23rd International Symposium on Transport Phenomena

Auckland, New Zealand

1922 November 2012

Numerical Analysis on Effectiveness-NTU of Microchannel Heat Exchangers

K. Koyama1 and H. Arima1

1
Institute of Ocean Energy, Saga University
1-48 Kubara-aza, Hirao, Yamashiro-machi, Imari, Saga 849-4256, Japan

Abstract z coordinate
effectiveness
Heat transfer characteristics of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow f thermal conductivity of the working fluid
microchannel heat exchangers are investigated numerically. The kinematic viscosity
heat exchangers are modeled as a three-dimensional conjugate density
heat transfer problem. The working fluid is air and substrate of
the heat exchangers is stainless steel. The fluid flow is assumed Introduction
to be steady and incompressible. The governing equations are
discretized by the finite volume method and SIMPLE algorithm Microscale devices have been developed in recent decades since
is used to calculate the velocity field. The numerical results show Tuckerman and Pease [1] manufactured a heat transfer equipment
that heat conduction in the partition wall affects heat transfer which consists of microchannels. A microchannel heat exchanger
phenomena of the microchannel heat exchangers. The relations of is one of the microscale devices. Research and development of a
effectiveness-NTU are compared among the heat exchangers. microchannel heat exchanger is greatly expected in various
Heat conduction in the partition wall deteriorates effectiveness of engineering fields such as mechanical, chemical, aerospace,
the microchannel heat exchangers. Especially, effectiveness of cryogenics, etc.
the counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger is more likely to Bier et al. [2] have manufactured a cross-flow microchannel heat
be affected by heat conduction in the partition wall. Conventional exchanger by precision cutting. They tested the heat exchanger
effectiveness-NTU method yields a negative or infinite heat with water as a working fluid. Friedrich and Kang [3] have
transfer coefficient on the cross-flow microchannel heat fabricated a micro cross-flow heat exchanger with trapezoidal-
exchanger under a certain condition. The authors conclude that shaped channels. Alm et al. [4] have manufactured ceramic
conventional effectiveness-NTU relationship cannot be employed counter-flow and cross-flow microchannel heat exchangers. The
for microchannel heat exchangers due to heat conduction in the experimental results were compared with estimated ones by
partition wall. A new effectiveness-NTU relationship is required standard heat exchanger correlations and numerical simulations
for microchannel heat exchangers. using a porous body approach. Bier et al. [5] have tested cross-
flow microchannel heat exchangers using nitrogen, helium, and
Nomenclature argon gases. To estimate overall heat transfer coefficient, they
proposed a homogeneous model used in a packed bed. Miwa et al.
a thermal diffusivity [6] have conducted numerical computations on gas-to-gas
A heat transfer area parallel- and counter-flow microchannel heat exchangers with
Ac cross sectional area of the channel no-thickness partition wall. They discussed effects of
cp specific heat at constant pressure compressibility of gaseous flow. Hasan et al. [7] have carried out
Dh hydraulic diameter numerical simulation to evaluate the effect of size and shape of
f friction factor the channels on performance of a counter-flow microchannel heat
h channel height exchanger. They found that circular channels gave the best
L channel length thermal and hydraulic performance among various channel
m& mass flow rate shapes. Kang et al. [8] have developed a theoretical model to
NTU number of transfer units predict thermal and fluidic characteristics of a micro cross-flow
Nu Nusselt number heat exchanger. They showed that the average temperature of the
p pressure hot and cold side flow significantly affects the heat transfer rate
qw heat flux on the partition wall surface and the pressure drop at the same effectiveness. Kee et al., [9]
Rc capacity ratio have manufactured and evaluated ceramic compact counter-flow
Re Reynolds number microchannel heat exchanger. They achieved the tests of the heat
t partition wall thickness exchanger using inlet airflow up to 750 C.
T temperature
Tb bulk temperature Most microchannel heat exchanger consists of stack of a sheet-
difference between bulk temperature and partition wall like heat transfer plate. The heat transfer plate, or partition wall,
Tbw of a microchannel heat exchanger is thick compared with a
temperature
Tw partition wall temperature channel dimensions since the channel is narrowed. Thermal
Tw averaged temperature of the duct energy is exchanged via heat conduction in the partition wall.
Heat conduction in the partition wall on a conventional-sized heat
u velocity component in x-direction exchanger is neglected because the wall is thin. In contrast, heat
U overall heat transfer coefficient conduction in the partition wall should not be neglected on a
v velocity component in y-direction microchannel heat exchanger since the wall is thick.
w velocity component in z-direction
W channel width Earlier works have revealed that heat conduction in a partition
x coordinate wall affects thermal performance of a heat exchanger. Gupta et al.
y coordinate [10] have conducted numerical calculations of counter-flow
microchannel heat exchangers considering the effect of heat leak is an order of 10-4 (dimensions of the microchannel heat
and longitudinal conduction. Al-Bakhit et al. [11] have conducted exchangers are presented in Table 1). This value assures that the
numerical calculations of a parallel-flow heat exchanger. They fluid flow in the heat exchangers can be treated as continuum.
pointed out that three-dimensional simulation is required for Constant thermophysical properties are assumed since change of
microchannel heat exchangers because thin wall approximation is the properties depending on temperature variation is small in the
not satisfied. Stief et al. [12] have conducted simulations to temperature range of this study. Heat generation or absorption
determine optimal thermal conductivity of a micro heat does not exist in the heat exchanger. Gravitational force, or
exchanger. Peterson [13] has examined a micro counter-flow heat buoyancy, is neglected since forced convection dominates the
exchanger which includes axial heat conduction. He suggested transport phenomena. Based on the assumptions governing
using very low thermal conductive material for micro counter- equations, mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations
flow heat exchangers. for the fluid flow, and heat conduction equation for the partition
wall, are as follows:
A microchannel heat exchanger is classified into parallel-,
counter-, and cross-flow one with respect to direction of working
fluid. Thermal performance differs among the three modes of u v w
+ + =0 (1)
heat exchangers. Especially, for a microchannel heat exchanger, x y z
effect of heat conduction in a partition wall on thermal
performance will depend on the types of heat exchangers since a
partition wall is thick. An investigation of an effect of heat (uu ) (uv ) (uw) 1 p 2u 2u 2u
conduction in a partition wall of microchannel heat exchangers is + + = + 2 + 2 + 2
x y z x x y z
required for its development and adequate utilization. The
objective of this study is to investigate effect of heat conduction (2)
in a partition wall of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers.
(uv ) (vv ) (vw) 1 p 2v 2v 2v
+ + = + 2 + 2 + 2
x y z y x y z
Numerical Analysis
Analytical Model (3)

A heat exchanger consists of a hot fluid flow passage, cold fluid

flow passage, and solid partition wall which separates the (uw) (vw) (ww) 1 p 2w 2w 2w
+ + = + 2 + 2 + 2
passages. A sheet-like heat transfer plate with channel array is x y z z x y z
often stacked for a microchannel heat exchanger. However, the
simplest configuration is suitable to investigate fundamental (4)
characteristics of a heat exchanger.
Figure 1 shows an analytical model of a parallel- and counter- (uT ) (vT ) (wT ) 2T 2T 2T
+ + = a 2 + 2 + 2 (5)
flow microchannel heat exchanger, which consists of two x y z x y z
rectangular microchannels and a partition wall. The working fluid
is supplied with uniform velocity and temperature at inlet of the
heat exchanger. Heat is transferred through the partition wall by 2T 2T 2T
heat conduction. For the counter-flow mode, the fluid flow is + + =0 (6)
supplied in opposite direction. Therefore an analytical model is x 2 y 2 z 2
the same as parallel-flow mode except the fluid flow direction.
Numerical Procedure
For the cross-flow mode, the working fluid flows in
perpendicular direction each other. The lower channel in Figure 1 The governing equations are discretized by the finite volume
is turned 90 degrees. An analytical model of the cross-flow method and SIMPLE algorithm [14] is used to calculate velocity
microchannel heat exchanger is essentially same as the parallel- field. The differential schemes are as follows; power low scheme
and counter-flow modes except the fluid flow direction. The for the convective term, 2nd order central difference scheme for
cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger in this study is classified the diffusive term. The no-slip boundary condition is applied on
as that in which both streams are mixed. the partition wall and channel surface. The outer surface of the
heat exchanger is adiabatic. The working fluid is air and substrate
Governing Equations
of the heat exchangers is stainless steel. Table 1 lists numerical
The microchannel heat exchangers in this study are modeled as a conditions.
three-dimensional conjugate heat transfer problem. The fluid
flows are assumed to be steady and incompressible. For the Code Validation
microchannel heat exchanger used in this study, Knudsen number
Numerical code is validated before conducting numerical
calculations for the microchannel heat exchangers. Fluid flow
and heat transfer problem of a peripherally-heated single square

L (mm) W (mm) h (m) t (m)

h
L 20 20 200 200
t
z h Inlet velocity(m/s) Inlet Temperature(K)
y
0 W Hot passage Cold passage Hot passage Cold passage
x
4.3-20.1 4.3-20.1 350 300
Figure 1. Analytical model of the parallel- and counter-flow Note; Rc = 1.0.
microchannel heat exchangers. Table 1. Numerical conditions.
duct is addressed for a preliminary calculation. The duct is
subjected to uniform heat flux. Governing equations are the same
as those for the microchannel heat exchangers except heat
conduction equation (equation (6)). Heat conduction equation is
not included in this case. Numerical procedure is the same as that
for the microchannel heat exchangers. The cross sectional
dimensions are 1 cm 1 cm while the duct length is 50 cm. This
size gives fully developed flow at the exit of the duct. Friction
factor and Nusselt number are checked to validate the numerical
code used in this study.
Figure 2(a) shows the product of friction factor and Reynolds
number of the duct. The friction factor f is defined by
2pDh
f =
Lv 2
The value of fRe decreases rapidly in the developing region. Then
fRe takes a constant value since the flow is fully developed. The
solid line in Figure 2(a) shows fRe obtained by Shah and London
[15] for fully developed flow in a square duct. The numerical
result of fRe is somewhat smaller than that obtained by Shah and
London [15]. However, the numerical result is calculated by
using coarse grids (xyz = 112111). Authors have concluded
that the numerical result reasonably agrees with conventional
result.
Figure 2(b) shows Nusselt number variation along the flow
direction of the duct. Nusselt number Nu is defined by
qw Dh
Nu =
(
f Tw Tb
factor becomes a constant since the flow is fully developed.
Figure 3 also shows fRe obtained by Shah and London [15] for
fully developed flow in the duct of which the dimension is the
same as the microchannel heat exchanger investigated in this
study. The fRe obtained by the numerical calculation is
approximately three times as large as that obtained by Shah and
London [15].
The friction factor, or fRe, of the counter- and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers are the same as those of the
parallel-flow mode shown in Figure 3. In this study the velocity
field is independent from the temperature field. Thermophysical
properties are assumed as constant and buoyancy driven flow is
neglected. The velocity fields of the three modes of the heat
exchangers are the same except fluid flow direction.
(7)
Temperature distribution
Overall temperature distribution of the heat exchangers is
discussed in this section. Figure 4 shows the temperature
distribution of the microchannel heat exchangers. The numerical
conditions are: The inlet velocities in both channels are 10 m/s,
inlet temperature of the hot passage is 350 K while that of the
cold passage is 300 K.
The working fluid temperature in the hot passage decreases
gradually while that in the cold passage increases gradually in all
modes of the heat exchangers. In the parallel-flow mode the
temperatures of the working fluids are nearly the same as that of
the partition wall at the outlet. This means that the thermal
energy is completely exchanged in the heat exchanger. In the
counter- and cross-flow modes the partition wall temperature
near the inlet of the hot passage is hotter while that near the inlet
) (8)

600
The value of Nu decreases rapidly in the developing region. Then fReH

Nu takes a constant value since the flow is fully developed. The fReC

solid line in Figure 2(b) shows Nusselt number obtained by Shah Shah and
London(6)
400
and London [15] for fully developed flow in a square duct. The
fully developed Nusselt number obtained by the numerical
fRe

calculation reasonably agrees with Shah and Londons results.

200
From above results the authors have concluded that the numerical
code for this study is validated.
0
Results and Discussion 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm)
Friction factor Figure 3. Product of friction factor and Reynolds number of
In this section friction factor of the microchannel heat exchanger the parallel-flow microchannel heat exchanger.
is discussed to explore its hydrodynamic characteristics. The inlet
velocities of the hot and cold fluid flow are 10 m/s and this
results in Reynolds number Re = 256. Figure 3 shows the product
of friction factor and Reynolds number fRe, where the friction
factor is defined by equation (7). The friction factor decreases
rapidly near the inlet of the heat exchanger. Then the friction

150 20
Numerical Numerical
Shah and
London [15]
15
Shah and
London [15] (a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.
100
fRe

10
Nu

50
5
300 310 320 330 340 350
Temperature [K]
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
y (mm) y (mm)

(a) Product of friction factor (b) Nusselt number. (c) Cross-flow.

and Reynolds number.
Figure 4. Overall temperature distribution of the microchannel
Figure 2. Code validation using a square duct.
heat exchangers.
of the cold passage is colder than that of the entire part of the qw Dh
partition wall. The effect of heat conduction on heat transfer Nu = (10)
characteristics should differ among the modes of the f Tbw
microchannel heat exchangers.
where Tbw is the difference between bulk temperature of fluid
Bulk temperature flow and temperature of partition wall surface: for the hot
passage
In this section bulk temperature of the microchannel heat
exchangers is discussed. The numerical conditions are the same
as discussed in the previous sections. Bulk temperature Tb is Tbw = Tb Tw (11)
defined as:
for the cold passage

A vTdAc Tbw = Tw Tb (12)

Tb = c
(9)
A vdAc c
Figure 5(a) shows the bulk temperature variation of the parallel-
flow mode. The temperature of the hot fluid decreases gradually
while that of the cold fluid increases gradually. The bulk
temperatures approach intermediate of the inlet temperatures.
The variation rates of increase and decrease are the same since
the mass flow rates of both working fluids are balanced.
Figure 5(b) shows the bulk temperature variation of the counter-
flow mode. The temperature of the hot fluid decreases linearly
while that of the cold fluid increases linearly. For a conventional-
sized counter-flow heat exchanger with balanced flow rates the
bulk temperatures vary in parallel. The microchannel heat
exchanger in this study shows similar trend as conventional-sized
one. In the counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger heat
conduction in the partition wall does not affect the trace of the
variation of the bulk temperature.
Figure 5(c) shows the bulk temperature variation of the cross-
flow mode. The temperatures vary along the channel as well as
those of other configurations. However temperature variation rate
is less than that of the counter-flow mode. It is well known that a
conventional-sized counter-flow heat exchanger shows the best
efficiency whereas parallel-flow one shows the lowest efficiency.
Figure 5 implies that an order of efficiency of the microchannel
heat exchangers in this study is the same trend as that of
conventional-sized one.
Nusselt number
In this section Nusselt number of the microchannel heat
exchangers is discussed. Nusselt number Nu is defined as:
Figure 6(a) shows Nusselt number variation along the channel of
the parallel-flow mode. Nusselt number decreases rapidly near
the inlet. This is due to the effect of developing region. Nusselt
number becomes constant after the flow is developed. Figure 6(a)
also shows Nusselt number with constant wall temperature NuT
and that with constant wall heat flux NuH1 based on Shah and
London [15]. Nusselt number of the microchannel heat exchanger
obtained by numerical calculation is larger than that obtained by
Shah and London [15]. Figure 6(b) shows Nusselt number
variation along the channel of the counter-flow mode. Nusselt
number increases slightly near the outlet of the microchannel heat
exchanger. Figure 6(c) shows Nusselt number variation along the
channel of the cross-flow mode. Comparing Nusselt number for
three modes of heat exchangers, similar trend of Nusselt number
is obtained.
Effectiveness-NTU method
In this section effectiveness-NTU method is discussed. This
method is used to express heat transfer characteristics of a heat
exchanger. NTU is the number of transfer units defined as
UA
NTU =
(
m& c p min ) (13)
According to Mills [16], relations between effectiveness and
NTU for conventional-sized parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
heat exchangers are expressed as follows:
1 exp[ NTU (1 + Rc )]
= (14)
1 + Rc

350 350 20 20
Tb,H Tb,H NuH NuH
Tb,C Tb,C NuC NuC
340 340 NuH1
15 NuH1 15
NuT NuT
330 330
Tb (K)

Tb (K)

10 10
Nu

Nu

320 320

5 5
310 310

300 300 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm) y (mm) y (mm) y (mm)

(a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow. (a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.

350 20
Tb,H NuH
Tb,C NuC
340
15 NuH1
NuT
330
Tb (K)

10
Nu

320

5
310

300 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm) y (mm)
(c) Cross-flow. (c) Cross-flow.
Figure 5. Variation of the bulk temperature of the microchannel Figure 6. Variation of Nusselt number of the microchannel
heat exchangers. heat exchangers.
 1 exp[ NTU (1 Rc )] increases even though mass flow rate is doubled (the value of
= (15) heat transfer coefficient is not presented here). Consequently
1 Rc exp[ NTU (1 Rc )] NTU decreases as mass flow rate increases.

1
1 Rc 1 between the channels and partition wall. This means that heat
= +
1 exp( NTU ) 1 exp( RcNTU ) NTU
where Rc is capacity ratio defined as:
(m& c p )min
Rc =
(m& c p )max
This study results in Rc = 1 since balanced heat exchangers are
investigated. Before discussion, note that effectiveness-NTU of
the cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger is separately
discussed from those of parallel- and counter-flow modes.
Figure 7 shows effectiveness-NTU relation of the parallel- and
counter-flow microchannel heat exchangers. The solid line in the
figure is -NTU obtained by equation (14, 15). The effectiveness
calculated is somewhat smaller than that based on equation (14,
15). This discrepancy expresses the effect of heat conduction in
the partition wall because equation (14, 15) neglects a partition
wall whereas the numerical calculation includes the wall.
The ratio of sim to th is presented to clarify the discrepancy in
Figure 7. Figure 8 shows the sim/th of two heat exchangers as a
function of NTU, where sim is an effectiveness obtained by the
numerical calculation and th is that obtained by equation (14, 15).
Note that sim includes the effect of partition wall whereas that of
th neglects the wall. This means that sim/th shows inconsistency
Increase in heat transfer coefficient enhances heat transfer
(16) conduction in the partition wall significantly affects heat transfer
process of the microchannel heat exchanger for small NTU.
Therefore sim/th decreases as NTU decreases as shown Figure 8.
The value of sim/th of the counter-flow mode is less than that of
the parallel-flow one. This means that the counter-flow
(17) microchannel heat exchanger is strongly subjected to the effect of
heat conduction in the partition wall. On the parallel-flow mode
the inlets of fluid flow are located at the same end. The partition
wall temperature near the exit of passages approaches average
temperature of inlets as shown in Figure 4(a). Therefore
temperature gradient along the fluid flow direction is small. In
contrast, on the counter-flow mode the inlets of fluid flow are
located at the opposite end. This configuration increases
temperature gradient between both ends compared to that of
parallel-flow mode as shown in Figure 4. The effectiveness of the
counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger is more likely to be
affected by heat conduction in the partition wall.
In some cases of the cross-flow microchannel heat exchanger,
negative NTU has been obtained. The heat transfer coefficient is
calculated based on the equations as follows: For the hot passage
350
Tb,H
Tw,C

of a model for the microchannel heat exchangers. Namely, the 340

conventional model which neglects the effect of heat conduction
T (K)

in the partition wall can be employed for sim/th = 1. In contrast

the effect of heat conduction cannot be neglected for sim/th < 1. 330

As expressed in equation (13) NTU is a function of overall heat

transfer coefficient, or heat transfer coefficient, and mass flow 320
rate. Heat transfer coefficient increases as mass flow rate 0 5 10 15 20
y (mm)
increases. However, overall heat transfer coefficient slightly
Figure 9. Bulk temperature and partition wall temperature of
1.0 1.0 the hot passage at x = 18 mm of the cross-flow microchannel
Numerical
Eq. (15)
heat exchanger.
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

300 310 320 330 340 350

0.4 0.4 Temperature [K]

0.6 0.6
0.2 0.2 Numerical
0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

Eq. (16)
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
NTU NTU x (mm) x (mm)
(a) Parallel-flow. (b) Counter-flow.
(a) y = 0 mm. (b) y = 4 mm.
Figure 7. Effectiveness-NTU of the microchannel heat
exchangers. 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.2 0.2
1.05
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
x (mm) x (mm)
1.00
(c) y = 8 mm. (d) y = 12 mm.
0.95
sim/th

0.6 0.6
0.90 0.4 0.4
z (mm)

z (mm)

0.2 0.2
Parallel-flow
0.85
Counter-flow 0
0 5 10 15 20
0
0 5 10 15 20
x (mm) x (mm)
0.80
0 1 2 3 4 (e) y = 16 mm. (f) y = 20 mm.
NTU
Figure 10. Cross-sectional temperature contour of the cross-
Figure 8. Effectiveness degradation as a function of NTU.
flow microchannel heat exchanger.
 hH = qw, H (Tb, H Tw, H ) (18)
for the cold passage
hC = qw,C (Tw,C Tb,C ) (19)
Figure 9 shows the variation of bulk temperature and the local
temperature of the partition wall along the hot passage at x = 18
mm, which are used for calculation of heat transfer coefficient of
the hot passage. The bulk temperature and local partition wall
temperature are crossing. This result gives not only negative heat
transfer coefficient but also infinite one.
Figure 10 shows cross-sectional temperature contours at y = 0, 4,
8, 12, 16, and 20 mm of the cross-flow mode. The area from z = 0
to 0.2 mm is the cold passage, from z = 0.2 to 0.4 mm is the
partition wall, and from z = 0.4 to 0.6 mm is the hot passage,
respectively. The hot working fluid flows in perpendicular to the
figures while the cold working fluid flows from left to right.
The negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient appears near the
corner of x = 20 mm and y = 20 mm in the hot passage. The bulk
temperature is calculated by using temperature at any cross
section of the passage. The left end of the hot passage is
remarkably cooled down because the left end is adjacent to the
inlet of the cold working fluid. The temperature distribution of
the hot passage as shown in Figure 10 unexpectedly decreases the
bulk temperature. Locally-distributed low temperature region in
the passage delivers the temperature crossing and therefor
negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient is obtained. This
phenomenon is attributed to configuration of the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger. This result implies that a new
method to calculate heat transfer coefficient and NTU of a cross-
flow microchannel heat exchanger is required.
Conclusions
Heat transfer characteristics of parallel-, counter-, and cross-flow
microchannel heat exchangers have been investigated
numerically. The heat exchangers are modeled as three-
dimensional conjugate heat transfer problem including thick
partition wall which separates the fluid flow passages. Numerical
calculations are conducted for the case where the mass flow rates
of hot and cold working fluid are balanced.
Friction factor of the microchannel heat exchangers investigated
is approximately three times as large as that of a conventional
duct. More pumping power is required for the microchannel heat
exchangers. Heat conduction in the partition wall deteriorates
effectiveness of the microchannel heat exchangers, especially the
counter-flow microchannel heat exchanger rather than parallel-
flow one. Conventional effectiveness-NTU method yields
negative or infinite heat transfer coefficient on the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger under a certain condition. A new
method to calculate NTU is required for the cross-flow
microchannel heat exchanger.
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