Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185

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Optics Communications
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optcom

Measurement of temperature gradient in a heated liquid cylinder using

rainbow refractometry assisted with infrared thermometry
Feihu Song a,n, Chuanlong Xu b, Shimin Wang b, Zhenfeng Li a
a
Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Food Manufacturing Equipment & Technology, School of Mechanical Engineering Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122,
China
b
Key Laboratory of Energy Thermal Conversion and Control of Ministry of Education, School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing
210096, China

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In a heated liquid cylinder, a temperature gradient exists between the hotter surface and the colder core.
Received 19 February 2016 Measurement of the temperature gradient is very important for the in-depth investigation into the
Received in revised form mechanism and optimized control of the heat transfer process. Rainbow refractometry has been at-
27 May 2016
tempted to achieve the measurement since several years ago. Yet there is no effective inversion algorithm
Accepted 5 June 2016
Available online 13 June 2016
without predicting refractive index profiles based on experience. In the paper, an improved rainbow
refractometry assisted with infrared thermometry was proposed to measure the diameter and the inside
Keywords: temperature gradient of a heated liquid cylinder. The inversion algorithm was designed based on the
Rainbow refractometry nonlinear least square method and an optimization process. To evaluate the feasibility of the proposed
Temperature gradient measurement
method, numerical simulations and experiments were carried out. The results of the numerical simu-
Heated cylinder
lation showed that the relative error of the inversion diameter was about 1%, and the error of the re-
Infrared thermometry
fractive index was less than 6
10  4 at all the radial locations. In the experimental research, t rainbows
reconstructed with the reversion parameters were all similar to the corresponding captured ones.
& 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction measurement of the temperature gradient inside a cylinder, be-

In most industrial processes, the temperature inside a liquid
cylinder is inhomogeneous because of heat transfer. When the li-
quid cylinder is heated with radiation or heat convection from its
outside vertical surface, the temperature decreases from the sur-
face to the core, and the temperature gradient varies along with
time. Yet there is no measurement method for the temperature
gradient inside a cylinder. Contacting thermometry is commonly
used at present, such as thermocouple, optical fiber thermometry
etc. Yet the response is slow, and the flue field is disturbed by the
probes [1]. Infrared thermometry is a non-intrusive technique. But
only the surface temperature can be determined, because the in-
frared radiated by the internal liquid cannot transmit through the
surface [2]. Ultrasonic thermometry is also a non-intrusive tech-
nique which can be used to detect the mean temperature of the
liquid cylinder. But as long as the mean temperature is constant,
the measurement signal of the probe remains the same no matter
the temperature gradient inside the cylinder changes [3,4].
Rainbow refractometry is a potential technique for the
n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sssongfh@sina.com (F. Song).
cause the determination is on the basis of the rainbow pattern
affected by refractive index gradient instead of the mean refractive
index [5]. Rainbow refractometry was put forward in 1988 to de-
termine the refractive index (related to the temperature) and the
diameter of a cylinder simultaneously [6]. However, only the mean
refractive index could be determined with the proposed algo-
rithms of standard rainbow refractometry at the beginning [7,8].
Due to the urgent requirement for the analysis of heat transfer
inside a cylinder, later a number of researches aimed to achieve
the measurement of the refractive index gradient. Li proposed an
effective calculation model for the scattering intensity of the
rainbow scattered by a multilayered droplet [9]. Vetrano proposed
an inversion algorithm for determining the diameter and the re-
fractive index gradient of a droplet, and the burning oil droplets
were taken for experimental research [10]. However, the sharp of
the refractive index profile should be predicted based on the ex-
perience that the temperature profile changed as the burning
develops. So the method cannot be used if heat transfer condition
changes. Saengkaew attempted to determine the diameter and the
refractive index gradient of an inhomogeneous droplet with the
algorithm for a homogeneous droplet [11]. Only the inversion
diameter was similar to the true value, but the inversion refractive

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2016.06.011
0030-4018/& 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V.
180 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185

index gradient was completely wrong. 1.340

To sum up, actually there is no valid measurement method for
the refractive index distribution inside a cylinder. To solve the
problem, an improved rainbow refractometry assisted with infra-

red thermometry was proposed to simultaneously determine the
diameter and the refractive index gradient of a cylinder without
any priori value. Firstly, the surface refractive index (related to the
surface temperature) was measured with infrared thermometry to
decrease the unknown parameters. Secondly, the cylinder dia-
meter was estimated with the interval of the maxima in the first
two Airy fringes. Thirdly, the estimated core refractive index is
expressed with the shape coefficient, so that only the shape
coefficient should be solved with non-linear least square method.
Finally, the two estimated values were optimized with an opti-
mization process. Numerical simulations and experiments were
carried out to verify the proposed method.
2. Inversion algorithm for temperature gradient in an in-
homogeneous cylinder
2.1. Principle of the rainbow refractometry for inhomogeneous
cylinder
When a homogeneous cylinder is illuminated by a light beam, a
monochrome primary rainbow pattern can be observed in the
backward area [6]. Based on scattering theories, inversion algo-
rithms have been proposed to determine the diameter and the
refractive index of the cylinder from the rainbow pattern [12–14].
If heat transfer happens to the cylinder, temperature inside is in-
homogeneous, and hence the refractive index gradient exists. To
simplify the refractive index gradient, it can be described with the
expression as follows:
(ns − nc )(e bk − 1)
n (k ) = nc +
eb − 1
where b is the shape coefficient of the profile, ns is the refractive
index at surface, nc is the refractive index at core, k is the serial
number of the layers, n(k) is the refractive index of kth layer. To
investigate the relationship between of the scattering intensity
distribution and the parameters of an inhomogeneous cylinder,
the intensity distribution of the rainbow should be calculated with
the refractive index gradient and the diameter at first. Li proposed
a model to calculate the scattering intensity distribution by
iteration from the core layer to the surface layer [9]. And the in-
tensity distribution of the Airy fringes can be calculated as well.
According to the reported research, the intensity distribution is
related to the inside temperature gradient as well as the cylinder
diameter (denoted by D), which means it is potential to determine
the temperature gradient from the scattering intensity distribution
Refractive index
1.335
1.330
True
Reversion 1
1.325 Reversion 2
1.320
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized radius
Fig. 1. The comparison of the true and the inversion refractive index gradients.
the iteration process, k is the serial number of the discrete scat-
tering angle. The initial values of ns, nc and b are set at first. Then in
the iteration process, the initial ns, nc and b are continuously op-
timized with non-linear least square method for the purpose of
decreasing the objective function value. And finally a refractive
index gradient (described with ns, nc and b) is obtained, with
which the final reconstructed rainbow is similar to the captured
one.
The numerical simulation of the inversion algorithm is then
carried out. The parameters of a liquid cylinder are given, so that
the intensity distribution of the rainbow pattern can be calculated,
which is considered as the captured rainbow. A water cylinder
heated with heat convection from its outside vertical surface is
taken as the object in the numerical simulation. Firstly, true values
of b, ns, nc are set 3, 1.326, 1.336. Fig. 1 shows the true refractive
(1) index gradient and the inversion gradients. With the non-linear
least square method, different inversion values of ns, nc, and b can
be obtained from different initial values. The corresponding rain-
bow patterns are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the intensity
distributions of the three rainbows are similar, especially the Airy
fringes (i.e. the low frequency components). But the inversion
refractive index gradients are both different from the true one.
The main reason of the multi-solution problem is that the in-
tensity distribution of the rainbow is affected by all the three
Captured
1.0
Rainbows Reconstructed 1
Reconstructed 2
0.5
Intensity (a.u.)

with a proper inversion algorithm [14,15].

0.0
2.2. Refractive index gradient inversion with non-linear least square 136 140 144
method 1.0
Captured
The refractive index gradient is firstly attempted to be de- Airy fringes Reconstructed 1
Reconstructed 2
termined with non-linear least square method directly, which is a 0.5
useful method for solving parameters in a nonlinear problem. The
objective function is as follows:

f= ∑ ⎡⎣ Icap, Airy (k) − Ire, Airy (k) ⎤⎦2 0.0

136 140 144
k (2)

where f is objective function value, Icap, Airy is the intensity of the Scattering angle ( ° )
Airy fringes in the captured rainbow, Ire, Airy is the intensity of the Fig. 2. The comparison of the captured and the reconstructed rainbows, the low
Airy fringes in the rainbow reconstructed with ns, nc and b during frequency component obtained by the low-pass filter with hamming window.
 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185 181

are attempted to be obtained with another method and only b is

needed to be determined, the inversion refractive index gradients
1.335 with non-linear least square method are shown in Fig. 3. And the
corresponding rainbow patterns are shown in Fig. 4. Before the
Refractive index

iteration process, the initial values of b are set as 3 and 8 respec-

tively. The inversion values of b are 2.9946 and 9.7547 respectively.
One inversion refractive index gradient is almost the same to the

1.330 True true one, but the other is obviously different from the true one.
The captured and the reconstructed rainbows shown in Fig. 4 are
Reversion 1 still similar, especially the Airy fringes. As b changes, the scattering
Reversion 2 angles of the maxima in the first Airy fringes are shown in Fig. 5. It
can be seen that there is a maximum in the curve, where b is about
6. For an arbitrary value of b which is less than 6, another b larger
1.325 than 6 corresponds to the same scattering angle. Therefore with
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 the two inversion values of b, the intensity distributions of the two
reconstructed Airy fringes are similar. Whereas the ripple struc-
Normalized radius tures of two reconstructed rainbows are different, so another ob-
jective function is used to judge which one is better:
Fig. 3. The comparison of the true and the inversion refractive index gradients
when only b is needed to be solved.
f= ∑ ⎡⎣ Icap (k) − Ire, Mie (k) ⎤⎦2
k (3)
Captured
1.0 where Ire, Mie is the intensity distribution of the rainbow re-
Rainbows Reconstructed 1
Reconstructed 2 constructed with the inversion parameters. In all, more accurate
inversion refractive index gradient can be determined, if only b is
0.5 needed to be solved.
Intensity (a.u.)

2.3. Improved rainbow refractometry assisted with infrared

0.0 thermometry
136 140 144
1.0
Captured In the improved method, the cylinder diameter is firstly esti-
Airy fringes Reconstructed 1 mated according to Vetrano's work [10]. The angular interval of
Reconstructed 2 the maxima in the first two Airy fringes was reported to be mainly
0.5 related to the cylinder diameter and slightly related to the re-
fractive index gradient. Therefore the interval can be used to es-
timate the cylinder diameter. The exponential fitting of the angular
0.0 interval to the cylinder diameter is shown as follows, which is
136 140 144
obtained from the rainbows calculated with nc ¼1.336, ns ¼1.326,
Scattering angle ( °) b¼3.

Fig. 4. The comparison of the captured and the reconstructed rainbows when only D = 565.1⋅Δθ −1.447 , R2 = 0.9987 (4)
b is needed to be solved, the low frequency component obtained by the low-pass
filter with hamming window.
where Δθ is the angular interval.
Infrared thermometry is used as assistance for the measure-
ment of the surface temperature Ts, and therefore the surface re-
140.3
fractive index can be obtained. On the other hand, Vetrano pro-
Scattering angle of the maximum

posed a formula to describe the relationship between nc and ns

in the first Airy fringe (°)

140.2 [10]:
n c − ns
nrg = ns + δ
ns2 (5)
140.1
where nrg is the inversion refractive index with the algorithm for
homogeneous cylinder (which can be determined from the cap-
140.0
tured rainbow with the algorithm reported in the previous work
[12–14]), δ is mainly related to b. As b changes, the fitting poly-
139.9 nomial is shown in Formula (6), which is obtained from the
rainbows calculated with nc ¼1.34, ns ¼1.32, D ¼100 μm.

139.8 δ = 0.001673⋅b3−0.04784⋅b2 + 0.404⋅b + 1.321 , R2 = 0.9986 (6)

2 4 6 8 10 12
So the evaluated nc can be expressed with b.
b
1
Fig. 5. b vs. the scattering angle of the maximum in the first Airy fringe (nc ¼ 1.336,
nc = + ns
δ⋅ns ⋅ns ⋅(nrg −ns ) (7)
ns ¼ 1.326, D¼ 100 μm).
Therefore only b is needed to be solved. While using the al-
parameters, and the effect of changing one parameter on the gorithm described in Section 2.2, b is solved in the ranges of 2–6
rainbow can be offset by changing the other two parameters and 6–12 respectively.
properly. So the unknown parameters should be decreased. If ns, nc The two estimated parameters (D and nc) are needed to be
182 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185

1.0
Angular difference

Intensity (a.u.)
Captured
Reconstructed
0.5

140 141 142

Scattering angle ( ° )
Fig. 8. Airy fringes of the reconstructed rainbow before nc is optimized (for the
captured rainbow nc ¼ 1.34, ns ¼ 1.32, b ¼3.5, D ¼100 μm, for the reconstructed
rainbow nc ¼1.3414, ns ¼ 1.3202, b ¼2.53, D ¼ 100.6 μm).

1.0
Captured
Reconstructed1, b=3.11
Intensity (a.u.) Reconstructed2, b=8

0.5
Fig. 6. Flow chart of the improved algorithm.

0.0
138 140 142 144
Scattering angle (°)
Fig. 9. Rainbow reconstructed with the inversion results (the captured rainbow is
also attached for comparison).

1.340

1.335
Refractive index

Fig. 7. Airy fringes of the reconstructed rainbow before diameter is optimized (for
the captured rainbow nc ¼ 1.34, ns ¼ 1.32, b ¼3.5, D ¼ 100 μm, for the reconstructed
rainbow nc ¼ 1.3424, ns ¼1.3202, b¼ 2.02, D¼ 106.6 μm). 1.330
True
optimized. The flow chart of the improved algorithm is shown in Reversion 1
Fig. 6. Then the numerical simulation is carried out to explain the
1.325
flow chart. The true parameters of the cylinder are set as b¼ 3.5, ns
¼1.32, nc ¼ 1.34, D¼ 100 μm, and the intensity distribution can be
1.320
calculated. For most commonly used instruments, the measure-
ment error of infrared thermometry is 7 1 °C (corresponding to
the refractive index error about 2
10  4 for water [15,16]). So the
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
measurement of ns is assumed as 1.3202. The diameter estimated Normalized radius
with Formula (5) is 106.6 μm. With the algorithm mentioned
Fig. 10. Comparison of the true and the final inversion refractive index gradient.
above, nc ¼ 1.3424, b¼2.02 are obtained. And the Airy fringes of
the reconstructed rainbow are shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen that
the maxima intervals in the two rainbows are different, which is error of nc. So with the angular difference, the evaluation formula
mainly due to the error of the diameter. To solve this problem, the shown in Formula (7) is adjusted as follows:
diameter is gradually adjusted to 101.2 μm. The inversion values 1
are therefore updated (nc ¼ 1.3414, b¼ 2.53), and the Airy fringes of nc = + ns + Δn
δ⋅ns ⋅ns ⋅(nrg −ns ) (8)
the reconstructed rainbow is shown in Fig. 8. The angular differ-
ence between the peaks of the two rainbows is mainly due to the where Δn is an offset, which is adjusted according to the angular
 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185 183

1.5 Water Valve

ser
tank
Pump Steel pipe
Relative error (%)

La
1.0

id
Electrothermal film covered

o
lar
with heat insulation material
0.5

Po
ms
Conves lens

b ea
Steel capillary
0.0

s er
La
-0.5
Liquid CCD Camera
-1.0 cylinder
Infrared thermometer
-1.5 Fig. 12. Experimental system.
200 400 600 800 1000
Diameter (µm) diameter is about 1%, and the absolute error of the refractive index
is less than 6
10  4 at all the radial locations.
(a) Relative error of the diameter
3. Experimental results and discussion
8
Fig. 12 shows the experimental system, consisting of a fluid
6 system and an optical system. The fluid system consists of a water
tank, a pump, a valve, a steel pipe, a steel capillary and an elec-
4
)

trothermal film covered with heat resolution material. The water

−4
Error (10

2 was pumped from the rank to the capillary by a water pump, so

that a water cylinder was produced at the exit of the capillary. The
0 internal diameter of the capillary was 1 mm. The height of the
-2 capillary is 50 mm. The flow rate of the water is 65 mL/min. The
electrothermal film was used to heat the water flowing through.
-4 The powers of the electrothermal films were 72 W, 120 W and
180 W respectively. The optical system included an optical plat-
-6 form, a laser (100 mW, 532 nm), a convex lens, a CCD camera (e2v
-8 EV50YLM1GE2014, resolution 2048
100 pixels, pixel size
200 400 600 800 1000 14 μm*14 μm). The water cylinder was illuminated by the laser
beam. The scattering rays were focused onto the CCD camera by a
True mean diameter (µm) convex lens. Fig. 13 shows the row rainbow patterns scattered by
liquid cylinder heated with different powers. The grey values of
(b) Error of the refractive index the pattern captured by the CCD camera were extracted. The serial
number of transverse pixels could be transformed to the scattering
Fig. 11. Inversion errors when the diameter is in the range of 100–1100 μm, angle of the droplets by calibration. Thus the grey value at one
(a) Relative error of the diameter, (b) Error of the refractive index.
certain pixel represented the scattering intensity at the angle. The
surface temperature of the water cylinder was measured by an
difference, i.e. at first Δn ¼0, and it is increased or decreased after infrared thermometer (Raytek ST20, measurement error 71 °C).
each comparison. Still the refractive index gradient and the re- With infrared thermometry, the surface temperatures of the
constructed rainbow are continuously updated until the angular
difference shown in Fig. 8 is less than the preset value. Finally, two
inversion results are obtained, nc ¼1.3405, ns ¼1.3202, b¼3.11,
D ¼99.2 μm and nc ¼1.3404, ns ¼1.3202, b¼ 8, D ¼101.6 μm. The
two reconstructed rainbows are shown in Fig. 9, which are similar
to the captured rainbows. The objective function values calculated (a) 72W
with Formula (3) are 0.8674 and 1.7123 respectively. As a result,
the former inversion parameters are taken as the optimal result.
The inversion refractive index gradient is shown in Fig. 10. It can
be seen that the refractive index gradients are similar. The relative
error of the inversion diameter is 0.8%. At all the radial locations,
the error of the refractive index is less than 5
10  4, which (b) 120W
corresponds to about 2.5 °C for water.
Then the true cylinder diameters are set from 100–1100 μm
with a step of 200 μm, the values of b are set randomly in the
range of 2–12, nc, ns are set randomly in the range of 1.32–1.34, and
nc is larger than ns during a heated cylinder (because the surface
temperature is higher). The errors of the results are shown in
(c) 180W
Fig. 11. It can be seen that the absolute relative error of the Fig. 13. Row rainbow patterns when the heated power was different.
184 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185

1.336 1.0
Captured
Reconstructed
Refractive index

Intensity (a.u.)
1.334

0.5
1.332 72W
120W
180W
1.330
0.0
138.0 138.5 139.0 139.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized radius Scattering angle (° )
Fig. 14. Reversion refractive index gradients. (a) 72W

60 1.0
Captured
Reconstructed
50
Temperature ( )

Intensity (a.u.)
72W
40 120W 0.5
180W
30

20
0.0
10 138.0 138.5 139.0 139.5
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Scattering angle (°)
Normalized radius
(b) 120W
Fig. 15. Temperature gradients corresponding to the reversion refractive index
gradients.

1.0
liquid cylinders were 57.9 °C, 50.1 °C and 39.3 °C as the heating Captured
power increased. The reversion diameters were 901.2 μm, Reconstructed
893.6 μm and 905.4 μm, whose relative difference was 13.3%. Be-
Intensity (a.u.)

cause of the viscous force between the capillary and the liquid
cylinder, the reversion diameters were less than the internal dia-
meter of the capillary. The refractive index gradients and the
corresponding temperature gradients are shown in Fig. 14, and 0.5
therefore the corresponding temperature gradients obtained from
the refractive index gradients are Fig. 15 [15,16]. It can be seen that
as the heating power increased, the surface temperature of the
liquid cylinder increased as well, and the difference among the
core temperatures was less than 2 °C. The captured and the re-
constructed rainbows are illustrated in Fig. 16. In each graph, the 0.0
two rainbows are similar, the objective function values calculated 138.0 138.5 139.0 139.5
with formula (3) are 0.9675, 1.3524 and 1.1486 respectively in the
three graphs. Scattering angle (°)
(c) 180W
4. Conclusion Fig. 16. The captured and the reconstructed rainbows when the heating power was
different.
Rainbow refractometry was investigated to attempt the mea-
surement of the temperature gradient inside a heated liquid cy-
linder, without predicting any parameters based on experience. At
first nonlinear least square method was directly used to solve the
 F. Song et al. / Optics Communications 380 (2016) 179–185
parameters, but a multi-solution situation happened. Therefore an
improved rainbow refractometry assisted with infrared thermo-
metry was proposed to avoid the problem. The surface refractive
index was obtained by measuring the surface temperature of the
cylinder with infrared thermometry. And a rough formula be-
tween the core refractive index and the shape coefficient was built
according to the previous work. Thus only one unknown para-
meters was left. An inversion algorithm was designed to achieve
the measurement the refractive index gradient and the diameter
simultaneously based on the nonlinear least square method and
an optimization process. Numerical simulation and experiments
were carried out to evaluate the method. The results of the nu-
merical simulation showed that the relative error of the inversion
diameter was about 1%, and the error of the refractive index was
less than 6
10  4 at all the radial locations. In the experimental
research, as the heating power increased, the surface refractive
index increased, and the core refractive index almost remained the
same. The reversion diameter was less than the internal diameter
of the capillary because of the viscous force. The rainbows re-
constructed with the reversion parameters were all similar to the
corresponding captured ones.
Acknowledgment
The authors wish to express their gratitude to the Program for
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51406068),
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.51376049),
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities
(JUSRP51511), Foundation of Jiangsu union innovation (2015019-
16) and Foundation of Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Food
Manufacturing Equipment & Technology (FM-201504).
185
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