International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

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International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ichmt

Quasi-analytical solution to the problem of heat transfer by vortex flow

based on self-similarity
Wenyan Bi a, b, Jianfeng Wan c, d, *, Junjie Chen d, **, Xinmin Zhang d
a
Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, NY, New York 10027, United States
b
College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, Henan 454000, China
c
Levich Institute and Department of Chemical Engineering, City College of the City University of New York, NY, New York 10031, United States
d
Department of Energy and Power Engineering, School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo, Henan 454000, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Highly efficient vortex flow increases fluid flow and simultaneously enhances heat transfer. An accurate vortex
Heat transfer flow model is of great importance to analyzing and solving heat transfer problems. The general form of the
Vortex flow solution to the vortex flow problem was derived from the self-similarity properties of vortex flow along the radius
Analytical solutions
direction, and its correctness was validated. The temperature distribution function of vortex flow was deter­
Annular flow
ρC v R
′
Self-similarity mined, and the relative thermal conductivity was obtained. A dimensionless number ( pk θ ) was defined to
Temperature distribution characterize the temperature distribution of vortex flow. The rate of heat transfer was also determined. The
results indicated that the dimensionless number represents the ratio of convection to thermal conduction, and
can be used to accurately describe the temperature distribution of vortex flow. When the temperature at the
vortex flow center is close to the average temperature, the difference in temperature phase is significant, and
convection plays a dominant role in the heat transfer process. The temperature can be defined by sine function
when the radius of vortex is decreased to a certain extent. The results can be applied to the analysis of large-scale
vortex flow heat transfer, the optimization design of small-scale vortex flow heat transfer, and the development
of vortex flow and temperature sensors.

1. Introduction improvement compared to any other configuration considered. Yang

Vortex flow heat transfer exists in a wide variety of natural phe­
nomena [1–4], and the vortex of fluid flow is efficient to provide a viable
mechanism for heat transfer enhancement in many industrial fields
[5,6], even under a strong magnetic field [7]. The classic heat transfer
coefficient of step flow involves vortex heat transfer [7,8]. In micro-
flows, there are also some related studies [9]. In gas turbine engines,
annular flow transfer phenomena [10,11] are another type of heat
transfer of vortex flow. Therefore, vortex heat transfer is a very common
phenomenon in the field of heat transfer.
Back in the 1950s, Kreith and Margolis [12] determined that swirling
flow could cause at least a four-fold increase in heat transfer coefficient.
Considerable achievements have been made in the field ever since
[13–16]. Modi and Rathod [17] designed an up-wavy winglet vortex
generator, and found that the generator had best heat transfer
et al. [18] developed three different types of longitudinal vortex gen­
erators, and found that the design with a single-row longitudinal vortex
generator could achieve the maximum heat transfer coefficient. Dogan
and İgci [19] experimentally studied the heat transfer effect of vortex
flow in the case that a novel type of vortex generator was placed on the
bottom surface of the rectangular channel. Much effort has been devoted
in this field [20–25]. However, further study is needed to determine
which vortex has better heat transfer effect and how much the heat
transfer performance can be improved. Additionally, the heat transfer
effect cannot be directly determined by the structure of vortex flow.
On the other hand, the effect of vortex flow dimensions on heat
transfer is significant. Masuda et al. [26] investigated the heat transfer
characteristics of a Taylor vortex flow system with a shear-thinning
fluid, and found that the size of the Taylor vortex flow affected the
thickness of the boundary layer of velocity and temperature. The local

* Corresponding author at: Levich Institute and Department of Chemical Engineering, City College of the City University of New York, NY, New York 10031, United
States.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: jianfengwan2018@gmail.com (J. Wan), cjjmmm@163.com, cjj@hpu.edu.cn (J. Chen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2022.106005

Available online 28 March 2022

0735-1933/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

Nusselt number decreased with increasing the shear-thinning property.

Zimparov [27] developed a simple mathematical model to predict heat
transfer coefficients in the case of turbulent flow in a spirally corrugated
tube. Karabay et al. [28] used the Reynolds analogy to determine an
expression for adiabatic-disc temperature and obtained the average
Nusselt number for a rotating cavity. Tayyab et al. [29] determined the
ric
heat transfer coefficient of gravitational water vortex, based on an met
empirical formular for fully developed flow conditions. Jayavel and Sym tching
Tiwari [30] used a Lagrangian approach to track fluid particles in the stre
vortex field for estimating heat transfer.
Two methods are often used to determine the effect of vortex flow
dimensions on heat transfer: numerical simulations and experimental
analysis, through which the heat transfer coefficient is estimated in
combination with the empirical model. For the two methods, however, Asym
m
empirical models are often used and have extremely restricted their stretc etric
hing
application. If an exact theoretical model of heat transfer vortex flow is
developed, many related studies will be of great significance, including
design and optimization of heat exchange equipment and estimation of
heat transfer in various applications, such as the design of sensors (e.g.,
measuring velocity or distance by temperature).
This study mainly includes three parts. 1) Theoretical analysis. The
basic structure of the solution was obtained through the self-similarity
property of vortex flow along the radius direction (Section 2.2). 2)
(a) Two dimensions
Solving quasi-analytical solutions. The solution was obtained by
substituting the basic structure into the original equations (Section 2.3).
3) validating the solution (Section 3).
The innovations are given as follows: sin
g
Clo
1) Accurate and reliable quasi-analogous solutions were obtained,
including the temperature distribution and heat transfer capacity of
vortex flow, and effective heat transfer coefficient.
Distorti
on
2) Proposed a dimensionless parameter as dynamic similarity number.
3) Demonstrated the temperature distribution phenomenon of vortex
flow.

These innovations have great signification to help solve problems of

how to optimize vortex flow heat transfer; how to calculate vortex flow
heat transfer at very large scales, such as typhoons, pipe leakage, and so
(b) Three dimensions
on; and how to design the sensors between vortex flow and temperature. Fig. 1. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional topology of vortexes.

2. Theoretical analysis

2.1. The type of vortex flow

The cross-section of vortex flow includes circle, ellipse, annulus and

irregular shape, as shown in Fig. 1(a). Circle was the most basic and the
most ideal form [31–35]. The annulus flow was a special circle flow
when the velocity was zero in the center area [36]. The most basic and
ideal form of spatial structure was cylinder [37], which could be
deformed to obtain irregular serpentine and closed ring [36,38,39]
under different mechanical conditions or spatial constraints, as shown in
Fig. 1(b). In theory, the velocity of fluid particles in a vortex flow may
vary with the distance with the axis in many ways. There is one
important special case. The rotational velocity of a vortex flow is directly
proportional to its radius like a rigid body [39,40]. For simplicity, a two-
dimensional circular vortex flow was considered with rotational velocity
directly proportional to its radius.

2.2. Self-similarity of velocity and temperature distribution

The geometric model was simplified to obtain an exact solution as
shown in Fig. 2, in which the circular, gray area represents was the re­
gion of flow of the fluid particle. A polar coordinate system was used to
describe the motion and temperature of the fluid particle. For a fluid
particle, the following parameters were used: the distance from original
point to the fluid particle was r, the polar angle of the particle was θ, the
Fig. 2. Geometric model of an ideal vortex flow.
tangential velocity of the particle was vθ, the radial velocity of the
particle was vr, and the temperature of the particle is T.
The Eulerian method was used in the analysis of the vortex flow. In
the edge area of the vortex flow, there was a significant change in
temperature, but the distribution of temperature and velocity exhibited

2
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

self-similarity along the circumference. In contrast, the change in tem­

perature was small in the other area. Self-similarity was a typical
property of the vortex flow, making it possible to determine the distri­
bution of temperature within the whole computational domain.
It is worth noting that temperature was expressed in relative terms.
The relative scale of temperature was used in the present study in order
to facilitate subsequent analysis of the problem. This means that relative
temperature, rather than absolute temperature, was defined in the
present study. This scale had two reference temperatures. The maximum
and minimum temperature reference points were used in the present
study for definition. Specifically, the maximum temperature was defined
as 1 K, and the minimum temperature was defined as − 1 K. Additionally,
the mean value of the maximum and minimum temperatures was
defined to be a relative temperature of 0 K. Relative temperature was
useful when solving the problem.
For the problem, the steady-state temperature distribution of circular Fig. 3. Relation between point 1 and point 2 in the vortex flow.
vortex flow can be written as follows [26].
( ) ( ( ) ) a 180-degree phase difference. CR is constant, and C1, CR did not depend
∂T v ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2 T
ρCp vr + θ =k r + 2 2 (1) on θ.
∂r r ∂θ r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ The temperature distribution functions at point 1 and point 2 were
Since the stream line of vortex flow was circle, vr = 0, Eq. (1) can be T1(R, θ) and T1(r′ , θ + C1) separately. Substituting T in Eq. 2 separately
rewritten as with T1(R, θ) and T1(r′ , θ + C1), we got
( ( ) ) ( ( ) )
v ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2 T v ∂T 1 ∂ ∂T1 1 ∂2 T1
ρC p θ =k r + 2 2 (2) ρC p θ 1 = k R + 2 2
(5)
r ∂θ r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ R ∂θ R ∂R ∂R R ∂θ

The radius of vortex flow was Rb. The temperature and angular ve­ ( ( ) )
v′θ ∂T1 1 ∂ ′ ∂T1 1 ∂2 T1
locity at the boundary were T(Rb, θ) and ω (constant). Set T(Rb, θ) = F(θ), ρC p ′ = k ′ ′ r ′ + ′2 (6)
r ∂(θ + C1 ) r ∂r ∂r r ∂(θ + C1 )2
F(θ) was an anti-centrosymmetric function
F(θ + π) = − F(θ) (3) Multiplied each side of Eq. (6) by r′ , we got
( ( ) )
To facilitate subsequent analysis of the problem, an anti- ∂T1 ∂ ′ ∂T1 1 ∂2 T1
ρCp v′θ =k r + (7)
centrosymmetric boundary condition was used to define the tempera­ ∂(θ + C1 ) ∂r′ ∂r′ r′ ∂(θ + C1 )2
ture at the boundary. This boundary condition was defined for the
following reason. A preliminary computation for the problem was per­ Multiplied each side of Eq. (7) by rR , we got
′

formed based on the geometric distortion of the vortex flow. The results ( ( ) )
indicated that the temperature at the center of the vortex flow is the r′ ∂T1 r′ ∂ ′ ∂T1 1 ∂2 T1
′
ρCp vθ = k r ′ + (8)
mean value of the maximum and minimum temperatures. Additionally, R ∂(θ + C1 ) R ∂r′ ∂r R ∂(θ + C1 )2
taking the center temperature as the reference temperature, an anti-
The angular velocity remained constant at the boundary (i.e., vRθ =
centrosymmetric temperature distribution can be obtained at the
constant), as described above. However, the angular velocity along the
boundary when the distortion of the vortex flow is small. In this context,
circumference would vary depending on the radius of the circle. Addi­
the temperature distribution of the vortex flow may also be anti-
tionally, the distribution of velocity in the edge area of the vortex flow
centrosymmetric, thereby making it possible to simplify the problem.
exhibited self-similarity along the circumference, as stated above. As a
The temperature at the boundary was anti-centrosymmetric, and the
result, while the dimensions of the circles were different from each
temperature distribution of the initial state was uniform inside the
other, the product of tangential velocity and radius remained constant in
computational domain. In practical situations, however, the tempera­
the edge area of the vortex flow, i.e., v′ θr ′ = vθR. This means that when
ture in space typically varies in the initial state of a vortex structure.
CR was close to 1 (i.e., in the edge area of the vortex flow), rR v′θ = vθ .
′

Analysis of such a problem with a non-uniform initial temperature dis­

tribution is more complex. Analytic solutions of the present study are Substituted v θ in Eq. (8), we got
′

only valid for idealized model systems. Fortunately, power-law tem­ ( ( ) )

∂T1 ∂ ∂T1 1 ∂2 T1
perature distributions may be effective in the treatment of the problem, ρCp vθ =k R + (9)
∂(θ + C1 ) ∂R ∂R R ∂(θ + C1 )2
and a self-similar solution to the problem may be obtained [41,42].
Recommendations are made here for future research regarding the By making a comparison between Eq. (9) and Eq. (5), the tempera­
problem with a non-uniform initial temperature distribution. Further ture function was consistent at the two points, as described below
study is needed to extend the present method to non-uniform cases by
(10)
′
reference to the existing schemes [41,42] with real model systems. T1 (R, θ) = C2 T1 (r , θ + C1 )
Since the velocity and temperature at the boundary were anti- C2, C1 depended on R, r or R, CR. When R was taken as a unit, C2, C1
′
centrosymmetric, and Eq. (2) also had the symmetry, T(0, θ) = 0 K, depended only on CR. Therefore, the temperature distribution was
namely the temperature at the center of the vortex flow was zero. similar between two circles with different radii, i.e., the distribution of
Selected two points in the vortex flow. The relation between point 1 temperature exhibited self-similarity along the circumference.
and point 2 in the vortex flow is illustrated in Fig. 3. The relative radius Defining r1′ , let R > r′ > r1′ . According to Eq. (10), we got
between point 1 (R, θ) and point 2 (r′ , θ + C1) (C1 is constant) was
( ′ ′ )
(11)
′
T(R, θ) = C2 (R/r )T r1 , θ + C1 (R/r )
(4)
′
CR r = R
( ′/ ′ ) ( ′ ( ′/ ′ ) )
C1 is the phase difference or phase shift of point 2 relative to point 1, (12)
′ ′ ′
T(r , θ + C1 (R/r ) ) = C2 r r1 T r1 , θ + C1 (R/r ) + C1 r r1
and CR is the relative radius. A phase reversal or phase inversion implies

3
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

Combining Eq. (11) and Eq. (12), we got so-called regular regime of heating or cooling of a physical system when
( ′/ ′ ) ( ′ ( ′/ ′ ) ) the temporal dependence of the local temperature in any location of the
(13)
′ ′
T(R, θ) = C2 (R/r )C2 r r1 T r1 , θ + C1 (R/r ) + C1 r r1 physical system follows a simple power law. Further study is needed to
Additionally, according to Eq. (11), we got extend the present method to transient heat transfer cases by reference
( / ′) ( ′ ( / ′ )) to the existing schemes [41,42] with a dimensionless criterion of Fourier
T(R, θ) = C2 R r1 T r1 , θ + C1 R r1 (14) number.
Combining Eq. (13) and Eq. (14), we got
( / ′) ( ′ ( / ′ )) ′ ( ′/ ′ ) ( ′ ′
C2 R r1 T r1 , θ + C1 R r1 ≡ C2 (R/r )C2 r r1 T r1 , θ + C1 (R/r ) 2.3. Solution of parameters in the temperature function
( ′/ ′ ) )
+ C1 r r1 (15) D1 and D2 were unknown, and r1′ must be close to R. According to Eq.
( / ′) ( ( ′/ ′ ) ) ( ′/ ′ ) (20), we got
(16)
′ ′
C2 R r1 = C2 (R/r )* r r1 = C2 (R/r )C2 r r1
(r′ )D2 ( (r′ ) )
(26)
′
( / ′) ( ( ′/ ′ ) ) ( ′/ ′ ) T(r , θ ) = T2 R, θ + D1 ln
(17)
′ ′
C1 R r1 = C2 (R/r )* r r1 = C1 (R/r ) + C1 r r1 R R
( ( ′) )
According to Eq. (16) and Eq. (17), we got. where T2 R, θ + D1 ln rR was temperature distribution at the bound­
( ) ( ) D2
R R ary of vortex flow. Substituting T(r′ , θ) in Eq. (7) with Eq. (26). Assuming
C2 ′ = ′ ( D2 is constant) (18)
r1 r1 R was constant, we got (see the appendix for the detailed process)
( ) ( ) (r′ ) ( ) ( )
∂T 1 D 2 D D ∂T2 1 1 ∂2 T2
C1
R R
= D1 ln ′ ( D1 is constant) (19) ρCp v′θ 2 = 2 T2 + 2 1 2 + D1 2 + (27)
′
r1 r1 R ∂θ k R R ∂θ R R ∂θ2

Substituting C1 and C2 in Eq. (11), we got Since R was constant and an independent variable of T2. T2 was
rewritten as T2(θ), which was anti-centrosymmetric and an odd func­
( ) D2 ( ( ))
R R tion. Assuming T(θ) = E1 sin (θ) þ E2 sin (2θ) + ∙ ∙ ∙ + Ei sin (iθ) + ∙ ∙
(20)
′
T(R, θ) = ′ T r1 , θ + D1 ln ′
r1 r1 ∙, i was natural number. Took out the ith term and substituted T(θ) in Eq.
(27), we got
Equation (20) describes the relationship between the boundary
(r ′ ) ( )
temperature (R) and the internal temperature (r1′ ), based on rR v′θ = vθ . D2
′
1 DD
ρCp v′θ Ei icos(iθ) ≡ 2 Ei sin(iθ) + 2 1 2 Ei icos(iθ)
When r1 is close to R, we had.
′ R k R R
( )
/ ( ) 21 1
R (r′ )D2 ( ′ )D
R − r1 2 R − r1
′
− D1 + 2
Ei i sin(iθ) (28)
1 C2 ′ = 1 = 1− ≈ 1 − D2 (21) R R
r1 R R R
To ensure the identity of (28), the solution was
Assumed there was R′ , when r ≤ R′ , T(r, θ) ≈ 0 (i.e., (( ′ ) )
( )D2 r ′ 1 D D
ρCp vθ − 2 1,i 2,i Ei icos(iθ) = 0 (29)
1 − R−RR ≈ 0), we got
′
R k R
(( ) )
R 1 1 2 D2 2
D2 = (22) D1,i 2 + i − Ei sin(iθ) = 0 (30)
R − R′ R R R
Substituting D2 into Eq. (21), we got Eliminating the terms Eiicos(iθ) and Ei sin (iθ) of the above two
/ ( )
R r ′ − R′ equations, we got
1 C2 ′ ≈ (23) (( ′ ) )
r1 R − R′ r ′ 1 D D
ρCp vθ − 2 1,i 2,i = 0 (31)
According to Eq. (19), when r1′ was close to R, we got R k R
( ) ( ) ( ′ ) ′ ( )
R R R− r R− r ( ′ ) 1 1 2 D2 2
C1 ′ = D1 ln ′ = D1 ln 1 + ′ 1 ≈ D1 ′ 1 = D1 ′ R − r1 D1,i 2 + i − =0 (32)
r1 r1 r1 r1 R R R
(24)
The above two equations can be simplified as
where D1 = D1/r1 . Due to r1 close to R, D1 was still constant.
′ ′ ′ ′
r
(33)
′
D1,i D2,i = ρCp vθ
Substituting separately C1(R/r′ ) and C2(R/r′ ) in Eq. (11), we got 2k
( ′ ( ′ )) r ′ − R′ ( )
T r1 , θ + D1 ′ R − r1 = T(R, θ) (25) D1,i 2 + 1 i2 − D2,i 2 = 0 (34)
R − R′
Solving the above equations, we had
In the above equation, R was the radius of the external circle, and R′
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
was the radius of the internal circle. Eq. (25) was used to determine the √√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
√
temperature distribution in annulus flow. √ 1 + ρCp v′θ r − 1
√ ki
For problems related to transient heat transfer, the Fourier number D1,i = (35)
2
could be an important dimensionless criterion for judging whether or
not the analytic solutions can be simplified. For example, when the √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
√√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
Fourier number is greater than or equal to 0.3, the solution of dimen­ √
√ 1 + ρCp v′θ r + 1
sionless temperature to an unsteady conjugate heat transfer problem √ ki
D2,i =i (36)
related to a disk rotating in the still air in a laminar flow regime can be 2
simplified to the first term of the Fourier series expressed in the litera­ However, it was always assumed that D1, i and D2, i were variables
ture [41,42]. This reveals one of the fundamental characteristics of the that were independent on r and θ. Therefore, assumed vθ′ r = C (C is
transient heat transfer problem [41,42], for example, an existence of a constant) to make sure D1, i and D2, i were variables independent on r and

4
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

θ. When vθ′ r = C, Eqs. (35) and (36) were rewritten as

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
√√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
√
√ ′
√ 1 + ρCp vθ kiR − 1
√
D1,i = (37)
2
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
√√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
√
√ ′ R
√ 1 + ρCp vθ ki + 1
√
D2,i = i (38)
2
( )2
When ρCp vθ 2ki >> 1, the above equations can also be rewritten as
′ r

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1
D1,i = ρCp v′θ R (39)
2ik
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
i
D2,i = ρCp v′θ R (40)
2k
D1, i and D2, i were obtained based on the assumption of vθ′ r = C.
Actually, vθ′ /r = C(ω = C). Therefore, the angular velocity was greater
than the actual velocity, causing that the theoretical value of D2, i was
greater than its actual value.
The final solution to the problem above is given by
∑ ( r )D2,i ( (r) )
T(r, θ ) = T2,i θ + D1,i ln (41)
R R
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1
D1,i = ρCp v′θ R
2ik
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
i
D2,i = ρCp v′θ R
2k

T2,i (θ) = Ei sin(iθ)

D2,i
=i
D1,i
ρCp vθ R
′
In the above equations, both D1, i and D2, i depended on k
. When
′
ρCp vθ R
k
was held constant, the temperature depended on the boundary
ρC v R
′
Fig. 4. Effect of D1, i and D2, i on temperature distribution.
conditions. An increase in pk θ would cause an increase in both D1, i and
D2, i, thereby further enhancing heat transfer effects.
The other parameters can be derived from the basic parameters the two heat transfer methods [43,44]. Therefore, only the total amount
described above or can be approximated by means of making of heat transfer was determined by solving the radial heat conduction
assumptions. equation
∂T
q(R, θ) = − k (42)
2.4. Characteristics of temperature distribution ∂r
According to Eq. (41), qi(R, θ) was
( ) ( )D2,i
r r
The phase (θ = D1,i ln ) and amplitude (A =
R R) of tempera­ D2,i (r1 )D2,i − 1 (
′ (r ) )
′
D1,i (r1 )D2,i ∂T2,i
′

( ) qi (R, θ) = − k T2,i R, θ + D1,i ln − k

r R R R r R ∂θ
ture (θ = D1,i ln R ) depended on D1, i and D2, i, as defined in Eq. (41). To
(43)
determine the relation between temperature and Rr at various D1, i and D2, ( ( ′) ) ( ( ′))
i, D1, i varied from 0.2 to 6. The phase of temperature at various D1, i is Set T2,i R, θ + D1,i ln rR = Tmax,i cos iθ + D1,i ln rR , we got
shown in Fig. 4(a). A decrease in Rr caused an increase in θ. When D1, i ≤
D2,i (r1 )D2,i − 1 ( (r ′ ) )
′
1, θ was too small to transfer a lot of heat by the swirling flow. The qi (R, θ) = − k Tmax,i cos iθ + D1,i ln
relation between Rr and An under various D2, i is shown in Fig. 4(b). When R R R
D1,i (r1 )D2,i ( (r′ ) )
′
D2, i > 5, the temperature in the area (Rr < 0.6) was close to 0 K, and +k Tmax,i sin iθ + D1,i ln (44)
therefore the swirling flow played an important role in the heat transfer r R R
process. When r′ was close to R, Eq. (43) was
D2,i D1,i
qi (R, θ) = − k Tmax,i cos(iθ) + k Tmax,i sin(iθ) (45)
2.5. Rate of heat flow of vortex flow R R
D
When i > 1, the integral of − k R2,i Tmax,i cos(iθ) from 0 to π equaled to 0.
The total amount of heat transfer by vortex flow included thermal
conduction and convection by vortex flow. It is difficult to distinguish Therefore, only the situation (i = 1) needed to be considered, where D2, i

5
W. Bi et al.
= D1, i. qi(R, θ) was given by
√̅̅̅ D1,i=1
qi=1 (R, θ) = 2k Tmax,i sin(iθ + 0.25*π) (46)
R
The total amount of heat transfer could be calculated by the integral
of qi=1(R, θ)
√̅̅̅
Qtotal = 2kD1,i (Tmax − Tmin ) (47)
In the above derivation, it was assumed that D2, i = D1, i. In fact,
however, D1, i was not exactly equal to D2, i. Therefore, the value solved
by Eq. (47) was slightly less than the real value. Qtotal did not related to
the wave pattern of the boundary condition of temperature (T2), just
proportional to difference between Tmax and Tmin.
If the diameter of vortex flow was used as the spacing of temperature
difference, the relative maximum thermal conductivity was
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Qmax 1 ρCp ω
kr = = (48)
2Rk 2 k
Therefore, the thermal conductivity increased as the value of kr was
small, compared to ρCpω. For water, ρ, Cp was much larger than kr. Even
if ω was very small, such as 1 × 10− 4, vortex flow could still obtain the
obvious heat transfer effect. For air, if the humidity or water content was
large, the relative heat transfer coefficient would also increase
significantly.
3. Validation of analytical solution
Since Eq. (41) was a solution based on certain assumptions, the
correctness should be validated. Eq. (41) was validated by performing
the following steps.
1) Correctness of the velocity and temperature distribution at certain
conditions (Section 3.2).
D1 and D2 were determined by performing numerical simulations,
and compared with those obtained from Eq. (41).
2) Correctness of the dimensionless number defined (Section 3.3).
Only the parameters were varied to determine whether the temper­
ature distribution was consistent while remaining the same dimension­
less number.
3) Correctness of the parameters (Section 3.4).
Based on the above results, the dimensional number determined the
temperature distribution. A change of any parameter was equivalent to a
change of the dimensional number. Therefore, only one parameter was
modified and validated, thereby validating the correctness of all
parameters.
4) Effect of temperature boundary conditions on temperature dis­
tribution (Section 3.5).
5) Rate of heat transfer.
3.1. Validation method
Equation (41) was derived on the basis of the following assumptions:
1) The streamline of a vortex flow was circular;
2) The function of the boundary temperature distribution was an odd
function;
3) The velocity distribution was vθ′ r = C (C is constant).
Validation of the model is conducted, such as the distribution of
velocity and temperature.
The geometrical model was shown in Fig. 5, where the vortex radius
was R, the angular velocity was ω, and the temperature function at the
boundary was T2. The vortex radius was 1.00R, 0.95R, 0.90R, 0.85R,
0.80R, 0.75R, and 0.70R, respectively. To facilitate subsequent analysis
of the problem, a relative temperature scale was used, as defined in
detail above. More specifically, the maximum and minimum
6
International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005
Fig. 5. Geometrical model and the related parameters.
temperatures at the boundary were defined as 1 K and − 1 K, respec­
tively. In addition, the temperature in the central region was defined as
0 K. Furthermore, an anti-centrosymmetric boundary condition was
used to define the temperature at the domain boundary.
The steady-state flow governing equation was given by
[ ( ]
ρ(u∙∇)u = ∇∙ − pI + μ ∇u + (∇u)T + F (49)
ρ∇∙u = 0 (50)
where F = 0 due to the absence of the external force field. The boundary
velocity was u = ωR.
The steady-state temperature governing equation was given by
ρCp u∙∇T − ∇∙kT = q0 (51)
where there is no internal heat source, q0 = 0. Temperature boundary
conditions were used
Tmax = cosθ (52)
The standard reference conditions (RC) were used: radius: 1.0 m,
density: 1000 kg/m3, specific heat capacity: 4200 J/(kg⋅K), thermal
conductivity: 0.58 W/(m⋅K), and tangential velocity: 0.00001 m/s. The
boundary temperature is dimensionless. Therefore, the highest tem­
perature is 1 K, and the lowest temperature is − 1 K. The distribution
function is √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
x
2 2
, with initial conditions T0 = 0.
x +y
3.2. Validation of velocity and temperature distribution
The heat transfer process was simulated at the standard reference
conditions defined above to validate the correctness of the distribution
of both velocity and temperature in the vortex flow. The steady-state
results obtained for the velocity along the x axis were presented in
Fig. 6. The velocity was proportional to the radius and increased from
0 to 1 × 10− 5 m/s. Therefore, the angular velocity was constant, which
was consistent with the velocity distribution of the forced vortex. In
addition, the viscosity (μ) did not affect the velocity distribution. The
results obtained for the temperature distribution were presented in
Fig. 7. Hot and cold flows spiral into each other, and the temperature in
the middle area was close to zero K (Fig. 7(a)). As the circumference
increased, the phase of temperature curve (θ) moved right, and the
temperature amplitude decreased (Fig. 7(b)). The phase of temperature
curve (θ) was slightly larger than the logarithm of the temperature
amplitude ∣ ln (A)∣, and both were directly proportional to the radius R
(Fig. 7(c)). Hot and cold flows spiral each other along the Archimedean
spiral (Fig. 7(a)), but the increase or decrease in temperature could be
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

Fig. 6. Relation between the vortex radius and the velocity along the x axis.

obtained by the logarithmic law (Fig. 7(c)), as determined by Eq. (41).

The numerical and theoretical values on the data circles at the
standard reference conditions are shown in Table 1. Numerical values
were obtained by performing simulations, and theoretical values were
obtained by solving Eq. (41). The theoretical values of D1 and D2 were
almost the same, but were larger than their numerical values. The
theoretical values of D1 were very close to their numerical values, and
the relative error between theoretical and numerical values was less
than 2%. The ratio of D2 to D1 was almost constant (0.93).

3.3. Validation of dimensionless number in heat transfer of vortex flow

ρC v R
′
A dimensionless Number ( pk θ ) was defined, and its correctness was
validated. The temperature distribution was determined at the standard
reference conditions, and compared with that at other conditions with
the same dimensionless Number. The temperature distribution is shown
in Fig. 8. There were five parameters included in the dimensionless
number, and the correctness was validated by changing these parame­
ters, respectively. At all the conditions the temperature distribution did
not change, therefore validating the correctness of the dimensionless
number.

3.4. Validation of the effect of parameters on temperature

The temperature distribution depended on the dimensionless num­

ber defined above. For simplification, only one of the parameters was
varied to determine the effect of the dimensionless number. The angular
velocity increases by twice as that defined at the standard reference
conditions, keeping the other parameters unchanged. The temperature Fig. 7. Temperature distribution within the vortex flow at the standard refer­
distribution at the reference conditions RC1 is shown in Fig. 9. The area ence conditions RC.
of the isothermal region increased (Figs. 8(a), 9(b) and 9(b)), but the
temperature amplitude decreased (Figs. 7(b) and 9(b)). Additionally, the
phase of temperature curve (θ) moved right (Figs. 7(b) and 9(b)), and θ Table 1
√̅̅̅ Comparison of numerical and theoretical values at the standard reference
and ∣ ln (A)∣ were separately 2 times as much as those at the standard
conditions.
reference conditions (Figs. 7(c) and 9(c)), as determined by Eq. (41).
r Numerical values Theoretical values Relative errors
The numerical and theoretical values on the data circles at the
R
reference conditions RC1 are shown in Table 2. The theoretical values of D1 D2 D2 D1 D2
D1 and D2 were almost the same. The theoretical values of D1 were very D1

close to their numerical values, and the relative error between theoret­ 0.95 5.76 5.39 0.94 5.86 1.79% 8.10%
0.90 5.67 5.24 0.92 5.71 0.67% 8.21%
ical and numerical values was less than 2%. The relative error of D2 was
√̅̅̅ 0.85 5.46 5.09 0.93 5.55 1.58% 8.25%
approximately 6%. The ratio of D1 at RC1 to that at RC was 2, as 0.80 5.30 4.93 0.93 5.38 1.52% 8.40%
defined by Eq. (41). The ratio of D2 to D1 was almost constant (0.94). 0.75 5.18 4.76 0.92 5.21 0.60% 8.66%
0.70 5.01 4.60 0.92 5.03 0.48% 8.63%

7
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

Fig. 9. Temperature distribution within the vortex flow at the reference con­
ditions RC1.

Table 2
Comparison of numerical and theoretical values at the reference conditions RC1.
r Numerical values Theoretical Relative errors
R values
D1 D2 D2 D1 (RC1) D1 D2
D1 D1 (RC)

0.95 8.3 7.79 0.94 1.44 8.29 − 0.12% 6.03%

0.90 8.2 7.58 0.92 1.45 8.07 − 1.61% 6.07%
0.85 7.9 7.36 0.93 1.45 7.85 − 0.64% 6.24%
0.80 7.6 7.14 0.94 1.43 7.61 0.13% 6.18%
0.75 7.3 6.90 0.95 1.40 7.37 0.95% 6.38%
0.70 7.1 6.67 0.94 1.41 7.12 0.28% 6.32%

3.5. Validation of temperature distribution at the second-order

Fig. 8. Comparison of temperature distribution with the same dimension­
less number.
temperature boundary conditions
Actually, it is difficult to completely satisfy first-order temperature
boundary conditions. The temperature would fall rapidly at the second-
order temperature boundary conditions (RC2), as defined by Eq. (41).
The temperature distribution at the reference conditions RC2 is shown in

8
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

D2
D1 was close to 2 and were almost the same as the theoretical values of
D2
D1. Therelative error between theoretical and numerical values was less
than 5%. The relative error of D2 was approximately 6%. The ratio of D1
√̅̅̅
at RC1 to that at RC was 2, as defined by Eq. (41). The ratio of D2 to D1
was almost constant (0.94), as defined by Eq. (41).

3.6. Validation of heat transfer rate

According to the following equation

∂T ∂T ∂T
= cosφ + sinφ (53)
∂l ∂l ∂l
The rate of heat transfer at different angular velocities is summarized
in Table 4. The ratio of numerical to theoretical value was almost con­
stant (0.88), and was less than 1.0 because the theoretical value of D1
was less than its real value. In practical application, a correction factor of
0.88 is suggested to obtain the rate of heat transfer.

3.7. Validation of temperature distribution at single sawtooth temperature

boundary conditions

A sawtooth temperature boundary condition was defined at the

boundary of vortex flow (the black solid line in Fig. 11(b)). The tem­
perature distribution within the vortex flow is shown in Fig. 11(a). The
temperature distribution at single sawtooth temperature boundary
conditions is very similar to that at the standard reference conditions
(Figs. 11(a) and 7(a)). The temperature along various circumferences
gradually tended to sine function as the radius decreased (Fig. 11(b)),
which indicated that the temperature decayed more rapidly with higher
order functions.

4. Conclusion

The temperature distribution of forced vortex was solved with an

anti-centrosymmetric temperature boundary condition. The general
form of the solution to the vortex flow problem was derived from the
self-similarity properties of vortex flow along the radius direction, and
its correctness was validated. The following conclusions can be made.

1) Defined a dimensionless number to characterize the temperature

distribution of vortex flow.

ρC v R
′
The dimensionless number ( pk θ ) represented the ratio of convec­
Fig. 10. Temperature distribution within the vortex flow at the reference
tion to thermal conduction, and can be used to accurately describe the
conditions RC2.
temperature distribution of vortex flow.

Fig. 10. The temperature along various circumferences included two 2) The general forms of the solution were obtained and their correctness
periods in the interval of 0–2π (Fig. 10(b)). The relation between θ and ∣ was validated.
ln (A)∣ differed from that at the first-order temperature boundary con­
ditions, and their ratio was close to 2 (Fig. 10(c)). a) temperature distribution within forced vortex
The numerical and theoretical values on the data circles at the
reference conditions RC2 are shown in Table 3. The numerical values of
Table 4
Comparison of numerical and theoretical values of the heat transfer rate at the
standard reference conditions.
Table 3
Comparison of numerical and theoretical values at the reference conditions RC2. Angular velocity Numerical values Theoretical values Ratios
6
r Numerical values Theoretical values Relative errors 5.0 £ 10− 6.19 6.98 0.886
6
R 6.0 £ 10− 6.77 7.65 0.885
D1 D2 D2 D1 D2 D2 D1 D2 7.0 £ 10− 6
7.29 8.26 0.883
D1 D1 8.0 £ 10− 6
7.78 8.83 0.881
6
0.95 4.35 7.86 1.81 4.15 8.29 2.00 4.83% − 5.14% 9.0 £ 10− 8.23 9.36 0.878
5
0.90 4.06 7.67 1.89 4.04 8.07 2.00 0.56% − 4.91% 1.0 £ 10− 8.64 9.87 0.876
5
0.85 3.75 7.46 1.99 3.92 7.84 2.00 − 4.30% − 4.90% 1.1 £ 10− 9.03 10.4 0.873
5
0.80 3.75 7.23 1.93 3.80 7.61 2.00 − 1.50% − 4.97% 1.2 £ 10− 9.40 10.8 0.870
5
0.75 3.63 7.01 1.93 3.68 7.36 2.00 − 1.51% − 4.84% 1.3 £ 10− 9.76 11.3 0.867
5
0.70 3.51 6.78 1.93 3.56 7.12 2.00 − 1.43% − 4.81% 1.4 £ 10− 10.10 11.7 0.864

9
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

3) The rate of heat transfer was determined.

√̅̅̅
Q = 2kD1,i=1 (Tmax − Tmin )

Heat transfer coefficient

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Q 1 ρC p ω
kr = =
2Rk 2 k
A correction factor of 0.88 is suggested for the above two
expressions.

4) The temperature distribution had been characterized.

a) When the temperature at the center was close to the average

temperature, the difference in temperature phase is significant, and
convection played a dominant role in the heat transfer process.
b) On the data circles the temperature gradually tended to sine
function as their radius decreased.
Further study is needed, for example, the temperature distribution at
free temperature boundary conditions and at non-circular vortex flow
conditions, and the practical applications of the equation.
Further study is also needed to extensively validate the model by
experiments. Validation is an iterative process that takes place
throughout the development of the model. While the model has been
validated analytically, it should be extensively validated by experiments
to the degree needed for the model’s intended purpose or application. To
check the accuracy of the model’s representation of the real system, the
model within its domain of applicability should possess a satisfactory
range of accuracy consistent with the intended application of the model.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Fig. 11. Temperature distribution within the vortex flow at single sawtooth
temperature boundary conditions. Wenyan Bi: Software, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation,
Visualization, Resources. Jianfeng Wan: Conceptualization, Method­
∑ ( r )D2,i ( (r) ) ology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data cura­
T(r, θ ) =
R
T2,i θ + D1,i ln
R tion, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Funding
acquisition. Junjie Chen: Formal analysis, Investigation, Data curation,
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
′ 1 Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
D1,i = ρCp vθ R
2ik Funding acquisition. Xinmin Zhang: Resources, Project administration.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
D2,i = ρCp v′θ R
i Declaration of Competing Interest
2k
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
T2,i (θ) = Ei sin(iθ)
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
At the first and second-order temperature boundary conditions, the the work reported in this paper.
error of D1, i and D2, i was less than 5 and 10%, respectively, and D2
D1
remained nearly constant. Acknowledgement
b) The temperature distribution in the annulus flow
( ′ ( This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
′ )) r ′ − R′
T r1 , θ + D1 ′ R − r1 = T(R, θ) of China (No. 51506048) and the Key Scientific and Technological
R − R′
Project of Henan Province (Nos. 162102210067 and 162102310152).

Appendix A. Appendix

( ′ ) (r′ )D2 ( (r′ ) )

T r1 , θ = T2 R, θ + D1 ln (1)
R R
( ( ) )
(r′ )D2 ∂T2 ∂ ∂2 T
1 ′ ∂T 1
ρCp v′θ = r + (2)
R ∂(θ + C1 ) k ∂r ′ ∂r′ r′ ∂(θ + C1 )2

Substituting T(r1′ , θ) in Eq. (2) with Eq. (1), we got

10
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

( ( ) )
∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2 T
ρCp v′θ = r′ ′ + ′
∂(θ + C1 ) k ∂r′ ∂r r ∂(θ + C1 )2
( ( ) )
∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂2 T
ρCp v′θ = r′ ′ + ′
∂(θ) k ∂r ′ ∂r r ∂(θ)2
( )
∂T 1 ∂T ∂2 T 1 ∂2 T
ρ Cp v′θ = + r′ 2
+ ′ 2
∂(θ) k ∂r′ ∂(r )
′ r ∂θ

There were three terms on the right of the above equation

( ′ )D2 − 1 ( ′ )D2
(1) ∂∂rT′ = DR2 rR T2 + D1 rR ∂T2 1
∂θ r
( ( ) ( ′ )D2 ) ( ′ )D2 − 2 ( ′ )D2 − ( ′ )D2 − ( ′ )D2 ( ′ )D2
2 ′ D2 − 1 1 1
∂2 T2 1
(2) r ∂∂(rT′ )22 = r ∂∂r DR2 rR T2 + D1 rR ∂T2 1
∂θ r = DR2 D2R− 1 rR Tr + D1 DR2 rR ∂T2
∂θ + D1 DR2 r
R
∂T2
∂θ + D1 2 r
R ∂θ2 r
− D1 r
R
∂T2 1
∂θ r =

D2 D2 − 1 (r )D2 − 2 D1 D2 (r )D2 − 1 ∂T2 (r′ )D2 ∂2 T 1 (r′ )D2 ∂T 1

′ ′
2 2
Tr + 2 + D1 2 − D1 =
R R R R R ∂θ R ∂(θ) r 2 R ∂θ r
( (r′ )D2 1 ) ∂T
D2 D2 − 1 (r )D2 − 2 D1 D2 (r )D2 − 1 (r′ )D2 1 ∂2 T
′ ′
2 2
rT + 2 − D1 + D1 2
R R R R R R r ∂θ R r ∂θ2
2
( ′ )D2 2
(3) r1′ ∂∂θT2 = r1′ rR ∂∂θT22
(1) þ (2) þ (3), we got
( )
(r′ )D2 ∂T2 ′ ∂2 T2 1 ∂2 T2
′ ∂T2 1
ρC p v θ = +r + =
R ∂θ k ∂r′ ∂(r′ )2 r′ ∂θ2
( (r′ )D2 1 ) ∂T
D2 (r )D2 − 1 (r′ )D2 1 ∂T D D − 1 (r′ )D2 − 2 D1 D2 (r )D2 − 1 (r′ )D2 1 ∂2 T 1 (r )D2 ∂2 T2
′ ′ ′
2 2 2 2 2
T + D1 + rT + 2 − D1 + D1 2 2
+ ′ =
R R R r ∂θ R R R R R R r ∂θ R r ∂θ r R ∂θ2
( ) ( ) ( ( ′) )
D2 (r )D2 − 1 D2 D2 − 1 (r )D2 − 2 D1 D2 (r )D2 − 1 ∂T2 r D2 1 1 (r )D2 ∂2 T2
′ ′ ′ ′

+ r T+ 2 + D1 2 + ′
R R R R R R R ∂θ R r r R ∂θ2

namely,
(r′ )D2 ( ) ( ) ( )
D2 (r )D2 − 1 D2 D2 − 1 (r )D2 − 2 D1 D2 (r )D2 − (r )D2 1 1 (r )D2
′ ′ ′ ′ ′
∂T2 1 1 ∂T2 ∂2 T2
ρCp v′θ = + r T+ 2 + D1 2 +
R ∂θ k R R R R R R R ∂θ R r r′ R ∂θ 2
( ′ )D2 − 1
Both sides were divided by r
R
, we got

(r ′ ) ( ) ( )
∂T2 1 D2 2 D1 D2 ∂T2 1 1 ∂2 T2
ρCp v′θ = T+ 2 + D1 2 +
R ∂θ k R R ∂θ R R ∂θ2
⎧ ′ r
⎨ D1,i D2,i = ρCp vθ
2k
⎩( )
D1,i 2 + 1 i2 − D2,i 2 = 0

Substituting D2, i in D2,i = ρCp vθ 2kr /D1,i with ρCp vθ 2kr /D1,i , we got
′ ′

⎛ ⎞2
′
( )2 ρ Cp vθ 2kr
D1,i 2
+1 i − ⎝ ⎠ =0
D1,i

Multiplied both sides of the above equation by D1,i 2 , we got.

( )2
i2 D1,i 4 þi2 D1,i 2 − ρCp vθ 2k
r
=0
′

√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
2 ′ ri ′ 1
− i ± i4 + 4 ρCp vθ 2k − 1 ± 1 + 4 ρCp vθ 2ki
D1,i 2 = =
2i2 2
Negative was nonsense, and we got
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) 2
r ′
1 + 4 ρCp vθ 2ki − 1
D1,i 2 =
2
( ′ r
)2 /
D2,i 2 = ρCp vθ D1,i 2
2k

11
W. Bi et al. International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer 134 (2022) 106005

/(√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
( ′ r
)2 ( )2
′ r
= 2 ρCp vθ 1 + 4 ρCp vθ − 1
2k 2ki
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( ) 2
r ′
1 + 4 ρCp vθ 2ki +1
2
=i
2

hence,
⎧ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
̅
⎪ √√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
⎪
⎪ √ ′ r
⎪ √
⎪
⎪
⎪ √ 1 + 4 ρCp vθ 2ki − 1
⎪
⎨ D1,i =
⎪
2
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
⎪
⎪ √√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2
⎪
⎪ √ ′ r
⎪
⎪ √ 1 + 4 ρ C v + 1
⎪
⎪ √ p θ
2ki
⎪
⎩ D2,i = i
2

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