PETE 23MS

LECTURE 7

THERMAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

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OBJECTIVES
• Note and briefly describe the primary mechanism by which
thermal energy is assimilated in solid materials.
• Discuss Electrical properties of materials: Ohm’s law, electrical
conductivity and resistivity.

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COVERAGE
• Thermal Properties
• Thermal Conductivity
• Heat Capacity
• Thermal Expansion
• Electrical Properties
• Ohm’s Law
• Electrical Conductivity
• Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models
• Electrical Resistivity of Metals and Alloys

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THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

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Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal conductivity – a property that describes a material's
capacity to transfer heat.

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Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
• Both lattice vibration waves (phonons) and free electrons carry
heat in solid materials.

• Electronic heat conduction involves free or conducting

electrons.
• Because more electrons are accessible to participate in this
heat transference mechanism, the relative contribution of ke to
total thermal conductivity increases as free electron
concentration rises.

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Thermal Conductivity of Metals
• Because electrons are not as easily dispersed as phonons and
have higher velocities, the electron mechanism of heat transfer
is substantially more efficient than the phonon, a single
quantum of vibrational energy, contribution in high-purity metals.
• The Wiedemann–Franz law can correlate both electrical and
thermal conductivities via free electrons:

• 𝐿 = 2.44 × 10−8 Ω ∙ 𝑊 Τ𝐾 2 (theoretical value)

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(Callister & Callister, 2001) 8
Thermal Conductivity of Metals
• Alloying metals with impurities
lowers thermal conductivity
for the same reason as it
lowers electrical conductivity:
the impurity atoms act as
scattering centers,
diminishing electron mobility
efficiency.

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 9

Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics
• In the absence of significant amounts of free electrons,
nonmetallic materials are thermal insulators. 𝑘𝑒 < 𝑘𝑙
• Because phonon scattering is much more effective when the
atomic structure is highly disordered and irregular, amorphous
ceramics have lower conductivities than crystalline ceramics.

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Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics
• With increasing temperature,
the scattering of lattice
vibrations becomes more
prominent; as a result, the
thermal conductivity of most
ceramic materials diminishes,
at least at relatively low
temperatures.

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 11

Thermal Conductivity of Ceramics
• Porosity in ceramic materials can have a significant impact on
thermal conductivity; in most cases, increasing pore volume
results in a decrease in thermal conductivity.

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Thermal Conductivity of Polymers
• The vibration and rotation of the chain molecules provide
energy transfer in these materials.
• The magnitude of thermal conductivity is proportional to the
degree of crystallinity; a polymer with a highly crystalline and
ordered structure has a higher conductivity than an amorphous
substance because the molecular chains are more effectively
coordinated in the crystalline state.

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Sample Problem
• (Callister & Callister, 2001)
• Calculate the heat flux through a sheet of brass 7.5 mm thick if the
temperatures at the two faces are 150 °𝐶 and 50 °𝐶; assume steady-
state flow.
• What is the heat loss per hour if the area of the sheet is 0.5 m2?
• What is the heat loss per hour if soda-lime glass is used instead of
brass?
• Calculate the heat loss per hour if brass is used and the thickness is
increased to 15 mm.

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Solution:

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Solution:

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HEAT CAPACITY

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Heat Capacity
• The quantity of energy required to cause a unit temperature rise
is represented by heat capacity, which is a material's ability to
absorb heat from the external environment.

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Heat Capacity
• There are two types of heat capacity
• 𝐶𝑃 (constant pressure)
• 𝐶𝑣 (constant volume)

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Vibrational Heat Capacity
• The rise in vibrational energy of the atoms is the primary route
of thermal energy assimilation in most materials.
• Atoms in solid materials vibrate at extremely high frequencies
and with small amplitudes all the time. Vibrations of nearby
atoms are connected by atomic bonding, rather than being
independent of one another.

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Vibrational Heat Capacity

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 23

Temperature Dependence of the Heat
Capacity
• At low temperatures, the
relationship between Cv and
the absolute temperature T is:

• 𝜃𝐷 = Debye temperature
• Temperature of a crystal’s
highest normal mode of
vibration.

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 24

Other Heat Capacity Contributors
• Other energy-absorbing mechanisms exist that can increase a
solid's total heat capacity.
• Electrons absorb energy by increasing their kinetic energy,
hence there is an electronic contribution. This is only possible
with free electrons, though.
• Furthermore, other energy-absorbing processes occur in some
materials at specified temperatures, such as the randomization
of electron spins in a ferromagnetic material as it approaches its
Curie temperature (temperature where magnetic materials
undergo a sharp change in their magnetic properties).

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Sample Problem
• (Callister & Callister, 2001) To what temperature would 10 lbm of
a brass specimen at 77 °𝐹 be raised if 65 Btu of heat is
supplied?

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Solution:

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THERMAL EXPANSION

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Thermal Expansion
• The change in length due to temperature can be calculated
using the equation below:

• 𝛼1 = 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

• For volume changes,

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Thermal Expansion
• Thermal expansion is reflected in an increase in the average
distance between the atoms from an atomic perspective.

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 30

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 31
Sample Problem
• (Callister & Callister, 2001) A copper wire 15 m long is cooled
from 40 °𝐶 to −9 °𝐶. How much change in length does it
experienced?

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Solution:

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ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

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OHM’S LAW

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Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s Law is represented below:

• The value of R is influenced by specimen configuration and is

independent of current for many materials.

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Ohm’s Law
• Electrical resistivity

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 37

Sample Problem
• (Callister & Callister, 2001) An aluminum wire 10 m long must
experience a voltage drop of less than 1.0 V when a current of 5
A passes through it. Compute the minimum diameter of the
wire.

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Solution:

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ANNOUNCEMENT:
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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

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Electrical Conductivity
• Electrical conductivity – the reciprocal of the resistivity

• Ohm’s Law can also be expressed as:

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CONDUCTION IN TERMS OF BAND
AND ATOMIC BONDING MODELS

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Conduction In Terms Of Band And Atomic
Bonding Models
• Free electrons – electrons that have unrestricted movement
and can participate in the conduction process.
• Metals
• An electron must be excited or promoted into one of the empty and
available energy levels above Ef in order to become free.
• An electric field's energy is usually adequate to excite a large number
of electrons into these conducting states.

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Conduction In Terms Of Band And Atomic
Bonding Models

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 45

Conduction In Terms Of Band And Atomic
Bonding Models
• Insulators and Semiconductors
• Empty states near to the top of the filled valence band are unavailable
in insulators and semiconductors. Electrons must be promoted across
the energy band gap and into vacant states at the bottom of the
conduction band in order to become free.

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Conduction In Terms Of Band And Atomic
Bonding Models

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 47

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS
AND ALLOYS

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Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys
• The resistivity of metals is
increased by increasing the
number of crystallographic
flaws that serve as scattering
locations for conduction
electrons (or lowers the
conductivity).

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 49

Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys
• Temperature, composition, and the degree of cold work on a
metal specimen all affect the concentration of these defects. In
fact, the overall resistivity of a metal has been observed
experimentally to be the sum of contributions from thermal
vibrations, impurities, and plastic deformation; the
scattering mechanisms function independently of one another.

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Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys
• The total resistivity can be mathematically represented below
(Matthiessen’s rule):

• 𝜌𝑡 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝜌𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
• 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

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Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 52

Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys
• Influence of Temperature

• Influence of Impurities
• (In terms of atom fraction)

• (For two-alloy system)

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Electrical Resistivity Of Metals And Alloys

(Callister & Callister, 2001) 54

REFERENCE:
• William Callister, Jr (2001). Fundamentals of Material Science &
Engineering, Fifth Edition
• R.A Kohser and J.T. Black (2007). Materials and Processes in
Manufacturing, Tenth Edition

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