Research Journal- Individual Collection

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Table of Contents
Strategic training.........................................................................................................................................3
Literature Review....................................................................................................................................3
Reflection................................................................................................................................................4
Needs Assessment.......................................................................................................................................5
Literature Review....................................................................................................................................5
Reflection................................................................................................................................................6
Learning Theories and Program Design......................................................................................................7
Literature Review....................................................................................................................................7
Reflection................................................................................................................................................9
Traditional Training methods and E-learning............................................................................................10
Literature Review on traditional training methods.................................................................................10
Literature review on E-Learning............................................................................................................11
Reflection on training methods..............................................................................................................12
Reflection on E-Learning......................................................................................................................14
Employee development.............................................................................................................................16
Literature Review of employee development........................................................................................16
Reflection of employee development....................................................................................................17
Transfer of learning Training Evaluation...................................................................................................20
Literature review on Transfer of learning Training Evaluation..............................................................20
Reflection on Transfer of learning Training Evaluation........................................................................21
Special Issues in employee Training & Development...............................................................................22
Research................................................................................................................................................22
Reflection..............................................................................................................................................23
Challenges in Career Management............................................................................................................24
Research................................................................................................................................................24
Reflection..............................................................................................................................................25
Leadership and Management Development...............................................................................................26
Research................................................................................................................................................26
Reflection..............................................................................................................................................27

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References.................................................................................................................................................29

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Strategic training

Literature Review

Strategic training is a planned and systematic way of developing knowledge, skills and attitude
to perform a specified task.

It is an act of increasing knowledge and skills by an employee for performing a specified work.
The term indicates that it is a process of improving skills, aptitudes and abilities of an employee
to perform specific task. It helps in developing new creative ideas and dumping the old ones. It
helps in performing tasks efficiently and effectively. The objective of this is to know the
availability of skilled and working employee of an organization. It has four other objectives
which are Individual, Organizational, Functional, and Social.

Training activities require some training needs analysis. Training needs analysis is essential to
give the appropriate training to the employee for its better performance and development (Noe,
2017).

Training needs analysis is the first best practice steps in developing a training process. A
strategic and systematic approach to find training needs is to ensure that people are getting
opportunities which are efficient and effective and also helps in their individual development.

There are number of steps and basic elements involved in this process like identifying and
determining the needs, selection of appropriate methods, planning, implementing and evaluating
the process. The benefit of such a process is that there is a planned and professional approach. It
also provides the data about the training required, budget, costs and their impact on the
organization and employee.

The training strategy is required at different level in the organization; it can be an individual or a
group. These approaches are required to form the foundation of the organization.

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According to the Eugen Rotarescu, “training needs some process and methods required for
development with some risks factors too. The decision can be analysed with the help of decision
matrix and decision tree method.

Reflection

From the above research I found that, strategy training is a planned effort which includes
decisions and actions taken by an organization to achieve their goals and activities to be
performed in future. Adopting a strategy clearly means to know objectives and resources

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available for the organization goals. It is a form of training that provides tools and information,
values and goals to the employees. It also helps in increasing productivity as it enhanced our
capacity to learn adapt and change according to the situations. It is different from other regular
strategy as it gives information about resources, tasks, values, goals, productivity and
development. The model of this training depends on the performance results which will helps in
fulfilling business needs. I also found that in this training activity, web based training is used
which gives information and knowledge about customer service training. I also learnt that
strategic training needs some process and methods required for an effective and efficient training
plan. This plan is required at different levels of training like for an individual or a group. Some
decisions are also having to taken in this process of training which are analysed with the help of
decision matrix and decision tree. I learnt that in this training different types of models are used
like Faculty Model which includes safety and quality training, computer technologies and sales
training. The other models used here are Customer Model, Matrix Model, Corporate University
Model, Virtual Model (Bartlett, 2012). Matrix model includes marketing strategies and
development. Corporate model includes newly hired employee program and leadership program.
There are some factors which are responsible regarding training and development which are
concentration, internal growth, external growth, and disinvestment. The concentrated strategy
focuses on increasing market value and reducing development costs. The costs include training
costs and actual application costs of this expertise. Internal growth focuses on the areas like
products, research and development to increase business. There are number of steps and basic
elements involved in this process like identifying and determining the needs, selection of
appropriate methods, planning, implementing and evaluating the process. The benefit of such a
process is that there is a planned and professional approach. It also provides the data about the
training required, budget, costs and their impact on the organization and employee. It includes
improvement in quality of product to increase product growth. External growth focuses o HR
related terms and helps in training specialization. Disinvestment focuses on developing new
objectives for the organization. It includes reducing costs and increasing profits. The
disinvestment varies from situation to situation.

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Needs Assessment

Literature Review

The need is defined as the gap between existing and future conditions. Needs can be individual
or collective. In other words it is the way of identifying a way which can help in achieving a
desired goal by an individual.

Training need analysis is the way to reduce the gap between actual and desired condition by
identifying the output.

This process of Training need analysis is to carried out before training activities are been
performed, since it will increase the success of those activities. It will increase individual
performance, organization development and benefits.

Training need analysis is a very important and crucial part in planning training as it helps in
closing the gap between existing and future conditions. In this limited budget are there for
training so choosing correct remedy for the problem is the primary focus (Bartlett, 2012). The
remedy chosen should be helpful in reaching the desired goal with available amount of budget to
achieve maximum gain.

A Training need analysis will identify the needs associated with the specified activities and
objectives which are helpful in achieving desired goals.

The individual responsible for Training need analysis must design and implement the whole
analysis process. It also including the identification of the process and methods on which this
analysis is based on. Development of a planning group is the main factor in this regard. It also
includes selecting, implementing and managing the strategies that had to be developed to attain
the desired goals.

This process of Training need analysis involves two major challenges which are senior
management support and objective nature of process. The senior are there to see that research is
been done in right direction and the results obtained are according to the desire. The objective of
Training need analysis is based on the measurement of knowledge and skills involved in the

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process. Therefore the individual responsible for the Training need analysis must ensure the
confidentiality of the data.

Reflection

In this research, I have learnt that Training need analysis is very important before beginning
training activities. Training need analysis is a very important and crucial part in planning training
as it helps in closing the gap between existing and future conditions. It also including the
identification of the process and methods on which this analysis is based on. It also involves
some ethical issues like senior management support and objective nature of process. So it is very
essential to overcome such challenges by ensuring the confidentiality of the data. Needs analysis
improves the quality of decisions made to ensure the improvement in performance and results.
There can be three types of needs which are perceived need, expressed need and relative need.
Training need analysis is a part of strategy planning which is required for improvement in an
individual, group or an organization. It is the way of identifying a way which can help in
achieving a desired goal by an individual. By identifying correct needs one can gets information
about the available resources and budget required for the goal which is helpful in increasing
performance and the results obtained. It is found that needs can be an individual or collective
depends on various factors. Needs Assessment is a tool needed for strategic training planning
therefore it is very essential for an individual to perform this need analysis before performing
any training activity. After determining needs, we can develop a plan of action to close the gap
between existing and desired future needs. The steps involved in plan are exploration and
identification, data collection and analysis, Utilization and evaluation. First phase of the
plan involves identification of organizational needs; it can be about available resources,
budget and technologies involved. Second stage involves the collection of data about the
gap between existing and future conditions which can be taken from company records and
market research. The next goal is to develop a plan of action using different methods and process
to reduce the gap between existing and future conditions. The last step is to analyse the plan by
evaluating the results obtained which shows that whether you reach your desired goal or not.

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Learning Theories and Program Design

Literature Review

Learning theory describes about how individual absorbs process and get knowledge from
learning. Different emotional and environmental factors also affect the concept of learning.

Learning theories can be descriptive as well as prescriptive. Learning and teaching theory are
different. Prescriptive way of learning means the way how people should learn.

Learning theory is a proposal used to explain the changes in behaviour produced by different
activities. It is a way of changing ones potential behaviour in performing some activities
Learning is the change in behaviour brought as a consequences of some activities done in past. It
is the way of acquiring new behaviours. The theories related to learning can be categorized in
three ways which are cognitive, conditioning and social learning.

Learning is any permanent change in behaviour which is a result of some activities and
experiences performed in past. Learning can be acquired by doing some activities which can be
mental or physical. Learning can be of different type like it can be a motor, verbal or conceptual
learning.

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(Source: Author)

Reflection

In this research I have found that learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities
and these changes are related to specific learning outcomes like intellectual skills, motor skills,
verbal information, attitude, cognitive strategies. There are several theories related to learning
which shows how people can learn like reinforcement theory, social learning theory, goal setting
theory, need theory, expectancy theory, adult learning theory, information processing theory.
These theories are very helpful in understanding the process of learning in different ways. There
are various learning process associated with these theories like mental and physical process.
Reinforcement theory emphasizes on avoiding some behaviours because of the outcomes that are
resulted from those behaviours. Reinforcement can be positive and negative. A positive
reinforcement gives a positive output from certain behaviour where as negative reinforcement
removes the undesired outcome. The process of this positive and negative reinforcement is
known as extinction. This theory suggests for learners to acquire knowledge, skills, change
behaviour to identify which outcomes are positive and which are negative. Social learning theory
emphasizes on what people learn from other peoples. This theory includes learning new skills
and behaviours that are come by experiencing those behaviours directly and by knowing what
other people get by acquiring those behaviours.

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Goal theories emphasize on individual goals and attention. It is found that specific goals results
in better performance. This theory is also used in program designing. This theory suggests that
training can be more facilitated by specific challenges and goals. This is an important theory as it
is also required in program designing. Expectation theory suggests that person behaviour is based
on three factors like expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Expectancies can be defined as
link between what a people is trying to behave and what actually he is behaving. Adult learning
theory gives information about how adults learn. In this theory of learning various institutions
are developed to educate adults. Information processing theory emphasizes more on internal
process. This process of this theory begins when a message is generated by the environment and
received by the receptors. This message gets stored in short term memory and then it is
transferred to long term memory. After this a response is generated which is related to five
outcomes which are intellectual skills, motor skills, verbal information, attitude, cognitive
strategies. The final step in this is the feedback which is an evaluation of the given response.
Learning is a process of permanent change in behaviour of individual by some experiences and
activities. It is also learnt that learning theories can be descriptive as well as prescriptive.
Learning and teaching theory are different. Prescriptive way of learning means the way how
people should learn. Learning theory is a proposal used to explain the changes in behaviour
produced by different activities. It is a way of changing ones potential behaviour in performing
some activities Learning is the change in behaviour brought as a consequences of some activities
done in past. It is the way of acquiring new behaviours. The theories related to learning can be
categorized in three ways which are cognitive, conditioning and social learning. Different
theories are very helpful in understanding the concept of leaning like reinforcement theory,
social learning theory, goal setting theory, need theory, expectancy theory, adult learning theory,
information processing theory.

Traditional Training methods and E-learning

Literature Review on traditional training methods

A perfect place to begin the task of different training methods is defining the training for itself.
While reviewing the literature that is associated with the training, the term training itself refers to
be understood. And thus it is difficult to find the actual definition of training.

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In the literature named Train the Trainer: instructor Guide the term training is defined as- the
delivery and development of information that people use after the training session ends. This
definition distinguishes that after having training in which everyone is provided with training but
it is not necessary to utilize that information after the training.

The activities or methods that an instructor or trainer employed as to convey experience,

knowledge or information to the trainees to observe their learning which will help them to
change their attitudes and behaviour according to their objectives.

Literature review on E-Learning

Today many of the learners want to learn online and in return they need the degree from the
worldwide universities or colleges but they cannot go in these universities or colleges as because
they are situated apart in isolated areas without the proper system of communication E-learning
is among the most famous types of learning nowadays. This type of learning attracts the students
in the whole world.

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Reflection on training methods

1. Presentation method

(A) Lecture- Trainees learn by speaking words.

 It can be standard lecture

 It can be panels

 They can invite guest speakers/external speakers

 Students required to present the presentation

 Group teaching should be there

(B) Technique of Audio Visual

In this type the trainees are provide with the audio visual instructions in which real life examples
and experiences are given.

2. Hands-On Method

These methods that trainee require to be involved. This includes-

(A) Training on the job

 Training for the unskilled or semiskilled workers

 This is easy to train but not most efficient

 This is also called direct instruction

(B) Role plays-

 Trainees have to act on the characters that have assigned to them

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 On the reactions of other partner outcomes are depended.

 It mainly focuses on intensity of the participants, interpersonal skills

(C) Modelling behaviour

 This is based on social learning theory principle

 This helps in teaching computer skills and interpersonal

 Rather than factual information it is appropriate for behavioural skills and learning

(D) Case studies

Detailed description about how organization or an employee deals with the difficult situation.
For that trainees required to-

 Suggestions

 Actions

 Analyze

(E) Simulations

This means real life process imitation using technical device or computer. Some of the type’s
are-

 Constructive

 Live

 virtual

(F) Business games

These methods use as an educational tool for teaching businesses. Such as finance,
organizational behaviour, general management, human resources, etc.
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3. Group-Building Methods

(A) Team training

It involves coordination of the individuals who are working for the common goal.

(B) Experimental training

In this method trainees are required to move out from their comfort zones but with the limit that
does not affect the trainee’s ability or motivation.

(C) Adventure learning

In this method development of leadership skills and teamwork is considered using structured
outdoor activities.

(D) Action learning

This method provides work groups or leaders with an actual problem to work on solving it.

Reflection on E-Learning

E-learning refers to principle sciences of multimedia learning effectively using electronic

educational technology. E-learning is a change in technology. It transmits knowledge, values in
younger generations of students and workers and skills.

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(Source: Author)

The E-learning defines the objectives clearly. E-leaning provides testing power. In many fields
the e-learning become default type of learning to provide education or to conduct training.

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Employee development

Literature Review of employee development

It is one of the most important functions in terms of Human Resource Management. Employee
development refers to develop the ability or skills of an employee or an organization as a whole
so, employee development refers to overall development in the individual employee or an
organization as when the skills and abilities of an employee will develop it helps in the overall
growth of an organization. It will flourish the growth of an organization.

There is a direct relationship between the employee performance and employee development. As
when employee develops his or her skills they would get more satisfaction regarding their jobs,
more committed and their performance would get increased (Noe, 2017).This leads to
organization effectiveness when the employee’s performance gets increase.

The activities of the employee development program are very much important for the employees,
as their activities indicates that their organization is caring about their employees and
organization wants to development of the employees.

The investment in Perceived Development activities of an employee is very much important in

order to improve performance of an employee. An investment in perceived Development
activities of an employee gives advantage to the organization in terms of competition with the
other organizations.

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Reflection of employee development

 Approaches to employee development

1. Stretch projects and assignments

While developing extra skills, who in your team would like to get benefit from the area of
serving on a team cross-sectional. An employee need to think of what assignments exists in the
coming months.

2. Job shadowing

To learn the elements such as critical elements of other jobs, while they developing further on
their own, the job shadowing approaches is a great way. It is also an efficient way to explore
career opportunities and also after their jobs.

3. Job rotation

This is another efficient strategy in employee development this provides opportunity to the team
to rotate and move through the different positions in an organization. This rotation can be done
on daily, monthly or yearly basis.

4. Promotions

Promote your employees to the new positions also reward them with the great performance,
increased motivations and great performance. It should be executed with the right plan.

5. Coaching and mentoring

If there is no formal mentoring program, start it with your own. It provides benefits in quality of
work, communication skills and problem solving.

6. Lateral move

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In this approach an employee takes the different position with the same grade pay and with the
similar responsibilities. To gain the real benefits of approach provide employees with the new
skill development and challenges. By this employees retain for longer.

7. Job enrichments

This opportunity provides employee’s with the benefit in their current role, while they creating
some other additional ways to develop. Examples include presentations at team meetings, joining
a volunteering or committee.

 The development planning process

It includes some steps-

1. Business goals consideration

Before setting objectives for employee development plan align the needs require developing
organizations approach.

2. Have a conversation with your employees

3. Recognize your employees potential or readiness

It’s really important to make remember that there is a very big difference between readiness and
potential. Readiness means a variety of forms such as skills, experience and encompassing.

4. All types of development and training consideration

 Stretch projects and special assignments

 Work directly with the expert in subject matter
 Also include local networking groups

5. Create a plan during, after and before

 Organization strategies for providing development

1. Facts gathering

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There are many techniques or tools provided in this process such as SWOT analysis (threats,
weaknesses, strength and opportunities). Here you need to look internally to your weaknesses
and strengths.

2. Develop vision through statement

3. Mission statement development

For gathering the mission statement ask some questions such as-

 To whom we are doing it?

 What value do you prefer?
 What you have to do?
 How will you do that?

4. Identification of strategic objectives

5. Performance management

 It is necessary to review all the actions or objectives to make sure that what you doing,
you doing right according to the goals of an organization.

 Managing and monitoring a complete strategy is a really complex task. And due to this
complexity many business leaders, directors and managers are searching for different methods of
handling these strategies.

6. Tactical plans

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Transfer of learning Training Evaluation

Literature review on Transfer of learning Training Evaluation

Training evaluation is a systematic collection of judgmental information and descriptive is

necessary to make decisions effective related to adoption, value, selection and modification of
various instructional activities.

The process of attempting assessing the training value i.e., general outcomes and the cost
benefits which used for the organization’s benefits as well as value of the improved performance
of those who have taken under training.

Training Evaluation is defined as effectiveness determine of a training program. Training

evaluation is defined as an attempt for obtaining information on the effects of training program
and also to assess the value of training in light of information.

Definitions of training evaluation have implications such as-

 Training evaluation process is an ongoing process.

 This training evaluation process is directed towards objectives or specific goals.
 Training evaluation is a form of controlling quality.
 Training evaluation requires the use of an appropriate and accurate measuring instrument
to collect the decision making information.

Requirement of new forms of management structures and business to exploit effectively

intellectual assets that lead to focus renewed on the development of human resources (Noe,
2017). The difference between what trainees learn and what trainer teaches is defined as training
evaluation. The training evaluation helps in measuring the Knowledge Gap. Training evaluation
helps in measuring Reich’s gap by determining the effectiveness of a learning program and the
value.

According to Bramley and Newby, identify the main purposes of training evaluation: controlling
(to make links from organizational to training activities training evaluation is used), feedback
(linking of objectives and learning outcomes, provide quality form), intervention (in this results

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of influence evaluation context in which it’s occurring), research (determination of relationships
between training, job transfer, learning).

According to Sims the evaluation goal is to improve training program; provide feedback to the
managers, participants, program planners and to assess skills of an employee.

Reflection on Transfer of learning Training Evaluation

From this research it can be understand that it is a way of understanding the effectiveness of the
training program. There are various tools required for training programs based on the kind of
raining required for the work. Training evaluation has various benefits like it ensures
accountability; identify the costs and giving feedback to the trainer. It is the way of examine and
analysing training process. It helps in checking that the training program given has the desired
effect or not. Training evaluation involves various methods like questions, records and
interviews. It can be found that it has various kinds of standards associated with it which are
format, process, outcome and impact. Evaluation methods can be qualitative as well as
quantitative. There are five stages in evaluation of training which are describing the outputs, pre
assessment of training, post assessments, its learning and outcomes and the follow up process.
The evaluation is the way of reviewing the outcomes of training programs. Training evaluation is
necessary as it helps us to know whether training is done in the right direction or not as it helps
in evaluating outcomes of the training programs. Evaluation involves two principle factors which
are who is responsible for the evaluation and what are the resources and costs needed for the
evaluation. The management, trainer and trainee himself is responsible for the evaluation. The
action and implementation plan is also needed for this evaluation. It needs identification and
setting objectives for the desired goal by the organization. Feedback is also an important factor
as it tells about the loss and drawbacks occurred during training program. There are three types
of criteria required for the evaluation which are internal, external and trainee himself. It can be
concluded that it is better way of understanding the training program. It is the way of examine
and analysing training process. It helps in checking that the training program given has the
desired effect or not. It is a systematic way of identifying that training program done should be
efficient and effective which is used to increase performance of the employee. It is necessary as
it is used to reduce the gap between existing and future conditions and will increase opportunities

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for the employee. It is the process of examining the outcomes related to training program which
will tell about the effectiveness of the training program.

Special Issues in employee Training & Development

Research

In this article author (Alemu, 2017) has tried to investigate all the problems and challenges that
are faced in training and development practices. Author has described problems and issues that
are faced like lack of management support for training programs which is likely to let loose ends.
Lack of long-term planning for developing human resource can be an issue with no concrete
results; author also provided the likelihood of high cost of training and development being one of
the hindrances in employee training. One of the issues noted by author was of mismatch between
training skills and skills required which can be major waste issue of resources. Author also
described lack of employee interest or motivation as one of the reasons for lack of results in
training programs.

According to (Patrick & Kumar, 2012) the concept of diversity includes acceptance and respect.
Issues such as communication, adaptability and change are found in training and development of
diverse employees. It can be factors that are in difference from one ethnicity to another can be an
issue for employee training and development. Where one’s opinions and understanding can be
alien to another which can create a gap in understanding and become an issue in employee
training and development.

According to Bartlett, (2012), there are many challenges in employee training and development,
one of them being problems with ageing workforce and their positions within the companies
pose a major issue in training and developing them to become knowledgeable workers and with
skills that are required in modern times with rapid changing pace of skills requirements. Issue of
demographic is also a big issue in the workplace where factors such as age, different education
levels, and different language are big factors that can be issues for employee training and
development. Author has also described issue of lack of commitment by employees in training
and development with absentees growing in the training and development sessions. Some of the
research shown by author proves that some of the employees are contended with their work and

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organization which results in employees actually resisting change and making an issue for
growth and employee training and development. Lack of commitment and containment has been
seen an increasing issue for organizations generally and for training.

Reflection

My research for this topic began from gaining an insight into issues that are faced in employee
training and development, articles reviewed provided insights like lack of management as being
an issue for training programs understanding that it can lead to unmet ends. Understanding that
lack of long-term planning can be an issue for developing and training human resource which
has its implications in resources being utilized and no results being found in skills increase of
employees. Gaining an understanding of issue being high cost and resource consumption of
training and development which can lead to cost overruns and providing an unfinished training
and development session. Another issue that is understood is of mismatch between skills that are
acquired in training and development being different from skills that are required as it consumes
ample resources and has no basic return in productivity because of mismatch. In article I learned
that diversity can be an issue for training and development of employee which can be caused by
different views and speaking abilities being mismatched and creating a lack of understanding
which becomes an issue. In another article research I understood the many challenges faced for
training and development, one of them understood being ageing workforce which has created
differences of age gap, lack of contextual understanding, lack of learning ability as the factors
becoming an issue for training and development of employees, rapid change in skill needs being
understood which poses an issue for training and development creating a gap between what was
learned and what is required in a short while, demographic being an issue where difference in
education level, understanding, language and ethics can be an hindrance in training and
development of employees. Another main issue understood being lack of interest and
containment where employees are not interest in learning anymore and have been content with
their position and organization for a time is creating an issue for training and development of
employees.

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Challenges in Career Management

Research

According to author (KHACHATRYAN, 2017) career management is a life-long process of

investigating resources and achieving career goals. Author explains that there are career
management metaphors like climbing, pyramids, timetable and others that determine problems in
development. Author described rapid change in needs of different skills as one of the challenges
that affects career management. Challenges like this require reconfiguring and continuously
improving skills that are required for career management. Challenges in career management that
are highlighted include rapidly changing technology which has everything to be based on
technology.

According to (Padma, 2016) researchers have studied career plateau since the 70’s, career
plateaus have mainly two types, structural and constant which affect career management, career
plateaus to employees structurally can be caused due to organizational constrains, it can be
caused due to external factors like poor economy, downsizing, recruiting problems and others.
Career can also be in structural plateau because of personal reasons; it can be where there is a
desire for higher level job, this challenge of plateau can occur when one makes a decision to take
control on one’s career. career can be in a content plateau for either organizational or personal
purposes, where no further learning might take place, it can also happen when additional
responsibility is required but is not received because of many reasons like slow markets and
others.

According Noe, (2017), the transition between organizations and skills generates new challenges
that emerge when the business environment becomes turbulent and less predictable. Author
notices both organizations and people change their expectations, thus generating new
psychological understanding; stress generated from transitions is also shared by author as a
major challenge in career management.

According to (Smaliukienea, et. al., 2014) changing nature of career management in international
markets has been an issue, in recent years nature of career management has become dynamic,
increasing complexity of situations faced in career awareness and management. The necessity is

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a formulated by economic cycles which require person transferable skills. Broadening focus
towards career management needs career to be managed proactively, leaving a career choice
because of circumstantial choice has been one of the most regarded challenges resulting in
constant change and dynamics also bringing unpredictability to the careers what are not easy and
are multidimensional in nature being a major challenge for career development. Author
suggested in this dynamic environment there is a constant improvement and implementation of
long-term strategies for career management. Attitudes are also described as an issue by author
where described need for rapid decisions.

Reflection

My research with this topic began from understanding the challenges that are existing in career
management, with the first article taken for consideration where author describes career
management as a lifelong process of investigating resources and achieving career goals, gaining
an understanding of challenge of rapid change in skills needs and inability to cope with skills as
one of the main factors challenging career management. In another article for this research
author described career plateau as being one of the factors challenging career management, I
understood that there are two main career plateau which are structural and content, structural
described by author as plateau that has mainly caused by factors out of control and can be
temporary like slow economy, downsizing and recruiting issues being many factors of
challenges, content plateau being a plateau that is reached by one being content and satisfied
with the position that is reached where it becomes an issue for career management because
objectives are not clear, where there is no interest for further learning becomes an challenge in
career management. Last article being understood provides an insight into business environment
being turbulent and less predictable as a factor which generates stress becoming a challenge for
career management. In another article I learned the rapidly and dynamically changing nature of
career management in international markets, with recent times bringing more complexities some
of which can be solved by managing careers proactively, I learned that career management has
become more dynamic and constantly changing with dynamic that are becoming hard to predict
and that are multifaceted in nature. Understanding that there is increasing inability because of
complexities presented in career management becoming some of the main issues. Author

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showing that dynamic environment needed dynamic strategies and proactive career management,
needed for tackling multi-faceted challenges faced in career management.

Leadership and Management Development

Research

According to (McCleskey, 2014) a vital challenge to the leadership field includes the need to
develop leaders and leadership. Author says it is mistaken belief that leadership develops mainly
in leadership development programs. Author notifies that leadership development programs
target self-management techniques, social competencies and work facilitation. Author argued for
development of more scientific approach for developing leaders and leaderships. Author also
recommends developing of new perspectives on the role of leader identity, and the development
of adaptive leader capacity. Author describing situational leadership theory advocates for
matching the leader to the situation if possible or matching the leadership orientation. Author
describing the importance of existing leaders receiving skills and competency training that is
aimed at developing task-based skill deficits. Author also described the importance of leadership
literature for providing guidance on transactional leadership points.

According to (Myers & DeRue, 2014) despite notable progress in our understanding of
leadership development, there is reasons why literature has not yielded the insights that can
address the upcoming leadership crises. Authors in this article describe two types of leaderships
first of them being individual leader development which mainly focuses on an individual’s
capacity to contribute in main processes and is relating to individual’s capacity. Second form
being leadership development which mainly focuses on developing the capabilities of the
collective for engaging in all the leadership processes. Authors describing difference between
leader development and leadership development describe that leader development focuses on
individuals’ capacity and developing human capital, while leadership development focuses on
interpersonal dynamic of the relations and focuses on the development of social capital. Author
has described a framework for leadership development named PREPARE which includes points
like Purpose, Result, Experience, Point of Intervention, Architecture, Reinforcement and
Engagement.

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According to Authors (Mason, et. al., 2014) there are some of the psychological and behavioural
changes that are required in changing and developing leadership and management. Author
describes self-efficacy is a particularly important for learning because it influences choice of
behaviour, effort and performance. Authors describe in the context of transformational
leadership, it is a must for leaders to have high self-efficacy in order to challenge existing ways
of conducting affairs and generating confidence. Authors describe that there must be an
identification of change in leader’s belief in capabilities to perform transformational tasks and
transforming others behaviours. Authors describe perspective taking as being one of the most
important for development of transformational leadership behaviours which includes taking
others point of view, Authors described that perspective taking increases leader’s ability to
articulate a vision and agenda that is appealing to followers and shows a consideration of others
perspective that are unique. Authors argued that leader’s ability to take different perspectives and
include everyone is one of the qualities that can set apart a leader from others. Perspective taking
and perspective inclusion can help change other’s behaviours. Authors also described positive
affect as the psychological attribute that brings a change in leaders with positive emotions that
broaden the cognitive focus, exploration activities and encourages people.

Reflection

My research with this began from understanding and documenting the background and needs for
leadership and management development. Gaining an understanding of the challenges that are in
leadership development like mistaken belief that leader are developed from leadership
development programs, taking in consideration first article for this topic which helped me in
understanding and gaining insight on authors understanding that there is a need for developing a
more scientific approach towards developing leaders and leaderships, I also gained insight on
author’s recommendations on importance of adequate skills for existing leadership development.
In second article authors noticed that despite the notable progress in leadership development
there is still a lack of leadership development generated from literature. I learned the two main
leadership development types one being individual leader development with second being
leadership development, individual leader development referred to development of individuals as
leader that holds leadership capabilities, leadership development being a development for leaders
in quantity preparing them for all the leader capabilities and uncertainties. In the last article for

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this topic I learned the importance of psychological and behavioural changes that must be
conducted for leadership development, author expressing some of the main psychological
changes that are needed like self-efficacy which promotes one’s ability to challenge existing
ways of conducting affairs and believing in self’s ability to take the leadership in change, other
psychological change being identification of change what can be a major factor in realizing
change that is to be followed for leadership, I also gained insight on author’s recommendation
for leader’s gaining psychological ability of perspective taking which is known as ability to gain
understanding of different backgrounds which takes others perspectives in account.

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