OPEN PIT BLAST DESIGN OPTIMIZATION

A REPORT SUBMITTED UNDER SUMMER INTERNSHIP-2020

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
MINING ENGINEERING (2017-21)
By-

CHETAN AJMERA

DINESH KUMAR

KHIMA RAM

MOHHAMED SAJID

& NANAK RAM PATEL

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING

M. B. M. ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JODHPUR

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 Acknowledgement
We are thankful to Dr. Sushil Bhandari sir and Mine excellence team for his
constant supervision, guidance, motivation and support at every stage of this
project work.

We would also like to convey our sincere gratitude and indebtness to Dr.
S.K.Parihar, head of mining department, M. B. M. Engineering college Jodhpur
and Mr. Rohit Rawal, assistant professor, M.B.M. Engineering college of
Department of Mining Engineering, M.B.M Engineering College, Jopdhpur for
their help at different times.

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 CONTENT
ITEM TOPIC PAGE NO.
S
Abstract 1-2
1. Introduction 2-3
1.1.Project objective
2. Litrature Review 4
2.1.Drilling
2.2.Blasting
3. Factor Affecting Blast Design 5
3.1.Uncontrollable factors 5
3.1.1.Rock Geotechnical Properties
3.2.2.Rock Structure
3.2.Controllable factors
6
3.2.1.Geometrical Parameters
3.2.1.1.Hole Diameter
3.2.1.2.Sub drill depth
3.2.1.3.Bench height
3.2.1.4.Stemming height and
Material
3.2.1.5.Burden
3.2.1.6.Spacing
3.2.2.Explosive Factors
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3.2.2.1.Powder factor
3.2.2.2.Type and properties of
explosive
3.2.2.3.Initiation pattern and delay
4. Fragmentation prediction 15
4.1.Fragmentation analysis
4.1.1.Split-desktop
5. Implementation of optimization 18
methodology
5.1.Use of blast design software and apps
 BLADES
 BIMS
 DRIMS
 FRAFMENTATION PREDICTOR
 GROUND VIBRATION PREDICTOR

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  AIRBLAST PREDICTOR
6. Optimization of drilling 21
6.1.Aim of the computer aided
drilling
7. Use of artificial intelligence (AI) 23
Conclusion 24
Reference 25

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Abstract
The mining process begins with drilling and blasting activities. The efficiency of
blasting affects all downstream operations such as loading, hauling, crushing
and milling. Therefore drilling and blasting activities should be designed to
ensure that designed parameters produce the desired fragmentation.
Therefore to cut down the cost of production, optimal fragmentation from
properly designed blasting pattern has to be achieved. Proper adoption of
drilling and blasting operations can contribute significantly towards
profitability and therefore optimization of these parameters is essential. The
Kuz-Ram model is a fragmentation prediction model and is widely used for
predicting the fragmentation distribution from blasting in the mining industry.

Various studies indicate that fragmentation accounts for only 20-30% of the
total amount of explosive energy used. Rest of the energy is lost in the form of
ground vibration, fly rock, air overpressure and noise eventually which reduces
the efficiency of blasting.

Optimization of rock breaking by drilling and blasting is sometimes understood

to mean minimum cost in the implementation of these two individual
operations. However, a minimum cost for breaking rock may not be in the best
interest of the overall mining system. A little more money spent in the rock-
breaking operation can be recovered later from the system and the aim of the
coordinator of the mining work should be to achieve a minimum combined
cost of drilling, blasting, loading, hauling, crushing and grinding.

An optimum blast is also associated with the most efficient utilization of

blasting energy in the rock-breaking process, reducing blasting cost through
less explosive consumption and less wastage of explosive energy in blasting,
less throw of materials, and reduction of blast vibration resulting in greater
degree.

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 1.Introduction
The mining process begins with drilling and blasting activities, and these unit
operations have a significant impact on downstream processes such as loading,
hauling, crushing and milling. Drilling and blasting are seen as sub-systems of
the size reducing operations in mining. To have better design parameters for
economical excavation of mineral production and good fragmentation, the
drilling and blasting operations needs to be optimized to improve
fragmentation, which in turn will have a positive impact on the diggability of
the material, reducing the time and energy to load. Better fragmentation sizes,
meaning producing more fines, will reduce the energy required to crush and
grind the material hence increasing crusher and mill throughput. Other
benefits include improving the conditions of the bench floor, reducing flyrock,
reducing ground vibrations and reduce secondary blasting. In mining, the rock
fragments obtained from blasting are usually further processed to liberate the
minerals of interest or to attain the appropriate end use fragment sizes. The
characteristics of these fragments are very important as they affect the overall
efficiency of the downstream processes including loading, hauling and
processing.

It is therefore important that much attention is given to blast design. This can
be done by using the available fragmentation prediction models to predict the
fragmentation distribution that results from using a particular set of blasting
parameters and hence selecting those that give the required fragmentation.

In order to blast the in situ rock to the desired fragment size, blasts are
designed considering controllable (bench height, hole diameter, spacing,
burden, hole length, bottom charge, specific charge) and uncontrollable (rock
strength, discontinuity spacing and orientation, rock density) factors to ensure
that the desired blast output is achieved to optimise downstream processes as
blast output is known to affect the efficiency and cost of downstream
processes like loading, hauling and processing (Siddiqui et al., 2009).

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1.1. Project Objectives:-
The main objectives is to optimizing the drilling and blasting

parameters in order to attain these points considered below:-

• Optimum fragmentation

• Reduce fly rock

• Appropriate throw

• Reduce ground vibration

• Reduce airblast

• Smooth wall i.e. no overbreak or back break

• To Minimize dust and noise

• Overall to minimize the cost of blasting and processing i.e

loading,hauling and processing etc.

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 2. Literature Review
The literature review focused on topics of drilling and blasting in the mining
industry pertaining to drilling, blasting, fragmentation analysis techniques
using predictive models and image analysis techniques.

2.1. Drilling:- Drilling is the process of making a hole into a hard surface where
the length of the hole is very large compared to the diameter (Pathak, 2014).
Drilling and Blasting is the most common

method for breaking and loosening solid rock in surface mines. The general
objective is to produce the broken material that can be excavated and loaded.

2.2. Blasting:- Blasting is the process of fracturing material by the use of a

calculated amount of explosive so that a predetermined volume of material is
broken (Phifer & Hem, 2012). Good

blast design and execution are essential to successful mining operations.

Improper or poor practices in blasting can have a severely negative impact on
the economics of a mine. Examples

of explosives used in blasting in surface mines include ANFO (ammonium

nitrate/fuel oil), Slurries and Emulsions. Many factors are taken into account
when determining what type of blast design or explosive will be used. Rock
type, density and strength are all important factors, as well as fracture
condition of the rock, cost and water conditions.

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 3.FACTORS AFFECTING BLAST DESIGN

Several factors affect the output of a blast. These factors can be generally
classified into two main groups:

• Uncontrollable factors;

• Controllable factors

The blast design must aim at providing adequate fragmentation and ensuring
that loading, haulage and subsequent processing is accomplished at the lowest
possible cost.

3.1. Uncontrollable Factors

Uncontrollable factors are those that the blaster has no control over. They are
controlled by the properties and behavior of the in-situ formation to be
blasted. According to Konya and Walter (1990), these factors include: geology,
rock characteristics, regulations as well as the distance to the nearest
structures.

3.1.1. Rock Geotechnical Properties:-

For optimum blasting performance, it is essential that the influence of rock
mass properties on the blasting process be well understood. Rocks are usually
characterized by several properties. The nature and properties of the rock
mass vary sharply over short distances. It is therefore important that the
influence of the rock mass parameters be well understood during the blast
design process (Bhandari, 1997).

3.1.2. Rock Structure:-

Rocks are generally heterogeneous and anisotropic. The differences are usually
due to the origin of formation and structural features such as bedding planes,
fractures, faults, etc. The influence of these structural features on the response

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of the rock mass to applied loads cannot be ignored during blast design as the
rock strength,deformation characteristics and strain wave propagation are
dependent on their nature, location, properties and orientation.

3.2. Controllable Factor

3.2.1. Geometrical Parameters
The geometrical parameters include:

Hole diameter, hole depth, sub drill depth, bench height, stemming height and
material, burden and spacing.

3.2.1.1. Hole Diameter

The hole diameter is selected to give the required fragmentation for loading,
hauling and processing, and to meet the production requirements. The hole
diameter plays an important role in the distribution of explosives in a given
blast. Small diameter holes are good in highly jointed rocks. Large hole
diameters give reliable explosive detonation, higher shock energy, lower
drilling and blasting cost and higher productivities. The selection of the hole
diameter depends on the bench height, machines available, degree of
fragmentation required, type of explosive and rock properties.

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3.2.1.2. Sub drill Depth

Sub-drilling is the term that defines the depth to which a blasthole will be
drilled below the proposed grade or floor level. To ensure that the blast
provides adequate fragmentation to the desired grade, it is necessary to drill
below the desired grade. This sub-drilling is necessary because of the nature of
rock breakage; when the explosive is detonated the rock at the bottom of the
blasthole is the most difficult to break, since it is most confined. It is advisable
to sub-drill to a depth of at least 0.3 to 0.5 times the burden below the desired
elevation to increase the magnitude of the tensile stress at floor level.

3.2.1.3. Bench Height

One of the primary factors that controls the design of a blast is the bench
height. Usually, the bench height, BH, is relatively constant for most multi-level
pits and its value is set to conform to the working specifications of loading
equipment (Bhandari, 1997).

3.2.1.4. Stemming Height and Material

Stemming height is the length of the blasthole which is normally filled with
inert material to confine the explosive gases. The primary function of

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stemming is to confine the gases produced by the explosive until they have
adequate time to fracture and move the ground.The stemming is generally
from one-half to two thirds of the burden dimension (Bhandari, 1997).

FIG. PROPER STEMMING TO CONTROL FLYROCK

Smaller stemming columns of less than 20 times the diameter of hole may
result in more ground vibrations. The air blast levels created due to blasting
are a function of the amount and efficiency of the stemming. If insufficient
stemming is used, blowing out of stemming material may occur before gaseous
energy is effectively utilized for fragmenting and displacing rock. Konya et al.
(1981), in their studies found that the type and length of stemming controls
the air blast. Their results indicated that stemming particle size of about one
fourth of the blast hole diameter provides the best confinement. They
suggested the stemming to burden ratio between 1 – 1.5. In the absence of
blowing out of stemming air blast overpressure are known to drop by about
90% (Konya & Walter, 1990). Air blasts could be minimized by using coarse and
angular stemming material. Hagan & Kennedy (1977), recommended a
stemming column of at least 25 times that of blasthole diameter or about
equal to burden, to minimize the air blast problem.

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Fig.Stemming Plug

Fig. Aggregate used as stemming material

3.2.1.5. Burden

The burden B, is the distance from a charge axis to the nearest free face at the
time the hole detonates. The free face is created by a row of holes that have
been previously shot on an earlier delay.

Too small burdens result in a throw over considerable distance, high air blast
levels and excessively fine fragmentation.

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Too large burdens may also result in severe back break, over confinement of
the explosives which can cause high ground vibrations and extremely coarse
fragmentation.

3.2.1.6. Spacing

It is defined as the distance between any two adjacent charges in the same
row and it controls mutual stress effect between charges. Spacing is calculated
as a function of burden, hole depth, relative primer location between adjacent
charges and depends upon initiation time interval. The spacing is usually from
1 to 1.8 times the burden (Mishra, 2009).

When the spacing is appreciably less than the burden, premature splitting
between the blastholes and early loosening of the stemming material tend to
occur. This causes a rapid release of the explosive gases at high pressure into
the atmosphere and considerable back break. When the spacing to burden
ratio is too high, adjacent charges cannot interact well to break the intact rock
between them and will result in boulder formation (Bhandari, 1997).

The spacing is selected according to widely held concept that since the break
angle made by the charge to the bench face is near 90⸰ hence spacing larger
than two times the burden are not possible (Gregory, 1973).

3.2.2. Explosive Factors

This includes the type of explosives and properties of explosives such as
powder factor.

3.2.2.1. Powder Factor

Powder factor (charge factor) is the ratio between the total weights of
explosive detonated in a blast divided by the amount of rock that is broken. It
is usually expressed as ton/kg and m3/kg .

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Table : Powder factor of different type rock strata ( Gustafsson,

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3.2.2.2. Type and Properties of Explosives

The output of a blast is highly dependent on the type and properties of the
explosives used. Explosive properties that affect blast output include density,
velocity of detonation, detonation pressure, water resistant and explosive
strength. The higher the density, energy, velocity of detonation and detonation
pressure of an explosive, means the finer the fragmentation expected if all
other design parameters are the same (Bhandari, 1997).The density of an
explosive affects its sensitivity. The lower the density, the higher the sensitivity
of the explosive. Also, in wet blastholes, water resistant explosives must be
used to maintain their potency. Due to environmental constraints, explosives
that produce lesser quantities of fumes and less dangerous fumes should be
used especially in confined spaces.

Fig. charge distribution

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3.2.3.Initiation pattern and delay

• Initiation pattern is important for

o proper fragmentation,

o proper throw of blasted materials and

o fewer blasting hazards.

• Purpose of delay:-

o Reduce kgs of explosive that detonate per delay period

o Improve fragmentation and control throw

o Reduce backbreak

o Control vibration and airblast

o Reduce explosive requirement

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 4.Fragmentation prediction
Fragmentation prediction is done with the help of Kuz-Ram model .

The Kuz-Ram model predicts fragmentation from blasting in terms of mass

percentage passing a given mesh size. Prediction can also be done with the
help of fragmentation predictor software. Fragmentation prediction is done
with the help of Kuz-Ram model .The Kuz-Ram model predicts fragmentation
from blasting in terms of mass percentage passing a given mesh size.Prediction
can also be done with the help of fragmentation predictor software of mine
excellence.

4.1.Fragmentation Analysis
Methods to quantify the size distribution of fragmented rock after blasting are
grouped as direct and indirect methods. Sieving analysis of fragments is the
only direct method. Although sieve analysis is the most accurate technique
among others, it is not practical on a large scale due to being both expensive
and time consuming. For this reason, indirect methods which are
observational, empirical and digital methods have been developed.

The most popular method to quantify the fragmentation is the determination

of the size distribution using imaging processing techniques. There are several
software’s commercially available to quantify the size distribution namely Split-
Desktop®, WipFrag™, PowerSieve etc.

4.1.1.Split-Desktop®
Split-Desktop® is an image processing program for determining the size
distribution of rock fragments at various stages of rock breaking in the mining
and processing of mineral resources.

The desktop version of Split refers to the user-assisted version of the program
that can be run by mine engineers or technicians at on-site locations. The
desktop Split system consists of the Split software, computer, keyboard and
monitor. There must be a mechanism (software and/or hardware) for
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 downloading digital or video camera images onto the computer. For digital
cameras the software that is supplied with the camera is required and for
video camera images a frame grabber board is necessary. The first step is for
the user to acquire images in the field and download these images onto the
computer. The source of these images can be a muckpile, haul truck, leach pile,
draw point, waste dump, stockpile conveyor belt, or any other situation where
clear images of rock fragments can be obtained. The Split program first assists
the user in properly scaling the images using the scale ball placed in the
photograph. Split can then automatically delineate the fragments in each of
the images and determine the size distribution of the rock fragments. Split
allows the resulting size distributions to be plotted in various forms (linear-
linear, log-liner, log-log and Rosin-Rammler). The size distribution results can
also be stored in a tab-delineated file for access in separate spreadsheet and
plotting programs (Kemeny et al, 1999).

Figure 1: A large scale muckpile image. Figure 2: Delineation of the muckpile image
with masked scale balls (light blue) and fines
fill (red).

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Figure 6: Log-Linear Size distribution plot result.

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 5.Implementation of optimization methodology
5.1.Use of blast design software and apps
The technology helps improve and optimize blasting which can result in
significant benefits operationally and eliminate potential risks / problems
during blasting. Blast Design, Blast optimization, Blast data collection and
Analytics – accessible anywhere anytime in an integrated manner. These are
the following softwares listed below offers by mine excellence in order to
achieve optimum blast.

 BLADES

 BIMS

 DRIMS

 FRAGMENTATION PREDICTOR

 GROUND VIBRATION PREDICTOR

 AIRBLAST PREDICTOR

Blast Information Management System (BIMS)

Blast Information Management System (BIMS) provides information to
meet the strategic and operational needs for planning, controlling and
decision making for optimizing mining operations. BIMS provides
methods to store, manage, document and retrieve drill and blast related
information. The system stores blast details, actual blast parameters,
blast pattern, face profile, explosive consumption, charging details,
vibration records, photos and videos of the blast.
Readily available past data in a logical format and blasting data analysis
tools are the key features of the BIMS.

BLADES(Blast Designer)

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Based on desired blasting inputs such as face co-ordinates, hole
diameter, pattern layout, face rock characteristics and location, face
profile, hole diameter, pattern layout, desired fragmentation size,
explosives and initiating devices, environmental constraints, BLAST
DESIGNER SOFTWARE (BLADES) calculates blast plan parameters,
explosives charge distribution, initiation timing and sequence, results in
terms of rock breakage and fragment size distribution .

Based on desired blasting inputs such as face co-ordinates, hole diameter, pattern layout,
face rock characteristics and location, face profile, hole diameter, pattern

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 layout, desired fragmentation size, explosives and initiating devices, environmental
constraints, BLAST DESIGNER SOFTWARE (BLADES) calculates blast plan paFRA

Fragmentation Predictorxplosives charge distribution, initiation

Fragmentation size distribution of a blast is the primordial KPI that determines
the quality of a blast. Many variables such as blasting geometrical parameters,
rock properties, explosive specification and in-situ geology influence rock
fragmentation. It is difficult to give complete theoretical solution for its
prediction. However, empirical models for the estimation of size distribution of
rock fragments have been developed. A blast fragmentation model, based on
the Kuz-Ram fragmentation model, has been developed to predict the entire
fragmentation size distribution, taking into account intact and joints rock
properties, the type and properties of explosives and the drilling pattern.
Results produced by this method are often compared with real fragmentation
data obtained from a blast quarry.

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 6. Optimization of Drilling
Productivity Improvement in the area of productivity / meter of drilling was
achieved though gradual enlargement of drilling parameters from those
existing parameter for the different benches of the mines. By studying the rock
properties scientifically and type of explosives for different benches for
achieving the optimum drilling parameter.

6.1.Aim of the computer aided Drilling (Digital Drilling)

Computerized drills and MWD systems are two technologies that can provide
feedback on important aspects of the drilling function:

• Correct location and depth of blastholes; and

• Accurate recording of as-drilled conditions.

A Rig Control System (RCS) senses variations in rock conditions and adjusts
drilling functions to optimize drill penetration and accuracy and to minimize
consumption of drill tools, the company says. RCS works in conjunction with
ROC Manager software for monitoring drilling operations. Drill plans can be
designed in the office and uploaded to the drill rig. While drilling, the system
logs deviations and other parameters for later analysis, which can reveal
geologic or hole conditions that can impact explosives loading or other blasting
plans. MWD parameters include penetration rate, percussion pressure, feeder
pressure, damper pressure, rotation speed, rotation pressure, and flush air
pressure.

The ROC D7 C automatically adds rods to the drill string to a preset hole depth,
allowing drilling to continue during operator breaks and between shifts, Atlas
Copco says. Rig utilization through using the automated functions can increase
10 to 15 percent, according to the manufacturer. The modular design of the
RCS allows future expansion or upgrading of the system by adding control
modules. Options under development include the use of a Global Positioning
System (GPS) for accurately positioning the rig to drill holes according to the
blast design without surveying or staking.

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The CAD design programs consider all aspects of drilling process. They are:

• Design drilling patterns to maximize drilling efficiency while lowering overall,

operation cost.

• Provide the capability for remote and unattended operate.

• Simplify the control, which decreases training time required for drilling

function.

• Reduce maintenance requirement

• Reduce the drill bit life.

• Control the cycle time of the drilling operation

• Calculate and optimize drilling costs for any given blasting pattern.

• Selection of proper hole size, inclination and depth.

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 7.Use of Artificial intelligence (AI)

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence processes by

machines, especially computer systems.

These processes include learning (the acquisition of information and rules for
using the information), reasoning (using rules to reach approximate or definite
conclusions) and self-correction.

Particular applications of Al include expert systems, speech recognition and

machine vision.

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 CONCLUSION
• Use of new technologies such as softwares and apps in mining industry
to maximize productivity and by minimizing the overall cost and hazards
to environment.

• Good control over fragmentation ,vibration and distribution is achieved.

• Efficient utilization of blasting energy in the rock-breaking process.

• Reducing blasting cost through less explosive consumption .

• Less wastage of explosive energy in blasting.

• Less wastage of mineral.

• Reduction of blast vibration resulting in greater degrees of safety and

stability to the nearby structures.

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References
Bhandari, S. (1997). Engineering rock blasting operations.

Cunningham, C. (1983). The Kuz-Ram model for prediction of

fragmentation blasting. 1st International Symposium Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Lulea, Sweden. Cunningham, C. V. B.
(1987).Fragmentation estimations and the Kuz-Ram model – four years
Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Rock
Fragmentation by Blasting, Keystone, Colorado, 475-487.

Anon., (1980). The effect of rock properties on blasting. Part I and II,
Noble Notes, 26. Anon., (2010). Blasting and Explosives Quick Reference
Guide.

Gadikor, Joel, "OPTIMIZATION OF DRILLING AND BLASTING PRACTICES

AT A WESTERN US OPEN PIT COPPER MINE" (2018).Graduate Theses &
Non-Theses.

OPTIMIZATION OF BLASTING PARAMETERS IN OPENCAST MINES by

Manmit Rout & Chinmay Kumar Parida

https://www.mineexcellence.com/

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