years were care-
fully chosen for the analysis. Simply literature related to MO Based
NFs printed in the previous fifteen years is incorporated due to two mo-
tives: first, this work intended to analyze the up-to-date themes and
trends within transformer oil based NFs. As suggested by many re-
searchers, a 15 years' period is basically a classic interval range for
choosing latest articles for investigation; secondly, most of the articles
in transformer oil based NF domain initiated coming into focus after
2000, afore which related articles were not available in large quantities.
3.3. Scientometric analysis
The second step of this study involves a scientometric analysis ap-
proach by using CiteSpace. It is generally an organized technique to rec-
ognize and evaluate the printed literature, and it has been usually
applied to acquire a broad understanding of a research area [97].
Moreover, this analysis has been considered and efficient technique to
identify hidden facts in published bibliographies [98]. In the field of
nanofluids, scientometric analysis has been applied as a quantitative
technique to analyze research phenomena and trends, but the prior
studies did not scientifically investigate research network or observed
unseen investigation trends and relations. The CiteSpace software can
predict the emerging trends, valuable theoretical and methodological
contributions and transient patterns in the scientific literature
[99,100]. The graphs based on clustering algorithms and network anal-
ysis can demonstrate information more systematically and logically.
Therefore, CiteSpace is used to analyze and describe the impact of NPs
on electrical conduct of TO based on the literature. In this work,
scientometric approaches are applied, such as basic information analy-
sis (author, institute, and country) and network analysis (keywords,
subject, and co-citation). The research developments and imminent
challenges are further systematically evaluated by analysis of the
results.
3.3.1. Published journals distribution
The articles chosen for this investigation were available in various
periodicals shown in Fig. 5. These journals are the most productive

Fig. 6. The network of countries/regions working on transformer oil based NFs: 2004–2019.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482 7

Fig. 7. Number of publications in various countries.

journals from 2004 to 2019 and they have published 210 articles related
to transformer oil based NFs. The journals given have published multi-
ple papers regarding transformer oil-based NFs. Some of the significant
and selected studies based on MO- based NFs in most leading Journals
are given in Table 1. J. G. Hwang et al. [101] published in Journal of Ap-
plied Physics (JAP) in 2010 and this study proposed an electron scaven-
ger model of NPs to explain the enhancement in BDS of MO containing
Fe3O4 NPs. This model has been used to describe the breakdown perfor-
mance enhancement of conductive NPs in MO in multiple publications.
Another important study was published in the same journal (JAP) by Du
et al. in 2011. This study presented the shallow trap theory, which is
normally used to describe the BD performance enhancement of
semiconductive NPs in MO. Other journals that published multiple stud-
ies related to TO-based NFs include IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and
Electrical Insulation, Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials, Col-
loids and Surfaces, Applied Physics Letters, International Journal of
Thermal Sciences, Journal of Nanomaterials and Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics.
3.3.2. Countries/regions of published articles
The network of countries/regions where articles have been pub-
lished related to transformer oil-based NFs is given in Fig. 6. The dimen-
sion of node symbolizes the number of publications or research
contributions. Most of the studies related oil based NFs are published
in People's Republic of China followed by India and Slovakia. Other
countries like Malaysia, Iran, Egypt, the USA, Sweden, Romania,
Poland, Spain, and many others have also contributed to transformer
oil-based NFs. A number of publications on transformer oil based NFs
among different countries is shown in Fig. 7.
3.3.3. Academic and research institutes/universities
A research institution that conducts research on transformer oil-
based NFs have been very productive in generating a sum of research in-
vestigations. Most of research on transformer oil-based NFs was carried
out by some leading Chinese universities like North China Electric
Power University (NCEPU), Chongqing University (CQU) and Xian

Fig. 8. Universities/research institutes working on transformer oil based NFs: 2004–2019.

8 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Table 2 Yuzhen Lv, Yuefan Du, Zhou You, M. Rafiq are the famous authors from
Leading Institute/universities working on transformer oil based NFs. this university who have published multiple papers regarding transfer
Rank Institution Country Total publication oil based NFs. Ming Dong from Xian Jiaotong University is doing huge
1 NECEPU China 40
research on transformer oil based NFs. Wenxia Sima's research group
2 XJTU China 21 has published many studies related transformer oil based NFs. The insti-
3 Chongqing University China 19 tutions publishing papers regarding transformer oil based NFs are
4 Technical Univ Kosice Slovakia 15 ranked and given in Table 2.
5 Ferdowsi Univ Mashhad Iran 9
6 Islamic Azad Univ Iran 6
MIT USA 6 3.3.4. Author statistics
The most productive and more collaborative authors have been
shown in Fig. 9. The cluster of Chengrong Li (Li CR) and Yuzhen LV (Lv
Jiaotong University (XJTU) as shown in Fig. 8. Many Indian universities YZ) from NECEPU indicate that they are more productive authors. By
are working on transformer oil based NFs. In North China electric observing the cooperation networks may additionally reveal major re-
power university, a group under command of Prof. Chengrong Li is search themes that have been aimed at each network. N40 studies
doing huge research on transformer oil based NFs. Most of their work have been published under the name of Professor Chengrong Li and
is mainly concentrated on transformer oil NFs prepared by the suspen- Yuzhen Lv from NECEPU. Muhammad Rafiq, Zhou You and Yuefan Du
sion of TiO2 NPs. They have also presented famous shallow trap theory. from the same institute has published some significant studies of NFs.

Fig. 9. Most productive and top authors are working on transformer oil based NFs: 2004–2019.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482 9

Fig. 10. The network of documents co-citation on transformer oil based NFs: 2004–2019.

Milan Timko from Sovak Academy of Sciences has also worked on NFs 3.3.5. Document co-citation
and published multiple studies. Michal Rajnak and P. Kopcansky from Fig. 10 introduces a co-citation linkage comprising of nodes and
Slovakia has published multiple studies on transformer oil based NFs. links, which comprises of papers quoted by the 210 articles chosen in

Fig. 11. A timezone view of top-cited authors: 2004–2019.

10 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

this inquiry. Individually node signifies one document and links
attaching nodes manifests co-citation relationship, although various
colors demonstrate corresponding time portions. The large area of
links specifies that document co-citation was cited frequently during
this time period. Moreover, bigger nodes recommend that the articles
have been mentioned by various scholars, which means these are signif-
icant in this particular field of transformer oil based NFs field.
Co-citation investigation evaluated the references stated in 210 arti-
cles. Hwang JG obtained the highest citation frequency. This article
discussed the electron scavenger model and suggested that NPs act as
electron scavengers, and helps to reduce the speed of streamer, contrib-
uting enhanced high voltage equipment conduct and reliability. This
study integrated the past, present and future of transformer oil-based
NFs. Another author who obtained the highest citation frequency is
Yuefan Du (DU YF). In this article, the authors proposed another
model (shallow trap theory) which was useful to explain the enhance-
ment in BDS of TO following suspension of TiO2 NPs. It was suggested
that amplified trapping and de-trapping of electrons in supplementary
traps brought in by added NPs. It was established that charge decay
rate and shallow trap density was enhanced in NFs, i.e., brisk electrons
may be transformed into slow electrons by trapping and de-trapping
in shallow traps of NFs, developing in enhanced BD conduct compared
to pre TO. The time zone view of top-cited authors during the time pe-
riod of 2004 to 2019 is also given in Fig. 11. A total number of citations
obtained by these authors are with their paper title is indicated in
Table 3.
3.3.6. Keywords co-occurrence
Keywords are the explanatory words that provide main element of
editorial. The investigation of keywords is useful in recognizing prime

Table 3
Top-cited articles/authors in the field of transformer oil based NFs.

Authors, year, [Ref.] Paper title NPs type Base liquid Comments Conference/Journal Cited
in
Papers

Francis O'Sullivan Modeling of Streamer Fe3O4 MO This study presented common formula for IEEE conference on 48
et al., 2008, [33] Propagation in Transformer relaxation time constant of NPs in a dielectric Electrical Insulation &
Oil-Based Nanofluids liquid and it is shown that the time constant of Dielectric Phenomenon,
conductive NPs in TO is over six orders of 2008
magnitude more rapidly than the period required
in streamer growth in TO.
M. Cheisa et al., Experimental investigation of Al2O3, SiO2, MO (Shell Diala In this study consequence of NPs on the dielectric Colloids and Surfaces 108
2010, [5] the dielectric and cooling SiC, Fe2O3 Oils), BDS of an insulating medium is witnessed to be Volume 335, Issues 1–3,
performance of colloidal polyalphaolefin unfavorable. 5 March 2009, Pages
suspensions in insulating media (PAO) 88–97
J. G. Hwang et al., Effects of nanoparticle charging Fe3O4 MO This study proposed an electron scavenger model Journal of Applied 247
2010, [101] on streamer development in (i.e., Univolt 60 of NPs to explain the enhancement in BDS of MO Physics 107, 014310
transformer oil-based nanofluids and Nytro 10×) containing Fe3O4 NPs (2010)
H. Jin et al., 2012, AC breakdown voltage and SiO2 Shell Diala This study demonstrates that adding of SiO2 NPs IEEE Annual Report 53
[78] viscosity of mineral oil based S3ZXIG can improve AC BDV of MO. BDV of MO and SiO2 Conference on Electrical
SiO2 nanofluids NFs strongly depend on the moisture content in Insulation and Dielectric
the fluids. Phenomena, 2012
Y. Du et al., 2011, Effect of electron shallow trap on TiO2 Kelamayi 25 This study suggested shallow trap theory to Journal of Applied 140
[102] breakdown performance of MO describe the enhancement in BDS of MO Physics, vol. 110, no. 10,
transformer oil-based nanofluids containing TiO2 NPs art. no. 104104, 2011
J. Li et al., 2012 Preparation of a vegetable Al2O3, vegetable oil AC BDV of the NFs is 20% higher than base oil. IEEE Electrical 145
[117] oil-based nanofluid and Fe3O4, SiO2, (RDB) Positive LI BDV of the NFs is higher than the Insulation Magazine
investigation of its breakdown and SiC corresponding negative voltages. (Volume: 28, Issue: 5,
and dielectric properties 2012
J. C. Lee et al., 2012 Experimental study on the Fe3O4 Univolt 60, The BDV was studied for NFs prepared with Physics Procedia 32 23
[118] dielectric breakdown voltage of Nytro 10× magnetic NPs by varying gap distance and (2012) 327–334
the insulating oil mixed with external magnetic field.
magnetic nanoparticles
D. E. A. Mansour Effect of titania nanoparticles on TiO2 MO The BDS of NF samples with different TiO2 Annual Report 53
et al., 2012 [119] the dielectric properties of concentrations are superior than base oil and this Conference on Electrical
transformer oil-based nanofluids further enhanced with rise in concentration. Insulation and Dielectric
Phenomena, 2012
Y. F. Du et al., 2012 Effect of semiconductive TiO2 MO (25# TiO2 NPs may improve the ac, dc and LI BDVs of IEEE Transactions on 150
[120] nanoparticles on insulating Karamay) NFs as compared to oil by 1.2 times. Particularly, Dielectrics and
performances of transformer oil time to BD of NFs is extended by 53%. It was Electrical Insulation,
suggested that shallow trap density is cause of 2012
this enhancement.
Y. Zhong et al., 2013 Insulating Properties and Charge TiO2 natural ester The addition of TiO2 NPs in natural ester may IEEE Transactions on 60
[67] Characteristics of Natural Ester (FR3) improve AC BDV by a factor of 1.3 times and Dielectrics and
Fluid Modified by TiO2 augment PD traits. This enhancement is Electrical Insulation,
Semiconductive Nanoparticles considered due to trap density provided by of 2013
TiO2 NPs.
H. Jin et al., 2014 Properties of mineral oil-based SiO2 S3ZXIG MO) This study proposed a theory of hydrophilic IEEE Transactions on 104
[77] silica nanofluids surface of SiO2 NPs. Which was considered Dielectrics and
responsible of superior AC BDV of NFs as Electrical Insulation,
compared to MO. 2014
E. G. Atiya et al., Dispersion behavior and TiO2 MO The BD mechanism is projected through deterring IEEE Transactions on 69
2015 [83] breakdown strength of of streamer transmission into the first and second Dielectrics and
transformer oil filled with TiO2 modes based on the electronegativity of NPs The Electrical Insulation,
nanoparticles silica nanofluids brisk electrons are trapped and BD course is 2015
deferred.
D. E. A. Mansour The role of the interfacial zone in TiO2, Al2O3 MO It was found that adding surfactant results in an IEEE Transactions on 43
et al., 2016 [106] dielectric properties of enhancement in BDS either with Al2O3 or TiO2 Dielectrics and Electrical
transformer oil-based nanofluids NPs. Insulation, 2016
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482 11

Fig. 12. Co-occurrence of keywords in the research of transformer oil based NFs/Top keyword occurring more than ten times

Fig. 13. A timezone view of keyword occurring: 2004–2019.

12 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Fig. 14. Graphical representations of NFs.

areas in the research field of MO-based NFs. The grid of keyword hap-
pening is presented in Fig. 12. This network features keywords that hap-
pen multiple times in the 210 articles chosen for this study. The
dimension of the keyword is relational to the frequency of its happen-
ing. The keyword “nanofluid” has maximum frequency. The keywords
“transformer oil” and “nanoparticle” are ranked second and third in fre-
quency, respectively. The keyword co-occurrence web is a static mani-
festation of a specific field that does not into account variations over a
period of time in the manner that terms are applied. Fig. 13 shows the
time zone view of keywords occurrence. Occurrence period of keywords
(the color of a circle designates the time of appearance). The thickness
of a ring is proportional to the number of appearance frequency in a
given time slice. The link between different keywords denotes co-
occurrence in the same paper. The findings show that these keywords
have been used by the top-cited authors during the last few years. The
frequency of keyword occurrence has declined during recent years but
sums and kinds of keywords are growing
4. Viability of NFs as liquid insulation for transformers
4.1. Experimental and promising key findings from literature
4.1.1. What is nanofluid
NF is a general term used to describe fluids consisting of dispersed of
particulates of nanoscale, may be developed from NPs of single element
(e.g., Fe, Cu, and Ag), single element oxide (e.g., Fe3O4, Al2O3, and TiO2),
alloys, multielement oxides, metal carbides, metal nitrides and carbon
materials suspended into base liquid (in this case transformer oil)
[121] (Fig. 14).
and transport of NPs is skipped to hinder the agglomeration of NPs
as shown in Fig. 15. In this way, an effort is made to improve the sta-
bility of the suspension [122,123]. The high cost is the major disad-
vantage associated with this method.
b) Two-step method: In this method, solid NPs are developed sepa-
rately and suspended into base oil by magnetic stirring, ultrasonic
route, ball milling, or by high shear mixing as shown in Fig. 16.
This is an economical method and hence mostly used to develop
NFs at huge scale [124]. The leading drawback associated with this
scheme is common probability of agglomeration of NPs due to
large surface activity and surface area of NPs [125].
4.1.3. Electrical characteristics of NFs as liquid insulation
All applicants for transformer liquid insulation are obligatory to en-
counter AC withstand voltage, LI and switching impulse standards to
be able to provide essential insulation and cooling efficiency in trans-
formers. Every applicant for liquid insulation normally identified as in-
sulant must be capable to withstand power frequency AC voltage as
well undesired LI and switching impulse voltage arose during operation
of the electric system. Recently produced nano based oils manifested
improved DS when matched with its base oil. The levels of improve-
ment determined with various voltage level and waveform (e.g., AC,
DC or LI) along with NPs.
The use of liquid insulation over wide range of power services
highlighted improvement in dielectric and heat transfer capabilities

4.1.2. Synthesis of NFs

The first and most significant task of experimentation is the develop-
ment of NFs. Typically, there are two methods of synthesis of TO-based
NFs which are known as a single-stage and two-phase techniques. A
very short overview of these practices is as follow:

a) One-step method: In this method, NPs are produced and suspended

in the base fluid simultaneously; that is, the course of drying, storing, Fig. 15. Single-step method of NFs preparation.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Fig. 16. Two-step method of NFs preparation.
which expedite the innovation of NFs [126]. The dielectric condition of
liquid insulation covers BDS, dissipation factor (DF), dielectric permit-
tivity, partial discharge (PD) and resistivity to grant the dielectric secu-
rity margin of insulation under typical operating circumstances. BDS of
NFs is measured to examine its capability to perform as the liquid insu-
lation in transformers. BDS of liquid insulation is analyzed under various
situations like AC, DC and LI voltages to investigate its performance
under diverse operating conditions.
4.1.3.1. AC breakdown strength (AC BDS). It is the most significant prereq-
uisite for the application of liquid insulation into transformers. It may be
defined as the value of AC voltage at which disrupting discharge occurs
in liquid insulation. AC BDS test is affected by scums in liquid, for in-
stance humidity, minute particulates, and air or gas bubbles. Conse-
quently, determined AC BDV of an insulating liquid normally specifies
liquid quality rather than its characteristics itself. The AC BDV measure-
ments of liquid insulation must be administered in accordance with
standards [127–130]. AC BDS is strongly dependent on kind, size, con-
centration and surface modification of NPs.
AC BDS is significantly affected by the moisture content of the insu-
lating fluid. The moisture may exist as free water or dissolved water in
insulating liquid. Investigators have explored the effect of moisture on
BDS nano-based oils. Segal et al. [11] examined the influence of mois-
ture on BDS of ferrofluids and observed the decline in AC BDS for both
base oil and NFs. The effect of water content was less obvious on NFs
as compared to base oils. The writers deduced that this may be due to
dissolved water bound on surface of NPs. Other studies [77,111], also
concluded that moisture has less effect on AC BDS of NFs as compared
to base oil.
Every type of NP has unique characteristics like electrical conductiv-
ity and permittivity which influences the relaxation time constant and
hereafter BD conduct. Numerous types of NPs have been applied to
comprehend their influence on AC BDS of TO. LV et al. [131] used
three types of NPs with distinct characteristics to investigate their effect
on BDS of TO. The enhancement in BDS was described by using different
relaxation time constant for every NP. Some other researchers have also
[69,132,133] investigated AC BDS of TO by applying various types of
NPs.
The concentration of NPs also influences the AC BDS of TO. Du et al.
[134] investigated influence of dissimilar concentration of TiO2 NPs on
AC BDS of MO. The AC BDS improved with rise in concentration until a
definite concentration after which AC BDS tends to deteriorate. The in-
vestigators deduced this tendency of decline is as a result of agglomer-
ation of NPs. Other researchers [135–138] examined the effect of
concentration of NPs on AC BDS of base oil. In all these studies, aggrega-
tion of NPs was considered responsible for decline in AC BDS of base oil.
The agglomeration of NPs may be reduced by applying a suitable
surface modification for NPs. Du et al. [139] applied different surface
13
modifications of TiO2 NPs and they concluded that surface modification
of NPs effect trapping and detrapping practice of electrons by NPs and
hereafter enhance BDS of MO.
AC BDS was measured with changing electrode description (i.e.
shape, gap) [114,140,141] and various electrode materials [142,143].
4.1.3.2. Lightning impulse breakdown strength (LI BDS). The LI BDV is sim-
ulating lightning strikes and normally use a 1.2 μs upswing for wave to
reach 90% amplitude and decrease down to 50% amplitude after 50 μs.
The LI BDV is usually investigated by IEC 60897 standard. LI BDS is influ-
enced by multiple parameters of NPs such as type, the concentration of
NPs.
Every NP type has different basic features that affect BDS of base oil.
Sima et al., [132] investigated LI BDS of three types of NPs. The positive LI
BDS of NFs was enhanced and time to BD of NFs is likewise extended as
related to base oils. The authors concluded that type of NP affects the
space charge distribution and hence BD conduct of base MO. Rafiq
et al., [144–152] investigated LI BDS of NFs with different types and
sizes of NPs.
The concentration of NPs also affects LI BDS of NFs. Du et al. [139] in-
vestigated LI BDS of NFs with various concentration of NPs. The positive
LI BDVs increase with rise in the concentration of NPs until optimum
loading of NPs after which BDVs tend to decay. This deterioration was
accredited to agglomeration of NPs which may cause a reduction in
BDVs of NFs. Rafiq et al., [153] also investigated LI BDS of NFs with differ-
ent concentration of Fe3O4 NPs.
4.1.3.3. Partial discharge (PD). PD is a local dielectric BD (which only in-
completely bridges space between conductors) of a small portion of a
liquid insulation system under HV stress. It is a nondestructive test
and is performed to identify PD factors like PD inception voltage
(PDIV), PD interval, PD rise time, whole discharge magnitude and cur-
rent impulse [154]. PD is normally measured in accordance with IEC
60270 standard [155]. PD may occur due to contaminants present in in-
sulating material. Segal et al. [11] found that colloid fluid has approxi-
mately 30% enhancement in PDIV as related to base liquid. Some other
investigator [131] found that PDIV of NFs was enhanced whereas PD
magnitude and impulse numbers were reduced. The authors proposed
that high shallow trap density introduced by TiO2 NPs and hopping
transport of electrons between these traps are responsible for these
changes. A few other studies [60,67,80,120,156–160] were carried out
to measure PD current and inception voltage of NFs. The percentage
change in PDIV of NFs as related to base oil is given in Table 4.
4.1.3.4. Thermal aging. Segal et al. [22] explored effect of aging on NFs de-
veloped by the suspension of Fe3O4 NPs. The AC and LI BDVs measure-
ment results showed that the addition of NPs may enhance resistance
to the thermal aging of MO. LV et al., measured the AC and positive LI
14 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482

Table 4 a) Electron capture model

Fraction deviation in PDIV with NPs in oil.

Ref. NPs type PDIV, kV Improvement in PDIV %

Base oil NF Hwang et al. [101] suggested a model to describe enhancement in

the dielectric strength of MO containing Fe3O4 NPs. They implied that
[12] TiO2 30.6 33.1 8%
[2] Fe3O4 15.1 19.5 29% electron capture by NPs is the cause of this improvement in dielectric
[13] GO 11 12 9% strength. The fast electrons produced by field ionization will be cap-
[14] SiO2 11 18 64% tured by NPs and reduce their mobility and energy transfer. The NPs
[15] Fullerene 22 25 14% will be transformed into slow negative charge carriers and will decrease
[7] TiO2 21.6 23.2 7%
in positive streamer velocity.
[16] AlN 31.1 38.1 23%
The change in electrodynamic process in oil by NPs was elaborated
by charge relaxation time, which is given by
BDS of NFs developed by suspension of TiO2 NPs and concluded that AC
and LI BDS were enhanced by factors of 2.21 and 1.33 respectively as re- 2Ɛ1 þ Ɛ2
tr ¼
lated to aged MO. The writers suggested that TiO2 NPs reduces the dis- 2Φ1 þ Φ2
tortion in NFs by introducing shallow traps and hence enhance the BDS
of aged NFs. Hu et al. [76] measured AC, LI BDV and PDIV and concluded where Ɛ1 and Φ1 are permittivity and conductivity of MO and Ɛ2 and Φ2
that AC, LI BDVs and PDIV were always higher than base MO during all are permittivity and conductivity of NPs respectively. The timescale in-
aging period of 36 days. Some other researchers [161–163] also investi- volved in streamer development is less than a few microseconds. If tr of
gated the effect of aging and concluded that BDS of NFs was always su- NPs/MO system is shorter than few microseconds required to develop
perior to base MO. The summary of electrical properties outcomes streamer, the polarized NPs will abduct brisk electrons and decrease
presented in the field of transformer oil based NFs are given in Table 5. their mobility. The NPs with abducted electrons will behave like slow
negative charge carriers and will take long time to initiate a streamer re-
4.1.4. Mechanisms of dielectric modification by NPs quired for BD. Contrarily, if the tr of NPs/MO system is lengthier than the
The typical concept of liquid dielectric BD may be unable to describe time scale of streamer development, NPs will have a slight impact on
the superior insulating features of MO-based NFs. Some new mecha- electron movement and energy [101]. The tr of Fe3O4 NPs/MO system
nisms which may be used to explain the effect of NPs to modify charac- is 7.47 × 10−14 s, which is very short than the time required for
teristics of liquid insulation have been proposed in the literature. The streamer development in MO. The Fe3O4 NPs in MO can apprehend
following are some significant and mentionable mechanism of improve- the electrons briskly and will transform into slow negative charge car-
ment by NPs. riers. The magnification of net space charge region at streamer tip is

Table 5
Summary of results (AC, DC, LI BDS measurement) by various researchers in the field of transformer oil-based NFs for liquid insulation of transformer.

NPs Ref. Base oil Particle Surfactant Observations

type size

TiO2 [111] TO 20 \
\ The augmentation in BDS was described by shallow trap model.
[120] MO ˂20 \
\ AC, DC, LI BDS and PD features were measured of developed NFs.
[113] TO ˂20 OA The effect of aging on AC and LI BDS was examined.
[83] MO ˂100 CTAB The surface modification of NPs was described.
[164] MO 100 \
\ Relative permittivity and dielectric constant of NFs was observed.
Fe3O4 [55] MO 10 \
\ AC, DC, LI BDS, PD, Resistivity properties are observed.
[165] TO 10.6 OA DC BDS under the effect of magnetic field
[166] MO, Synthetic ester oil, 10 OA LI and DC BDS measurement
THESO
[114] MO 10 OA BDS improvement described with electron scavenger model
[12,140] MO 10.2 OA BDS was explored with electric & magnetic field orientation.
[57] MO 7.4 OA, dodecanoic, decanoic BDS with suspension of NPs examined.
acids
[117] VO 30 OA The effect of surface modifications on BDS was explored.
[167] Natural ester oil 30 OA The effect of type of NPs on BDS was examined
[5] MO, PAO ˂100 Span Effect of various NPs on BDS was investigated.
[60] MO 8.5 OA BDS, PD and Dielectric loss & properties was explored.
[168] TO 20 \
\ BDS and thermal featured of NFs was examined.
[169] TO 10 OA BDS of NFs with conductive NPs with charge accumulation hypothesis was
studied.
[33] VO 13.4 OA The effect of surface modification on BDS was explored.
Al2O3 [69] MO ˂50 \
\ Positive and negative LI BDS properties are observed.
[5] MO ˂80 Span BDS of different NPs was studied.
[79] TO 23, 80, OA AC BDS was measured with various moisture levels.
100
SiO2 [77,78,80] MO 15 Silane coupling agent AC BDS of NFs was measured with various moisture levels.
(z6011)
[170] Synthetic oil 15 Benzalkolium chloride Dielectric properties of NFs
ZnO [79] TO 40, 80 OA The influence of loadings, size and shape on BDS was examined.
SiC [5] MO, PAO ˂80 Span Comparative study of various NPs on BDS was conducted.
AlN [105] MO 40 OA The effect of concentration of NPs on BDS and PD was studied.
GO [171] MO 12 \
\ Comparative BDS of NFs under divergent field was explored.
GO [172] MO 00, 300 \
\ BDS of developed NFs was examined.
CeO2 [173] MO 6–8 \
\ AC and LI BDS of developed NFs were observed.
MgO [79] TO 15 OA BDS of NFs prepared with various loadings of NPs was studied.
ZrO2 [79] TO 40, 70 OA BDS of NFs prepared with various loadings of NPs was studied.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
halted due to slow speed of slowly charge carriers and accordingly con-
fines the streamer development in MO and leads to superior BD
performance.
This model is feasible to illustrate the improved BD performance of
NFs prepared with Fe3O4 NPs, although it may not describe the decline
in BD performance of NFs developed with SiC NPs, even though, MO/
SiC NPs system has tr (1.1 × 10−12 s), which is much shorter than time-
scale required for streamer development in MO [5]. This model is also
unable to describe the enhanced BDS of MO modified by NPs with larger
tr than timescale required for streamer development in MO [66,174].
Therefore, it is to be noted that only tr is not enough to explain the BD
performance of MO-based NFs. Other physical, chemical and electrical
parameters of NPs are also significant.
b) Shallow trap model
Du et al. [102] proposed that TiO2 NPs introduce additional traps in
MO and free electrons are frequently trapped and de-trapped in these
traps. This trapping and de-trapping process would reduce average en-
ergy and mobility of electrons, and also chances of electron creation
through impact ionization would also be declined. This would finally re-
duce the distortion of electric field by electronic charge in transit, and
hence the DS thus enhanced. Trap properties and charge dissipation fu-
tures were calculated by Thermal Stimulated Current method (TSC) and
Pulsed Electroacoustic technique (PEA). Rafiq et al. [163,175] also used
the same approach to describe the results of MO modified by Al2O3
NPs. It is considered that NPs introduced high shallow trap density
which contributes to reduce the streamer propagation velocity and
hence improved dielectric performance of NFs. This model is useful to
explain the improved BD performance of NFs developed with TiO2 and
Al2O3 NPs but it is also unable to describe the results of NFs developed
with conductive NPs.
c) Other models
Sima et al. [132] used the same electron seizure model to explicate
the BD performance augmentation of MO modified by dielectric NPs
(Al2O3, TiO2). According to them, when these NFs are exposed to an ex-
ternally applied electric field, free charges have no time to amass on the
surface of NPs. In contrast, the charges formed by polarization modify
the surface potential distribution around NPs. Thus, the polarization of
these NPs is triggered by polarization charges instead of free charges
[176]. The polarized NPs will develop potential wells that will help to
capture electrons.
H. F Jin et al. [77] studied the AC BDVs of MO based NFs prepared by
SiO2 NPs as compared to MO at high moisture. The superior AC BD per-
formance of developed NFs was attributed to the hydrophilicity of NPs.
This may perhaps be the reason why humidity has fewer influence on
AC BDVs of NFs as compared to MO. They also investigated fullerene
NPs that may also affect the insulation features of MO. It was proposed
that hydrophilicity of NPs is not necessarily only major reason which
may affect BD performance. It is therefore also required to account for
interfacial factors of NPs while describing the results. The proposed
mechanisms of properties enhancement mentioned in literature are
summarized in Table 6.
4.2. Challenges, trends, complications and research gap
TO-based NFs are being deliberated as prospective substitutes of MO
in HV equipment in the coming years due to acknowledgment of their
performance gains over MO, but there are some serious concerns
which are limiting their commercial application [177,178,180]. For the
practical applications of transformer oil-based NFs, there are certain
challenges that require further investigation. The suspension of NPs
15
into MO has a certain limit of loading levels, beyond which the electrical
performance is deteriorated. This is largely attributed to agglomeration
[170]. Other major challenges include the selection of NPs, preparation
of NFs, compatibility of NPs/MO, and modification mechanism.
4.2.1. Research challenges of transformer oil-based NFs
In spite of their enhanced features, NFs are still in immature phase at
the instant for most of engineering applications and a superior charac-
terization, predominantly associated with practical or real life submis-
sions, could be favorable for readiness level rise of NFs technology. The
emerging traits of developed NFs generally rely on a variety of elements
such as NPs type, development method of NFs, base oil type and ema-
nating combinational features of NPs and base oil. Therefore, one should
be highly concerned with the selection of NPs and base oil because the
major issue of agglomeration of NPs has often correlated with NP/MO
compatibility.
Challenges linked with the forthcoming guidelines for research may
be recognized as follows:
4.2.1.1. Selection of NPs. Each NP type has certain physical and chemical
features that make it unique and different in the list of multiple NPs.
The selection of NP with the aim of certain property improvements of
MO is very challenging. Generally, NPs are selected by noticing their pri-
mary features such as conductivity and permittivity but there is how-
ever no other way apart from experimentation to explore whether a
certain NP will be effective in enhancement of properties of base oil or
not. The choice of NP with optimal size and volumetric loading for char-
acteristics enhancement of base oil is also very challenging.
4.2.1.2. Synthesis of NFs. The development process of NFs is also very crit-
ical for the practical application of NFs. The word “nanofluid” is not
merely a solid-liquid combination. Multiple distinctive prerequisites in-
cluding stable dispersion, controlled concentration and size are required
for NF preparation. Typically, there are two main ways to prepare NFs:
one-stage and two-phase methods. Each technique is associated with
its own pros and cons. The prior scheme is useful for developing NFs
containing high conductivity metal to avoid oxidation. The control of
size of NPs is difficult in single-step technique. The later technique is
usually applied to develop NFs with oxide NPs and carbon nanotubes.
The problem of agglomeration of NPs may arise in two-step method.
4.2.1.3. Agglomeration of NPs. The NPs tend to transform into bigger par-
ticles under external stresses and attractive forces and may stick to-
gether to cultivate aggregates of larger size which might settle out of
suspension due to gravity. The aggregation rate is usually governed by
the occurrence of collision and possibility of cohesion during collision
[179–181]. The agglomeration of NPs may lead to deterioration of not
only thermal traits but also electrical features. For instance, electrical
BD conduct of NFs prepared by conductive NPs is adversely affected
due to the agglomeration of NPs [178]. Agglomeration of NPs also af-
fected the thermal conductivity [182]. The accumulation of NPs may
be decreased by applying the subsequent procedures. The outline of ag-
glomeration and sedimentation of NPs over time is shown in Fig. 17.
Table 6
Mechanisms of dielectric modification by NPs proposed in the literature.
Author/Ref. NP type NP Base
type oil
Electron capture model Hwang et al. Conductive Fe3O4 MO
[101]
Shallow trap model Du et al. [102] Semiconductive TiO2 MO
Rafiq et a. [163] Insulative Al2O3 MO
Hydrophilic surface of NPs H. F. Jin [77] Semiconductive SiO2 MO
Electron capture by polarized Sima et al. [132] Semiconductive TiO2 MO
NPs Insulative Al2O3
16 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Fig. 17. Scheme of NPs agglomeration and sedimentation over time.
i) Ultrasonic agitation. The agglomeration of NPs might occur during
and after the synthesis process of NFs over a period of time which
might be reduced by employing ultrasonic agitation.
ii) Surface modification method.
This method uses functionalized NPs to obtain stability of NFs [183].
This process is used to augment the dispersion of NPs and to enhance
the compatibility between NPs and base materials. Chemical or physical
techniques are applied to amend the chemical or physical features and
surface formation of NPs. The surface state and structure of NPs are
modified by reaction between modifier and surface of NP. The accumu-
lation of modifiers on surface of NP, the surface force of hydroxyl group
declines and hydrogen bonds between NPs are detached to refrain the
formation of oxygen bridge bonds thereby restricting the occurrence
of agglomeration [184].
iii) Addition of surfactants. Dispersants or surfactants are chemical
compounds typically used to improve the stability of NFs. Their
addition may hinder the surface tension base fluid and enhance
the immersion of NPs. Surfactants may impact the surface traits
of a system in limited amount. Dispersants contain hydrophilic
polar head group and a hydrophobic tail portion usually long-
chain hydrocarbons. Surfactants are used to improve the contacts
of two materials. Surfactants have a tendency to discover at the
interface and introduce a degree of continuity between NPs and
base fluid in a two phase system [183,184].
The surfactants are applied to avert brisk sedimentation; neverthe-
less, a certain quantity of it must be added to NP for a particular applica-
tion. Various types of surfactants have been applied to various kinds of
NFs. This technique may not be used for NFs application at high temper-
atures due to the probability of bond damage between the surfactant
and NP [184,185]. This method is economical and easy to augment the
stability of NFs. The election of useful surfactants is a huge challenge.
4.2.1.4. Base oil/NPs and base oil compatibility. The NPs generally initiate
to sediment soon after their introduction into base oil due to poor com-
patibility between NPs and oil. These agglomerated NPs settled down
over time and cause poor stability, poor electrical performance and
lower heat transfer efficiency.
These above-mentioned issues may be resolved by using coupling
agents that may improve compatibility between NPs and oil. These spe-
cial chemical additives are useful to isolate NPs. They may include dis-
persants or surfactants [186,187] and are helpful to reduce the
interfacial tension among NPs. The NFs have shown improved electrical
characteristics after the surface functionalization of NPs. The electrical
performance of NFs was noted superior after surface functionalization
of NPs by stearic acid as compared to their equivalent NFs without use
of surface modification [134].
4.2.1.5. Existing mechanisms of dielectric modification by NPs. The biggest
challenge associated with transformer oil based NFs is the lack of com-
prehensively elaborated mechanism which may illustrate the enhance-
ment in their dielectric breakdown performance. The conventional
concept of liquid dielectric BD could not describe the greater insulating
features of oil based NFs. Some different mechanisms have been pro-
posed which might be helpful to describe the superior characteristics
of NFs. The issue with these new models is that they can only explain
the results with one type of NPs and are unable to describe results
with another type of NPs. Different researchers have analyzed their ex-
perimental results and proposed modification mechanisms (models) to
explain the results [77,101,102,132,163]. All the mentioned challenges
of To-based NFs are elaborated in Fig. 18.
4.2.2. Research gap, Technical difficulties and potential applications
4.2.2.1. Research gap in the area of MO-based NFs.
a) Improvement
mechanisms
The biggest research gap in the field of MO-based NFs is the mecha-
nism that may elaborate on the results of MO after the suspension of
NPs. More theoretical and practical investigation are essential to illus-
trate the mechanism of augmentation in DS of NFs. until now, as ex-
plained above there are only two major theories/models which may
describe the dielectric BD performance of NFs: one model/theory can
only describe the results NFs with conductive NPs and the other can
only be useful for explanation of results of semiconductive NPs; there
is still not a particular model or theory that may illustrate improvement
of BDS for all categories of NPs [101,102].
b) Stability of nanofluids
An NF is said to be theoretically stable if the size of particles through-
out it is smaller than 100 nm [188]. Though, it is an enormous challenge
to sustain this size due to attractive forces between NPs, which cause ag-
glomeration of NPs. To address this challenge, more research exertion is
compulsory to discover means to enhance the stability of NFs. There is a
need to do research for better surfactants/dispersants and superior
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Fig. 18. Common challenges of NFs development.
surface modification techniques of NPs to further improve the stability
of NFs.
c) Health-related issues
The application of NPs have been noted as one of the central Occupa-
tional Health and Safety risk (OHS) and genuine apprehensions have
been advertised regarding their use in different international protocols
[189]. The adversity associated with NPs is still dubious and research
community is ignorant and recently their focus is only on their favorable
applications. The NPs are usually more perilous as compared to bulk
materials owing to the high reactivity of their surface region [190].
The exposure of even minute quantity of NPs may cause severe hazards
to health. For instance, iron oxide may cause suffering to the human
lungs [190–193]. The zinc, copper and chromium NPs can originate
lug dysfunction and even tumor. There is great chance that few NPs
might travel to the central nervous system and create severe health is-
sues [194]. Research studies show that ZnO NPs are extremely poison-
ous, alumina NPs are reasonably lethal, and magnetite NPs are fairly
fatal [195]. TiO2 NPs are lethal and may migrate to brain through fra-
grant neurons during breathe in [196].
The NPs may also have the capability to infiltrate through the skin
and go into blood stream and concentrate in liver [197,198]. It is high
time for researchers to look for NPs which are less hazardous to
human health and also safety measures should be ensured for the
workers, researchers and scientists while developing NFs to avert
above-mentioned adversities.
d) Environmental problems
The application of nanotechnology presents a severe hazard to the
atmosphere as well. The NPs and their outgrowths may be discharged
into the air and water during their preparation or conveyance. These
NPs would accumulate in environment such as plants, soil and water
17
and may affect human health and environment during the various
phases of their life cycle. This brunt is required to be analyzed for future
growth by using Life Cycle Assessment [190]. The probable danger to
the surroundings by NPs may be decreased by applying effective ways
of preparation and shipping.
e) The higher cost of NFs
The higher production cost is one of the major motives that could
hinder the applications of NFs on industrial and commercial levels.
Both methods (single-phase and two-stage) use innovative, costly and
advanced equipment for the production of NFs which lead to higher
cost of NFs as compared to MO. The researchers should look for the
least expensive ways to develop NFs to make them easily available for
their commercial applications. A supplementary aspect which must be
considered which is very significant but less explored, is the study of
whole economics of base fluids replacement by NFs. The cost efficacy
of NFs has to be a pertinent trend to be investigated in details.
f) Use of artificial intelligence (AI) in the field of NFs
The optimization and prediction in the field of NFs is a huge chal-
lenge. AI systems are becoming popular as auxiliary methods to tradi-
tional methodologies. Electrical conductivity and permittivity in terms
of NPs concentration, temperature and frequency were simulated and
predicted by using artificial neural network (ANN). AI techniques may
be applied to for this objective in near future. The traits of NFs may be
predicted by the application of ANN. The selection of a suitable ANN
type and its configuration is still a challenge. The greater approval of hy-
brid AI procedures in recent time manifested evident success of these
techniques. The main feature of this fact is collaboration established
through intelligent tools e.g. machine learning, ANNs, fuzzy logic, and
Genetic algorithms [191,192].
g) Study of lifetime of thermo-electric systems
18 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Additional research investigation is required to explore the impor-
tance of application of NFs on lifetime of practical thermo-electric sys-
tems where NFs will be commercially applied.
In conclusion, regardless of availability of multiple prospective appli-
cations, to date there are limited stated commercial applications that in-
clude NFs. Through growing research, it is projected that NFs may cause
a considerable impact as insulating and cooling medium in transformers
[193–195].
4.2.2.2. Technical complications. The major technical complications
concerning the use of NFs as insulation fluid in HV equipment, which re-
quire further analysis, are listed as follows [196–210]:
(1) It will be difficult to use NFs in exiting transformers due to mis-
match with the prior designed specifications, so more research
is required to reduce this incompatibility and make NFs able to
be applied in these existing units.
(2) An extensive research investigation is essential to find effective
ways of synthesis of NFs and to reduce their production cost. It
is also required to look for commercial applications for NFs.
(3) Superior thermal and dielectric characteristics presented by NFs
should be publicized to draw consideration from manufacturers
and utilities.
(4) More effective research studies are needed to curtail the detri-
mental effects of NFs on the environment and the human body.
4.2.2.3. Potential uses of NFs. Transformers need an insulation system
with superior cooling and insulating properties to encounter the de-
mand of smaller size and great reliability. The Mo-based NFs may offer
these superior characteristics and they are being widely recognized as
future substitutes for liquid insulation in dielectric society. The NFs pre-
pared with conductive NPs may decrease the top-oil and hot spot tem-
perature by nearly 5 °C as compared to MO [210–212]. The size and
weight may also be reduced by the use of NFs [213–215]. The transmis-
sion voltage levels may be improved by use of NFs as liquid insulation.
The lifetime and operative reliability of the prevailing transformer unit
may be influences and also breakdowns owing to insulation issues
may be decreased by using MO-based NFs as liquid insulation as a re-
placement for MO [215–220]. The summary of advantages attained by
the application of NFs as a substitute of TO are outlined in Fig. 19.
5. Conclusion
Nanotechnology as state of the art tool is providing a smart solution
to achieve next-generation insulation system for a transformer with ex-
ceptional improved dielectric strength and enhanced life. Research in-
vestigations on NFs as HV electrical insulation fluids have been very
challenging and provide opportunities for prospective research. This
study on NFs used a general technique to obtain these four aims, specif-
ically: 1) Identify the cutting-edge themes about NFs; 2) summarizing
and comparing the dielectric performance of various oil based NFs re-
ported in the literature; 3) revealing the research gaps within the field
of transformer oil based NFs; 4) supplying research directions for con-
tinued research on oil based NFs. This study analyze collected works re-
garding electrical features, environmental concerns, challenges,
opportunities, research gap and potential applications of oil based NFs.
Even though various essential properties associated with NFs have
been stated but still multiple facts are still unexplored. A scientometric
exploration was opted to determine the recent research subjects related
to NFs during the last fifteen years. A total of 210 studies printed in con-
temporary years were selected in three steps general methodology. it
was noted that the research on NFs has undergone a significant rise in
last ten years. More significantly, it is anticipated that intellectual inves-
tigations would carry on developing in the coming years. In this paper,
Fig. 19. Benefits of NFs applications as liquid insulation of transformer.
typical journals in the field of transformer oil based NFs were identified.
The co-occurrence search for keywords unveiled frequently investi-
gated research themes. Effective researchers and their research net-
works were outlined through scientometric analysis. Research
vigorous countries about NFs were also determined through SM. The
follow up qualitative research discussion outline the predominant re-
search areas about TO-based NFs. Previous research has been mostly
aimed at investigating the performance of TO-based NFs compared to
that traditional base oil. Various performance indicators were presented
like electrical properties, improvement mechanisms, environmental
properties, stability issues and research gap of NFs were summarized.
It is hoped that transformer oil based NFs will most likely replace
conventional liquid insulation (MO) in HV transformer in the future,
but the complications which restrict their use still persists. Research
gaps related to transformer oil based NFs are identified such as stability
issues, health issues, and environmental problems and problems of their
practical application in transformers.
This study basically contributes to both practical and academic im-
plications. Scholarly, this investigation provides to the body of liquid
transformer insulation information by supplying a concentrated outlook
of NFs as future liquid insulation. Key research fields were identified, in-
teractions of different important major concepts were revealed. This
study provided a detailed bibliometric approach in reviewing trans-
former oil based NFs. This work can also help industrial practitioners
by supplying those emerging trends and opportunities regarding trans-
former oil based NFs. It could also lead a collaborative work between ac-
ademia and industry such as practical applications of these NFs in
transformer units. More detailed experimental investigations on NFs
are essential and integrative research collaboration in coping challenges
inevitable.
It must be noticed that this research work has perused to synthesize
the most recent research regarding transformer oil based NFs to reveal
the general trend, multiple issues or practices related to NFs that
might exist and are not included due to the methodology of this study
which basically solely depend upon literature published.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Muhammad Rafiq: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - orig-
inal draft, Writing - review & editing. Muhammad Shafique: Software,
Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Anam Azam: Visualization,
Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Muhammad Ateeq: Visualiza-
tion, Investigation, Writing - review & editing.
 M. Rafiq et al. / Journal of Molecular Liquids 302 (2020) 112482
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
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