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This article reviews the current and emerging status of qualitative research in psychology. The particular
value of diverse philosophical paradigms and varied inquiry approaches to the advancement of psychol-
ogy generally, and multicultural psychology specifically, is emphasized. Three specific qualitative
inquiry approaches anchored in diverse philosophical research paradigms are highlighted: consensual
qualitative research, grounded theory, and participatory action research. The article concludes by
highlighting important ethical considerations in multicultural qualitative research.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
The need for multicultural psychologists to be knowledgeable of throughout this article, I recognize the broad scope of the dimen-
multiple-research paradigms and competent in conducting both sions of ethnicity, race, gender, language, sexual orientation, age,
quantitative and qualitative research, is now made clear in the disability, education, spiritual or religious orientation, socioeco-
American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2003) “Guidelines nomic class, education, as well as other cultural dimensions.
on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Or-
ganizational Change for Psychologists,” which state the following:
Research Paradigms Anchoring Qualitative Research
Culturally centered psychological researchers are encouraged to seek
appropriate grounding in various modes of inquiry and to understand Though many psychologists have a good idea about some of the
both the strengths and limitations of the research paradigms applied to general distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research,
culturally diverse populations . . . They should strive to recognize and most have not been trained to understand the depth and variety of
incorporate research methods that most effectively complement the philosophical paradigms and inquiry approaches anchoring quali-
worldview and lifestyles of persons who come from a specific cultural tative research in psychology (Ponterotto, 2005a; Rennie et al.,
and linguistic population, for example quantitative and qualitative
2002). As noted by McLeod (2001), “It may be possible to do good
research strategies. (p. 389)
quantitative research without knowing much about epistemology
The reality, however, is that most psychologists, including those of the philosophy of (social) science, but good qualitative research
focused on research across cultures, continue to operate from a requires an informed awareness of philosophical perspectives” (p.
primarily postpositivist research paradigm and their associated 203). Relatedly, Morrow (2005) highlighted differential criteria for
quantitative procedures (Haverkamp, Morrow, & Ponterotto, evaluating the rigor and quality of a qualitative study based on its
2005b; Ponterotto, 2005a; Rennie, Watson, & Monteiro, 2002). In anchoring paradigm. Thus knowledge of philosophy of science and
this article I promote the increased use of qualitative research competence in qualitative research are inextricably intertwined.
methods anchored in diverse research paradigms. To that end, this The research literature presents varied classifications of research
article (a) describes leading research paradigms for qualitative paradigms (see Denzin & Lincoln, 2005a); however, one that I find
research, (b) reviews the current and emerging status of qualitative particularly concise yet comprehensive is that proposed by Guba
methods in the field, (c) highlights the potential value of qualita- and Lincoln (1994) and adapted by Ponterotto (2005b). This clas-
tive approaches to psychology generally and multicultural psy- sification presents four research paradigms: positivism, postposi-
chology specifically, (d) presents a brief overview of select qual- tivism, constructivism-interpretivism, and the critical-ideological
itative inquiry approaches advocated for multicultural research, perspective. Of these four paradigms, positivism is the exclusive
and (e) highlights important ethical issues in conducting qualita- province of quantitative research; however the other three para-
tive research with diverse populations. digms can all serve as anchors for qualitative research. Table 1
Consistent with the APA’s (2003) “Multicultural Guidelines,” summarizes the defining characteristics of postpositivism,
when referring to multiculturalism or multicultural psychology constructivism-interpretivism, and the critical-ideological perspec-
tive. The descriptive characteristics include the paradigm’s per-
spective on key philosophy of science parameters, including on-
tology (nature of reality), epistemology (relationship between
researcher and participant in the quest for knowledge), axiology
Joseph G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological & Educational Ser-
vices, Fordham University.
(role of values in research), rhetorical structure (language used to
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Joseph present research findings), and methodology (specific procedures
G. Ponterotto, Division of Psychological & Educational Services, Room 1008, of research; see Table 1).
Fordham University at Lincoln Center, 113 West 60th Street, New York, NY Postpositivist qualitative research aims to use traditional quali-
10023-7478. E-mail: jponterott@aol.com tative methods (e.g., interviews, case studies) in as quantifiable a
581
582 PONTEROTTO
Table 1
Research Paradigms for Multicultural Research
Postpositivism One true approximal reality; researcher attempts to be as dualistic and objective as
possible; must monitor closely and bracket any value biases; attempts control of
variables and systematization of research procedures; generally third person,
objective report presentation; chiefly quantitative methods, with some more
structured qualitative approaches such as consensual qualitative research (Hill,
Thompson, & Williams,1997).
Constructivism-Interpretivism Multiple, equally valid, and socially coconstructed realities; highly interactive
researcher-participant relationship that leads to discovered meaning and
expression of experience; researcher values to be expected and should be
discussed and bracketed; report writing is first person with adequate “voice” of
participants (e.g., through quotes or documents); incorporates only qualitative
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Note. Paradigm characteristics adapted from Guba and Lincoln (1994), Ponterotto (2005b), and Ponterotto & Grieger (2007).
manner as is possible. Thus for example, a researcher may prepare increased research anchored in the critical theory paradigm (e.g.,
a lengthy (25 questions) semistructured interview protocol based Toporek, Gerstein, Fouad, Roysircar, & Israel, 2006).
on a review of the literature (explanatory, verification oriented),
administer the interview protocol to 40 participants averaging 40 Current Status of Qualitative Research in Psychology
min an interview. The protocol is the same for all interviewers and
the data is analyzed by a team of coresearchers and auditors for a Though qualitative research featured prominently in the early
sense of reliability in coding (agreeing on single reality). Further- development of the psychology profession (e.g., the work of All-
more, the researcher, in staying close to the protocol during the port, Erikson, Fanon, Freud, Horney, and Piaget), during the last
interview process, does not emotively connect with the participant half century qualitative methods, as a collective group, have taken
(concept of dualism). a back seat to quantitative research procedures (see historical
By marked contrast, a parallel interview in the constructivist- review in Ponterotto, Kuriakose, & Granovskaya, 2008). The
interpretivist paradigm would involve preparing a short (five ques- reason for this lies in the profession’s strong preference for the
tions) semistructured protocol and interviewing 10 participants for positivist and postpositivist research paradigms over alternate par-
roughly 2 hr each. The protocol can change from interview to adigms such as constructivism and critical theory (Camic, Rhodes,
& Yardley, 2003; Haverkamp et al., 2005b).
interview (discovery-oriented) as new insights emerge. Further-
Evidence of the profession’s strong reliance on positivism and
more, the researcher and participants become emotively con-
postpositivism, and their associated quantitative methods, is pre-
nected, facilitating deeper levels of communication and topic ex-
sented in a number of studies. For example, Rennie et al. (2002)
ploration. Only the interviewer analyzes the data as multiple
entered five search terms qualitative research, grounded theory,
realities are valid under this paradigm, and no coresearcher or
discourse analysis, phenomenological psychology, and empirical
auditing team is necessary to identify a single agreed-on reality. phenomenology in the PsycINFO database for the 100-year period,
The critical-ideological paradigm has at its core an assumption 1900 through 1999, and found that less than 1% of the articles
that inequity and oppression characterize real-world human inter- included one of these terms.
actions, and that during the process of empirical inquiry the re- A number of other studies examined published journal literature
searcher’s own social justice values can and should play a role in to assess the relative representativeness of both quantitative and
the research process. This role is manifested in the goal of em- qualitative studies. For example, in a review of outcome studies
powerment and emancipation of groups who experience oppres- published worldwide across a large number of journals in coun-
sion (Kincheloe & McLaren, 2000). An example of a qualitative seling, psychotherapy, and psychiatry, Sexton (1996) found that
study in the critical-ideological paradigm might involve lengthy less than 5% of the studies relied on qualitative methods. Focusing
interviews or focus groups with migrant farm workers, who during specifically on journals in counseling and counseling psychology,
and after the study gain a sense of unity and empowerment that Berrios and Lucca (2006) and Ponterotto, Kuriakose, et al., (2008)
leads to coordinated demands for better working conditions. Coun- found that qualitative research represented under 20% of the
seling psychologists have been particularly vocal in advocating for published empirical studies during the 1990s and 2000s. Finally, in
SPECIAL SECTION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 583
a 25-year review of journals focused on the psychology of religion where race relations have been replete with misunderstanding,
and spirituality, Aten and Hernandez (2005) found that less than stereotyping, and conflict, qualitative research can bring deeper
1% of published articles represented qualitative research studies. appreciation and understanding across cultures. Sciarra (1999)
It appears that the meager representation of published qualita- stated that “not only are emotions allowed in qualitative research,
tive research in psychology journals may, in part, stem from they are crucial. Because entering the meaning-making world of
graduate training programs that give minimal attention to qualita- another requires empathy, it is inconceivable how the qualitative
tive methods training. For example, with regard to research train- researcher would accomplish her goal by distancing herself from
ing in counseling psychology, Ponterotto (2005c) found that only emotions” (pp. 44 – 45).
10% of programs required a course in qualitative research meth- Sciarra’s (1999) quote highlights one of the benefits of con-
ods, and the median percentage of doctoral dissertations across structivist qualitative methods to the study of multicultural psy-
programs that employed qualitative methods was only 10%. It chology. That is, researchers attempt to understand the worldview
follows that if graduate students in psychology are not being of our participants through intensely listening to and respecting
adequately trained in alternate research paradigms and qualitative their own voice and their own interpretation of life events. Addi-
inquiry procedures, they will be less likely to conduct and publish
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Table 2
Specific Benefits of Qualitative Inquiry Procedures
Applied psychologists are drawn to constructivist qualitative Hill, 2005; McLeod, 2001; Morrow, 2007; Ponterotto, Kuriakose et al.,
methods because they often involve studying the emotive and 2008; Sciarra, 1999
cognitive aspects of participants’ life experiences interpreted
within the context of their socially constructed worldviews.
Qualitative methods are useful in exploratory phases of research Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
given their “discovery” rather than “explanatory” or
“confirmatory” goals.
Qualitative research compliments quantitative research by adding Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
descriptive depth.
Qualitative methods are excellent for theory development given Hill, 2005; Morrow, 2007; Nelson & Quintana, 2005.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
I believe that random sampling procedures violate a fundamental ing and supervising multicultural qualitative research to summa-
principle of every indigenous group with whom I have worked. It rize important steps for conceptualizing and conducting multicul-
assumes that a statistical or mathematical rationale should determine turally focused qualitative research.
whom we talk to or with whom we intervene. It is . . . . both exclusive
Decide on Operating Research Paradigm
and dangerous because not all members of the community would be
The first step in conducting a qualitative study is to decide on
included, and there would be no evidence of comembership on the
part of the researchers and therefore no sense of protection from harm. the research paradigm anchoring the study. The paradigm will
(pp. 110 –111) serve as a roadmap guiding the researcher to an appropriate qual-
itative inquiry approach, directing the course and methods of the
By contrast, qualitative designs often give voice to previously study, and promoting a careful evaluation of the quality of the
disempowered, marginalized, and silenced groups who share their study (Morrow, 2005). Paradigm choices were reviewed earlier in
worldview and lived experiences in their own words, in their own this article and are summarized in Table 1.
way, and under conditions set forth through comembership in the Graduate students and psychologists should understand the
research endeavor (Ponterotto, 2005a). politics of research in their working environment and be pre-
pared to address supervisory resistance to certain paradigms and
research approaches. For example, some PhD programs in psy-
Steps in Conducting Qualitative Multicultural Research
chology dissuade students from conducting a qualitative study
In the last decade, many excellent sources on conducting qual- anchored in constructivism or critical theory in favor of quan-
itative research have been put forth (e.g., Camic et al., 2003; titative studies or qualitative studies anchored in postpositivism
Denzin & Lincoln, 2005b; McLeod, 2001). In this section I draw (see related discussion in Ponterotto, 2005c; Ponterotto &
on these and other sources as well as my own experience conduct- Grieger, 2007).
SPECIAL SECTION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 585
Select Qualitative Inquiry Approach considered consensus critical to the CQR method and that is why
“consensus” forms the first word in CQR. The construct of con-
There are at least 20 acknowledged and popular qualitative sensus emanates from a postpositivist position as research team
inquiry approaches emanating from a host of intellectual disci- members discuss and come to agreement on data interpretation.
plines. Qualitative inquiry approaches that have been particularly Thus there is an ontological assumption of one approximal reality
popular with psychologists are reviewed in recent edited books in terms of the generated results (refer back to Table 1). However,
(e.g., Fischer, 2006; Willig & Stainton-Rogers, 2008) and special the construct of consensus as operationalized by Hill et al. (1997)
journal issues (e.g., Carter & Morrow, 2007a, 2007b; Haverkamp, also drew on the critical theory paradigm in that the consensus
Morrow, & Ponterotto, 2005a). In this section I briefly review generation among CQR team members relies on mutual respect,
three popular qualitative inquiry approaches that will appeal to equal co-involvement, and shared power, which is central to
both seasoned researchers and students new to qualitative research. ideological positions in feminism, multiculturalism, and liber-
For paradigmatic breadth I have chosen one inquiry approach from ation psychology.
each of the three potential qualitative-anchoring paradigms. The fourth component of CQR advocates the use of at least one
CQR. Consensual qualitative research (CQR) is the most auditor (not part of the primary research team) to review the work
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
postpositivist of our three selected qualitative inquiry approaches. of the researchers, minimize the potential effects of groupthink,
CQR was developed by Clara E. Hill in response to her dissatis- and independently assess the coding and analysis procedures. The
faction with the depth and richness of data emanating from quan- final CQR component addresses the steps of data analysis in
titative research in psychotherapy. In developing the CQR model, working with the transcribed interviews. These steps involve (a)
Hill, Thompson, and Williams (1997) drew on established quali- identifying domains that are topics used to group or cluster the
tative approaches, while retaining some of the scientific rigor data; (b) developing core ideas that are brief summaries of the data
common to quantitative methods (e.g., consensus, replicability, that capture descriptively and concisely the essence of the partic-
concrete procedural guidelines). The particular qualitative ap- ipants’ voices; and (c) cross-analysis, which involves constructing
proaches that Hill et al. (1997) borrowed from were grounded categories that describe common emergent themes across all study
theory, comprehensive process analysis, phenomenology, and fem- participants.
inist theories. Thus, CQR actually has components of constructiv- The broad paradigmatic base of CQR makes it an attractive
ism and critical theory in addition to an anchoring in postpositiv- qualitative design to a wide variety of seasoned qualitative re-
ism. searchers as well as to traditionally trained quantitative researchers
More recently, Hill et al. (2005) reviewed and updated proce- looking to move into qualitative inquiry. The approach is also
dures for conducting CQR studies. The updated guidelines were popular among graduate students because of the crystal clear user
developed in response to reviewing and evaluating 27 different guidelines put forth by Hill and her colleagues (Hill et al., 1997,
published CQR studies from 1994 to 2003. Ponterotto (2005b) 2005), and because the strong postpositivist leaning of CQR make
noted that the 2005 CQR model is somewhat more constructivistic it an acceptable qualitative approach in traditional quantitative
than the original 1997 model in terms of reducing the number of research training programs in psychology. The CQR method is
interview questions to promote more probing, greater depth of being used increasingly in the study of multiculturalism in psy-
participant responses and, ultimately, greater discovery. chology, and the reports of these studies are being published in
Hill et al. (2005) posit five essential elements of the CQR premier, high impact journals. (For a reference list of recent
method. First, researchers prepare semistructured interview proto- multiculturally focused studies incorporating the CQR, GT, and
cols for use in face-to-face and/or phone interviews (though focus PAR inquiry approach, please email Joseph G. Ponterotto at
groups have also been used). The authors recommended preparing jponterott@aol.com.)
roughly 8 to 10 scripted questions per planned hour of interview. GT. Grounded theory (GT) is the most established of our three
Probing responses further is encouraged as a means of additional selected qualitative approaches, and is also the approach most
exploration and discovery. The interview protocols are prepared in firmly grounded in the constructivist research paradigm. Two
consideration of a thorough literature review on the topic at hand, sociologists, Glaser and Strauss (1967), fashioned the procedures
on talking with people from the target group to garner insights for of grounded theory as a result of their research on the awareness of
the protocol, and on researchers’ own self-reflections and experi- dying among terminally ill patients. As with CQR, elements of GT
ence related to the topic. CQR samples tend to be randomly can be anchored in multiple-research paradigms (Ponterotto,
selected from within an identified homogeneous population with 2005b), and over the last four decades at least five variations of
in-depth experience of the phenomena under study. Hill et al. grounded theory have been put forth (McLeod, 2001). However,
(2005) recommend 8 to 15 participants per study when only one or the model of GT that I advocate for multicultural research is the
two interviews are conducted with each participant. Generally constructivist-leaning approach described by Fassinger (2005)
speaking, one thorough interview is sufficient in a CQR study, who further shaped grounded theory to be more applicable to the
with a second interview sometimes helping to capture further field of multicultural psychology.
participant thinking in the area. Like CQR, GT often centers on individual interviews, usually
The second component of CQR is the reliance on multiple face-to-face. GT researchers rely on the long interview procedure
judges/coders throughout the data analysis process in the hopes of with (adult) interviews often lasting beyond 1 hr and up to 3 hr
fostering diverse perspectives. Hill et al. (2005) recommended a (Ponterotto, 2005b). Many GT researchers embed their interview
minimum of three primary research team members for each CQR protocol questions in part on previous knowledge, experience, and
study. The third component of CQR emphasizes consensus in literature; however, “the researcher must strike a delicate balance
arriving at the meaning of the coded data. Hill et al. (2005) between enough knowledge to focus the sampling and data col-
586 PONTEROTTO
lection effectively and yet not so much immersion in existing that two analysts working independently with the same data will
perspectives that the investigation becomes circumscribed by pre- achieve the same results” (p. 103).
ordained constructs and limited expectations” (Fassinger, 2005, p. PAR. Participatory action research (PAR) refers to forms of
158). Thus, as a constructivist approach, GT is more discovery action research anchored in the belief that the research process
oriented than CQR. Also, unlike CQR which randomly selects 8 to itself serves as a mechanism for social change (Schwandt, 2001).
15 participants from a carefully identified homogenous population, PAR is clearly the most critical-theory focused inquiry approach of
GT relies more on theoretical sampling in which additional par- the three covered in this section. At the core of PAR is empow-
ticipants are decided on as the interviewing progresses, as discov- erment of community participants that leads to emancipation (from
ery emerges, and as the research questions evolve from interview some oppressive condition) and enhanced quality of life (Kemmis
to interview. Unlike CQR that uses the same interview protocol for & McTaggart, 2005). Describing the overriding purpose of PAR in
each participant, GT protocols may change (e.g., adding certain laypersons’ terms, Kidd and Kral (2005) stated “you get people
questions), as discovery emerges within interviews. affected by a problem together, figure out what is going on as a
In GT research, interviewing, transcribing, coding, and analysis group, and then do something about it” (p. 187). The research
happen concurrently in an iterative, constant comparative process. As study is the means to gather the necessary knowledge about the
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
an interview is transcribed and reviewed, the researcher develops problem and to incite intervention or change directly useful to the
ongoing and perhaps new questions for the next interview. Subse- community.
quent interview questions are thus grounded in an emergent database. In part, the origins of PAR can be traced to the critical con-
Furthermore, in GT, interviewing ends when theoretical satura- sciousness construct of Freire (1970), who participated in long-
tion is reached, that is when the researcher finds that adding new term program to increase adult literacy in Brazil. According to
participants does not contribute substantively to the emerging data Kemmis and McTaggart (2005), PAR generally involves a spiral
patterns. of self-reflection and action as a community problem is addressed.
The ultimate goal of a GT study is to outline an innovative, Participants and researchers establish a collaborative relationship
substantive theory generated from the “erblenis” (i.e., lived expe- as they ask critical questions about their current life situation. This
riences) of participants who engage in deep dialogic interaction dialogue moves the group from a passive acceptance stance to one
with skilled interviewers within the participants’ real-world social of action as they develop knowledge and further explore the
context. The data analysis process in GT usually involves three community problem and how it can be addressed. With enhanced
major steps: open, axial, and selective coding. During open coding, knowledge and empowerment in hand, the PAR collaborators
transcribed data are broken down into meaning units (e.g., a few begin a stage of social action to incite change. Specific procedures
words or sentences that present a meaningful description, experi- for change emerge and shift as part of the self-reflective cycles.
ence, feeling or attitude set), which are labeled with language Once the initial action plan is implemented, subsequent PAR
emerging directly from participants, compared to other emerging phases may involve documenting, evaluating, and replicating the
meaning units, and then gradually integrated into larger groupings. action plan (Ditrano & Silverstein, 2006).
In axial coding, relationships among categories are further de- PAR implies full participation on the part of study participants.
scribed and organized into broader more concept-encompassing However, as noted by Kidd and Kral (2005),
categories. During this process a constant comparative process is
used to continuously compare categories to one another and the creation of such participatory contexts is far from the norm . . .
disempowered groups are seldom given the opportunity and, arguably,
against new data coming in from subsequent interviews. As this
are discouraged from this type of action because many factors, in-
process unfolds, the depth, density, complexity, and descriptive
cluding a lack of respect for the knowledge of stigmatized peoples . . .
clarity of the axial codes are markedly enhanced. The researcher Further compounding this problem is the tendency for established
also explores variations in axial code development and looks for forums (e.g., academia) to claim exclusive ownership of methods of
disconfirming cases as a trustworthiness test of the emergent codes knowledge gathering and avenues for change. (pp. 187–199)
(see Morrow, 2005).
In the final phase of analysis, selective coding, the GT researcher PAR does not propose a clear series of procedural and analytic
examines the interrelationship among all the selective codes and steps as is the case with CQR and GT reviewed earlier. Rather,
attempts to extract and fashion a core story that connects the selective during the reflective and action spiral, PAR investigators rely on a
codes in an interrelated (sometimes sequential) and meaningful way. wide variety of methods and procedures as they come to under-
This core story encompasses all of the selective codes and serves as stand the needs of the community. As such, many PAR studies
the substantive theory that is the heart of GT research. Naturally the take on varied ethnographic methods such as storytelling, sharing
substantive theory is unique to the sample on which the GT is experiences, individual and focus group interviews, participant
developed. When and if this substantive theory is replicated and/or observation, drawings, and even the more structured qualitative
modified across multiple samples and contexts, a more formal theory interview or quantitative survey. Kidd and Kral (2005) noted that
can be explicated (see Glaser & Strauss, 1967). each PAR project is a “custom job,” that emerges and changes as
In keeping with the constructivist perspective on ontology that levels of critical consciousness rise, “much like building a factory
posits equally valid multiple realities, the GT research process in which the tools may be made rather than necessarily using tools
does not call for consensus, interjudge reliability of coded data, or already at hand” (p. 187).
multiple researchers. In fact, Glaser and Strauss (1967) were quite Of the three inquiry approaches promoted in this article, it is
clear on this point when they stated that “dependent on the skill PAR that is the least utilized in psychology (Ponterotto, Barnett, et
and sensitivities of the analyst, the constant comparative method is al., 2008). This is likely due to the axiology of PAR as a critical
not designed (as methods of quantitative analysis are) to guarantee theory method that advocates a value-directed (rather than value-
SPECIAL SECTION: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 587
neutral postpositivism or value-bracketed constructivism) stance. participants for what will take place or what will be ultimately
Traditionally trained postpositivist psychologists are generally un- discussed during the interviews. Furthermore, it is difficult to antici-
comfortable with research that is so value mediated (Ponterotto & pate participants’ reactions during, immediately after, and sometime
Grieger, 2007), as they were trained to see research as objective, in after the interviews take place, thus participants cannot be adequately
which participants are studied without changing them or the re- informed about what their experience will be like during and after the
searchers (dualism). research process (Cieurzo & Keitel, 1999; Haverkamp, 2005). In
Consider Ethical Issues Throughout the communities-of-color, language nuances and cultural attitudes regard-
Research Process ing the appropriateness of “questioning” the researchers may further
compromise informed consent.
The history of psychology (and medicine) is replete with exam- Another example of an ethical challenge in qualitative research
ples of ethical abuses of research participants from racial and is deception of research participants and gatekeepers controlling
ethnic minority communities (Ponterotto & Grieger, 2008; Trimble access to these communities. Cieurzo and Keitel (1999) noted that
& Fisher, 2006a). Most psychologists are well versed in the in gaining access to diverse communities researchers must con-
Tuskegee Syphilis Study conducted by the U.S. Public Health
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
vince gatekeepers that the research will benefit the studied com-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
Service in Alabama from 1932 through 1972. In this study, 600 munity. Yet for both fear of scaring off the gatekeepers, and
African American men (399 in the treatment group and 201 in the because researchers themselves may not know all they will be
control group) were never informed that they had syphilis. Fur- asking or observing in emergent designs, they may be purposefully
thermore, when penicillin became the standard treatment for syph- vague when describing a study.
ilis, the medicine was not made available to the participants. Terminating a study can also pose particular ethical challenges
Roughly 100 men died because they failed to receive penicillin to qualitative researchers. For example, in most quantitative de-
(Wallace, 2006). Less familiar to psychologists than the infamous signs there is a dualistic perspective on the relationship between
Tuskegee Syphilis Study is the more recent Havasupai tribe study the research and study participants. That is, researchers have
conducted in the early 1990s by university researchers in the minimal direct contact with participants in an effort not to bias or
Southwest. According to a lawsuit filed by 52 tribal members, influence the research results. The exact opposite is the case in
blood samples ostensibly collected to study the correlation to
many qualitative approaches where an intense interaction between
diabetes were also used without consent to study correlations with
an interviewer and her or his participants is a prerequisite to
schizophrenia, migration patterns, and inbreeding (Trimble &
facilitating the participants’ ability to access and describe their
Fisher, 2006b).
“lived experience” (Ponterotto, 2005b). Thus for many quantita-
Though the above ethical abuse examples revolved around
tive designs one poststudy debriefing is often sufficient in termi-
experimental or correlational research designs, it is clear that
nating a study. However, in qualitative designs, it is often neces-
vigilant ethical practice is more a function of the researcher’s own
sary for researchers to follow-up and maintain contact with the
self-awareness, multicultural competence, and collaborative com-
study participants for a significant period of time. In research in
mitment than it is a function of design characteristics. In other
diverse minority communities where there may be initial mistrust
words, researchers hailing from any philosophical research para-
of “ivory tower” researchers, the implications of researchers even-
digm and using any variety of research methods can fail to attend
to ethical care in research practice (see Trimble & Fisher, 2006a). tually establishing trust within the community, and then leaving
Having said that, it is important to acknowledge that qualitative the study and community abruptly is particularly worrisome.
research methods present some unique ethical challenges given the Finally, given that many university IRB boards are dominated
researcher’s often intense, personal, and prolonged interaction by researchers trained in positivism and postpositivism who favor
with participants in their own community environments. quantitative designs, qualitative researchers face numerous barriers
A full explication of ethical challenges in qualitative research is to receiving timely study approval. In fact, Lincoln (2005) recently
beyond the scope of this article, and has been adequately covered devoted a whole chapter to discussing IRB challenges relative to
in both long-standing (e.g., Cieurzo & Keitel, 1999) and recent qualitative research, particularly those in constructivist and critical
(Haverkamp, 2005) publications. Suffice it to say that qualitative theory paradigms. She noted four particular areas of challenge: (a)
research poses unique ethical challenges in terms of informed a general increased scrutiny of all human participant research
consent, recruiting participants and gaining access to diverse com- given the ethical failures of past bio-medical research (e.g., Tuske-
munities, confidentiality, researcher dual roles and multiple rela- gee study); (b) long-term effects of the National Research Coun-
tionships, interpretation and ownership of knowledge generated, cil’s position on what constitutes scientific inquiry; (c) in the field
and challenges posed by Institutional Review Board’s (IRB) of of education, a heightened scrutiny of qualitative research in
universities and communities. In all cases, when researchers are classroom-based studies; and (d) the emphasis placed on evidence-
bridging to new culturally diverse communities who may represent based research in universities and grant funding agencies.
varied worldviews (e.g., collectivism vs. individualism), the ethi- In what can considered a “classic” discussion of applied psy-
cal challenges are magnified. chologists’ ethical responsibility in planning and conducting qual-
For example, regarding informed consent, in constructivist research itative research, Haverkamp (2005) emphasized that the overriding
designs that focus on emergent, discovery-oriented qualitative ap- ethical mandate of researchers is competence. She noted “It is
proaches (e.g., grounded theory, phenomenology), neither the re- difficult to imagine how one could establish a trustworthy research
searcher or participants know where personal interviews will lead, as relationship, one that achieves a favorable balance of benefits and
the interview protocol can change from interview to interview as new risks, without performing one’s research role in a competent man-
directions for inquiry are uncovered. Thus it is difficult to prepare ner” (p. 153). Haverkamp emphasized the need for researcher
588 PONTEROTTO
Table 3
Competencies for Ethical Qualitative Research With Culturally Diverse Communities
The researcher
1. Is well versed in various research paradigms (e.g., constructivism and critical theory) and specific data-gathering tools such as participant
observation, in-depth interviewing, focus group interviewing, document analysis, oral history, and life-story analysis.
2. Plans all phases of research in collaboration with community representatives.
3. Makes all attempts to avoid or limit deception in research.
4. Works diligently to directly benefit the studied community in some way; “gives back” to the community in a tangible and pragmatic way.
5. Is sensitive to appropriate procedures for accessing the population and has a cultural guide throughout the process.
6. Understands the impact on participants and communities in highly researcher-involved interactions such as participant observation and in-depth
interviews.
7. To the extent possible, fully explores with participants the purpose, procedures, and potential impact of study participation; updates informed
consent procedures as needed.
8. Carefully monitors interviewing procedures and is clear on the distinction between qualitative interviewing and therapy; is careful not to fall into
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
9. Is sensitive to the impact of terminating (withdrawing from) the interactive researcher role—for example the impact on community when in-depth
interviews or participant observation ends. Follows up on participant/community welfare as long as needed.
10. In describing samples in reports, is careful to provide adequate descriptions without compromising the anonymity of participants in small samples.
11. In preparing final reports, takes care to present “thick description” of procedures and results so that participants’ voices and worldviews are
accurately represented.
12. Has completed ethical research training (course, workshop) particularly on the topic of qualitative research.
Adapted from Ponterotto and Grieger (2008, Table 4.1) by permission of Sage Publications; see also Ponterotto (2006); Trimble and Fisher (2006).
competence in philosophical paradigms and qualitative approaches panded research training model for present and future students. An
as well as in knowledge relative to the community under study. expanded training curriculum would emphasize competence in
To that end, Ponterotto and Grieger (2008) recently outlined 32 philosophy of science, research paradigms, and a variety of quan-
individual competencies for the multicultural researcher in psy- titative and qualitative inquiry models. Ponterotto (2005a) recently
chology. Table 3 extracts a selection of the research competencies introduced multiparadigmatic research training curriculums for
most applicable to qualitative research. The competencies are both masters and doctoral programs in applied psychology.
intended to transcend the various research paradigms and qualita-
tive inquiry approaches promoted in this article (see Table 3). This References
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.