Introduction to

Radio
Reference notes for radio broadcast equipment. Compiled by
Martin Ocholi
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RADIO BROADCASTING EQUIPMENT

As a novice radio producer/journalist, you must strive to acquaint yourself with the numerous pieces of equipment and understand
how each one of them fits into the air-chain. The catalog below contains nearly every piece of equipment you might find in a typical
radio station. As you will see, some of the equipment is of a technical nature and may be more relevant to engineers and other
technical staff working at the station. This notwithstanding, knowledge of these equipment is as useful to the non-technical as it is to
the technical staff. The equipment is listed as follows:

STUDIO RACK ROOM TRANSMISSION ROOM GENERAL

Audio Console Computer Studio Transmitter Link UPS
Microphone KVM Extender FM Stereo Generator Generator
Microphone Arm Mix Engine Composite Switcher Air-Conditioner
Playout and Automation Software Audio Router FM Exciter Coffee/Tea/Water point
Level Meters Audio I/O Node FM Transmitter Power
Amplifier
Studio Monitor Speakers StudioHub Antenna Combiner
Cue Speakers Network Patch Bay Antenna Array
Headphones Multipair Audio Cable Antenna Switcher
Talent Panel Punch-down Block Transmitter Remote Control
On Air Light Network Switch Air Compressor
Button Panel Network Router
Phone Talkback System Broadcast Audio Processor
Intercom RDS Encoder
CD Players, DAT Phone Hybrid
PABX
Off Air Receiver
Modulation Monitor / FM
Analyzer
GPS Clock System
Server Rack
Audio Codec
Satellite Receiver
 DAB+/DRM/HD Radio 2
Encoder
Silence Detector &
Compact Flash Player
Delegation Switcher
Profanity Delay

Audio Console

The audio console (radio panel, sound panel Mixing Board or sound desk is one of the most important equipment in a radio studio.
This is the interface the radio announcer (or panel operator) uses to control what is heard on air. Every channel represents one “input”. 3
The fader (slider) attenuates or amplifies the incoming signal.

Radio Audio Consoles are different from a regular PA or Live Sound audio console. They are specific for on-air talent ease of use.
When you turn a microphone on or off, a radio console will mute any speakers and illuminate an “on air” light. When you turn a CD
player, Phone or Computer channel on, often it will “trigger” that input so it starts playing immediately. While analog audio consoles
have the physical audio flow directly through the console’s circuitry, many radio stations now use Digital Audio Consoles – these are
actually a remote control for a Mix Engine (often located in the rack room).

Microphone

A microphone captures sounds from the studio and turns it into electrical impulses. Broadcast microphones are designed a little
differently to PA microphones, as issues such as feedback (the squealing sound that can come through speakers) isn’t an issue in a
studio.
Microphone Arm 4

The microphone arm is designed to maintain the microphone at the correct height.

Playout & Automation Software

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The computer system that plays back music, spots (ads, promos, etc.) and sweepers (the little voice-overs played between songs) is
called a Playout System or Automation Software. These are specially designed computer programs that allow for continuous playback
of audio, with a lot of granular control for Announcers and Programme Directors.

At the heart of any Automation System is the “log”. This is a sequential list of all audio files and commands that need to be played at
certain times. All music played on a commercial radio station will be pre-programmed by the Music Director and loaded into the log.
A separate person will often load all advertisements into the same log.

Most automation systems also contain a music database, hot keys (to play ad-hoc audio), an audio editor, segue editor (to change the
mix between different elements), interfaces for website and RDS data, and a lot more.

Level Meters
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Level meters are designed ensure a there is consistency in the output of a station. The level meters allow the announcer to monitor
their audio levels continuously. Often, there will be multiple meters showing the levels at different points in the signal chain.

Some radio stations also provide phase meters alongside level meters. This helps the detection of mono content, and any problems in
source material that are likely to cause issues with the stereo image.

Studio Monitor Speakers

Studio Monitor Speakers provide an easy way to hear what is going to air without headphones. Often, these are very high quality
speakers so any abnormalities in sound quality can be detected.
Cue/Preview Speaker 7

A separate speaker is often provided for the announcer hears all audio that is not going to air, such as the preview output from your
audio console or the feed from your audio editor. By having a separate speaker for this, announcers can be sure their “preview” audio
isn’t going to air.

Headphones
Studio Monitor Speakers are automatically muted whenever a microphone is turned on. As a result, anyone in a studio needs 8
headphones to hear what is going to air. Headphone selection is often a very personal decision based on your preferences in comfort
and frequency response.

Talent Panel

While the main announcer or panel operator can control everything via the audio console, guests often need their own individual
control for headphone levels, a cough mute and mic on/off. These panels are generally mounted in front of each guest microphone,
usually recessed into the table. Most panels include a headphone jack, and some also contain an XLR connector for the microphone.

On Air Light
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This light automatically turns on/off by the audio console whenever a microphone channel is turned on.

Button Panel (GPIO)

Sometimes you need to control settings not available from the audio console itself. This is why many consoles can have at least one
row of configurable buttons. These can be physically wired to other equipment (in analog audio consoles), or configured via software
(in digital audio consoles).

These buttons will often control studio delegation (which studio goes to air), phone systems, automation systems, or even remote
triggering for networked radio stations.

P.S. GPIO stands for General Purpose Input/Output.

Phone Talkback System
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A Phone Talkback/Talkshow System is a software program or physical controller that shows you every call coming in on each line,
and allows you to send this caller to a specific studio or audio channel.

Most systems allow caller tracking (a phone book with history), chat between the studio, producers, and “conference” multiple callers
together. The talkback system often doesn’t connect directly to a phone system, but instead interfaces to a PABX and/or Phone
Hybrid.
Intercom 11

This facilitates communication between studios. Sometimes an audio console will have a built-in talkback system, and other times it
will be built into the phone system.

CD Players, DAT Machines, Mini Disk Players, and Turn Tables

While most pre-recorded audio these days is played off a computer, it is not uncommon to find these playback devices in a studio
(even just as a backup, or a way to capture old archival material). Playback of these devices is usually triggered directly from a button
on the audio console.

Microphone Processor
Some radio stations use a dedicated microphone audio processor for each microphone. This keeps the levels consistent, and helps 12
tailor the sound.

THE RACK ROOM

The Rack Room (also: Equipment Room, Master Control, Data Centre, etc.) is a very important room in a radio station. This is where
most equipment is located.

Computer

The computer is most common piece of equipment in any radio station today. Computers vary, and can perform a wide range of
broadcast functions. They have become popular, in part, because they are commoditized (and thus much cheaper than broadcast-
specific boxes). Below are some of the functions you can perform on a computer in a radio station:

 Automation/playout system
 Routing control
 Monitoring
 Audio logging
 File sharing
 Music scheduling
 Traffic scheduling
 Newsroom operations
 Dead air detection
 Emergency audio playback
 Profanity Delay
 Audio processing
Computers in a rack room will often be in rack-mounted server form factor, even for studios workstations. Due to heat and noise 13
requirements in studios, it’s preferable to keep all studio computers physically located in the rack room and simply extend their
control with KVM Extenders.

Dual power supplies, dual NICs, and RAID’ed hard drives are also sought after to reduce downtime.

KVM Extender

A KVM (Keyboard/Video/Mouse) Extender allows remote access and control of a computer’s keyboard, mouse and video output.
This is typically achieved by a pair of proprietary boxes communicating over a dedicated un-switched Cat6 cable. Sometimes you also
see IP-enabled KVM Extenders, which are compatible with network switches and routers.

Mix Engine
If you have a digital audio console, you will need something to actually “mix” and process the audio. These days, a Mix Engine 14
usually has two plugs: network and power. As the digital controls protocols are proprietary, you usually need to purchase your Mix
Engine from the same company that makes your Audio Console.

Audio Router

Older facilities are likely to have an Audio Router (different from a Network Router). This expensive box receives all audio inputs
from your entire facility, and switches them to the correct outputs. The advantage of having a router at the heart of your facility is that
you can send any audio source, to any destination, at any time. Some routers are card-based, and allow you to mix and match formats
(Analog, AES, etc.). These days, Audio Routers are being replaced in favour of IP-Audio Networks.

Audio I/O Node

If you have a digital audio network (such as AES67, Livewire, Dante, or Wheatnet), you need some way to turn analog or AES signals
into IP packets and then back again. An “I/O Node” (Input/Output Node) fulfils this function. Most nodes have a number of inputs and
outputs, with a web-based configuration interface allowing you to configure the routing.

StudioHub
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Many Audio I/O Nodes need high-density and widely available connectors. StudioHub is a wiring standard to connect analog and
AES audio over RJ45 (network) connectors. StudioHub does not digitise or packetise the audio, it merely changes the connector. A
huge advantage of StudioHub is that you can run analog audio over regular network cable, using ordinary network patch bays.

Network Patch Bay

With so much broadcast equipment network-enabled, and much more using StudioHub, you can connect everything via network patch
bays and Cat6 cable.

Multipair Audio Cable

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Older facilities use a lot of Multipair Audio Cable, from cable giants such as Belden. This will be terminated to punch-down blocks in
every room and rack. Sometimes it is also soldered into a D-connector, to interface with equipment.

Punch-down Block (Krone, etc.)

A Punch-down Block is a style of cable termination device, where wires are “punched down” (connected) into individual slots. This
form of Insulation Displacement Connector (IDC) is common in telecommunications, but it has also found a lot in older broadcast
facilities.

Krone is a popular punch-down brand in Australia. Most facilities will still have them somewhere. All audio and control signaling can
be punched down to a Krone block and then interconnected with special patch wire (loosely wound pairs of copper cable). For IDC to
work, you generally need solid core cable rather than stranded cable.
Network cable can also be terminated to Punch-Down Blocks, so it is not uncommon to see Krone still used for GPIO logic. It is 17
actually quite a convenient way of connecting logic paths.

Network Switch

If you have computers or any digital audio equipment, you will need a network switch to allow everything to communicate correctly.
Commodity network switches from HP or Cisco are fine, although you generally need a managed switch to configure Quality of
Service (QoS), Virtual LANs (VLANs) and Multicasting.

Network Router

Any time you need to route IP packets across subnets, you need a router. Due to radio’s heavy reliance on the internet, often core
routers are setup in a N+1 redundant configuration. If you have a IP Audio network, you may wish to use a multicast-enabled router,
although most vendors recommend against multicast routing for IP Audio as it adds a lot of complexity to the setup.
Broadcast Audio Processor 18

The Audio Processor is usually the last piece of equipment used before your audio is transmitted. Broadcast audio processors contain
specialty multi band compressor/limiters, but also have a lot of “magic” features to give your station that competitive edge. Most
stations want to be the loudest, and the big Audio Processor manufacturers all claim to be the loudest and clearest.

RDS Encoder
RDS (Radio Data System) is a way of sending ASCII text and other metadata to compatible radio receivers. It encodes a 1187.5Bps 19
data stream onto the 57Khz subcarrier (third harmonic of the 19Khz FM Stereo Pilot signal). Stations use RDS to encode the station
name, song data, program guide and traffic information.

RDS Encoders are sometimes built into your FM Audio Processor. If you have an external RDS Encoder, it needs to be connected into
the SCA input on your Stereo Generator or Processor.

Phone Hybrid

If you want to take phone calls on-air, you need a Phone Hybrid. In simple terms, a Hybrid is an interface to connect two-wire phone
lines into input and output XLRs. These XLR connectors are plugged into an audio console or I/O node. Many hybrids also contain
echo cancellation and an automatic equaliser.

Hybrids often connect to a Talkback system and PABX, for easy control by announcers.
PABX 20

A PABX (Private Automatic Branch Exchange) is an in-house phone system, found in most company offices. There is nothing special
about a radio station’s PABX, except perhaps Talkback system compatibility (these rely on vendor-specific APIs).

Off Air Receiver

An Off-Air Receiver is a radio locked to your station’s frequency. This receiver is usually connected to a special monitoring bus in
each studio, as well as dead-air monitors/alarms, allowing everyone to monitor the signal as listeners hear it.

Modulation Monitor / FM Analyser

A Modulation Monitor (or FM Analyser) is a special radio receiver designed for engineers to monitor specific transmission
characteristics. This includes modulation power, pilot tone, phase, frequency deviation, signal strength, RDS, and more.
Anyone working with FM transmission should have one of these to ensure your FM signal is not only operating within it’s legal 21
requirements, but also at optimal quality.

GPS Clock System

To ensure accurate time-keeping, you may wish to use a GPS-locked clock system. The master unit connects to a GPS antenna on
your roof, and then distributes time code to all compatible clocks in the facility.Some stations now opt for NTP-enabled clocks.

Server Rack
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Most broadcast equipment comes mounted in a 19″ case. This is compatible with standard server racks. Deep racks with cable
management rails and in-built PDU’s (power distribution unit) can help keep racks tidy.

Audio Codec
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Speciality Audio Codecs allow you to transport audio between locations. They are often bi-directional, low-latency, and incorporate
lossy encoding algorithms. These are used for outside broadcasts (‘remote broadcasts’ for our North American friends), networked
radio shows and transmitter site links.

Satellite Receiver
Satellite is a common delivery method for one-to-many audio distribution. If you take networked content from a big provider, it’s 24
likely you’ll have satellite as an option. For example, in Australia the Community Radio Network is distributed via the VAST satellite
network (Optus C1 & D3) and Macquarie Radio Syndication is distributed on Optus D2.

DAB+/DRM/HD Radio Encoder

If you transmit on DAB+, DRM, or HD Radio then you will need an encoder. These devices take your analog (or AES) audio and
wrap it up in the correct transport protocol ready to be pulled into the multiplexer.

Audio Patch Bay

If you have a predominantly analog facility, perhaps without a central router, you may need an audio patch bay to interconnect and re-
route audio.
Silence Detector & Compact Flash Player 25

When all else fails, you need a device to detect the silence (“dead air”) and trigger some backup content. Many silence detectors have
a built-in audio player than can play off mediums such as Compact Flash Cards. This medium is popular because it’s durable and
easily re-writeable via a computer.

Delegation Switcher

Delegation Switchers provide a way to switch between studios and other audio sources, selecting what goes to air. If you have a router
or IP-Audio network, you’ll probably be able to use switching logic within the router or network. Otherwise, you can use an external
switcher.

Profanity Delay
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Profanity Delays (or “7 Second Delays”) are used to stop inappropriate content from going to air. They work by delaying the content,
and providing a “Dump” button to delete the audio currently in the buffer. Some delay units will then fill this time with a pre-recorded
ID, but high-end units will stretch the incoming audio so there is no break in program.

The Profanity Delay can be located in a studio (controlled directly), or in a rack room (controlled via remote control). If you have
multiple studios, it makes sense to locate it in the central rack room.

Transmission
Studio Transmitter Link
A Studio/Transmitter Link connects your studios with the transmitter site, ensuring audio is reliably sent to the TX site. Analog links 27
(perhaps in the 850Mhz or 950Mhz bands) are popular. These RF links need line-of-sight antennas and licensed frequencies in order
to operate. These days, IP Links (such as unlicensed 5Ghz links from Ubiquiti) are being used to complement or replace the traditional
analog STL links. Some stations also use Audio Codecs over the Public Internet, or perhaps a private WAN.

Typically, a station would have multiple links in different formats to ensure there is never a break in transmission.

FM Stereo Generator

A FM Stereo Generator takes a stereo audio signal, and converts it into the FM Baseband format. This contains the L+R (Mono), L-R,
and 19Khz Stereo Pilot Tone. A Stereo Generator will have a BNC output, which can be connected directly into your Exciter.

Often the Stereo Generation will be done in the Audio Processor, and sometimes in smaller FM transmitters it can also be done
directly in the transmitter.

Composite Switcher
A Composite Switcher allows you to switch between multiple Stereo generators. It is essentially a BNC switcher, sometimes with 28
built-in silence detection or remote control.

FM Exciter

The FM Exciter takes the FM Stereo Baseband signal (from your Stereo Generator, perhaps via the Composite Switcher), modulates it
on your licensed frequency. FM Exciters generally output a few Watts of power, and can be used without a separate Power Amp on
low power stations.

FM Transmitter Power Amplifier

The FM Power Amplifier (PA) takes the signal from the FM Exciter and amplifies it to your licensed power. These days, FM Power
Amplifiers are usually built into the Exciter. However, it is important to note the difference in function even if they do live in the same
box.
Antenna Combiner 29

If you have multiple FM Stations sharing one antenna array, you need an Antenna Combiner. This takes the high-power output from
every station’s FM Power Amplifier and merges it together so it can connect into the one FM antenna array. They typically contain
filters to ensure each transmitter isn’t spewing out RF outside of it’s expected frequency range.

Antenna Array
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FM can be transmitted with just one antenna, but this is not always optimal. By adding more antennas to the FM system, you are 31
actually adding additional gain. This means more power without buying a bigger transmitter (sort of). For example, a 3dB gain means
the EIRP (actual measured output) is double what you TX PA can output by itself. Remember that extra antennas means more
efficient transmission.

Antenna Switcher

This allows for switching between multiple antenna systems (perhaps for redundancy). To prevent damage to your equipment, antenna
switchers have interlocks with the input transmitters. Generally, the power output mutes while the switch takes place.

Transmitter Remote Control

A Transmitter Remote Control can be used to monitor all transmission systems and provide alarms if readings are outside their
acceptable tolerance.

Air Compressor

If you are dealing with high-powered transmission systems, you need to keep the transmission line (coaxial cable up to the antennas)
pressurized. This ensures impurities are kept out of the cable. The pressurization can be done with an air compressor, or a bottle of
nitrogen. Coaxial cable manufacturers (such as Andrew Helix) have specific recommendations based on the type of cable, power
output and environmental factors. This isn’t usually necessary for low power FM stations.

UPS
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An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) provides constant power to all equipment. If you have inconsistent power from the grid, pick
an Online UPS – these constantly run power through the battery and inverter ensuring equipment is always protected and power
filtered. An offline UPS simply switches to battery power when there is an outage.

Generator
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A UPS can only last so long. To run for extended periods of time during an outage, you need a generator with a decent fuel supply.
Typically a generator for a broadcast facility is permanently connected with an automatic transfer switch – this allows it to start up
automatically when mains power is lost.

The generator should be connected to the input of the UPS in the event of a mains failure. This keeps power filtered, and the batteries
charged. This will allow allow you to shut down the generator while you refuel (in the event of an extended outage).

Air-Conditioner
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Equipment needs to be cooled to keep it running smoothly and maximize its lifetime. In an equipment room, dual redundant air-
conditioners is a must. A network-enabled temperature sensor can help you catch failures quickly.