ARMA 19–1589

Evidence of a consistent process of rock fracturing during material flow

within ore columns – 25 Years of fragmentation experience at the El
Teniente Mine
Brzovic, A.
Codelco El Teniente Division, Rancagua, Chile
Celhay, F. and Gonzalez, R.
Codelco El Teniente Division, Rancagua, Chile
Hurtado, J.P.
University of Santiago, Santiago, Chile

Copyright 2019 ARMA, American Rock Mechanics Association

This paper was prepared for presentation at the 53rd US Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium held in New York, NY, USA, 23–26 June
2019.

ABSTRACT: During the last 35 years, El Teniente mine has mined the massive and competent primary ore, associated with coarse
fragmentation among other operational problems. After primary ore mining began, the geological department started to track
fragmentation in draw points to understand and predict the process. An overall review of the existing database allowed for the
discovery of a consistent process of fracturing during material flow within the ore column. For instance, whatever the mine conditions,
rock types, height of draw and preconditioning techniques being applied to the rock mass, rock blocks split in a consistent manner,
where the largest and shortest block length of a rock block tend to define a ratio around the value of 2. Fragmentation measurements
indicate that productivity, as the amount of tonnes drawn between hang ups, increase double when rock mass has been preconditioned
using hydraulic fracturing of 1.5 m spacing. However, it is inferred that productivity, is also related to the rock fabric features since
under the same preconditioning intensity, a more competent rock, only reached 1/3 of that value. Data analysis based on rock block
size measurements in hang ups, also indicate that reducing the hydraulic fracturing spacing will impact significantly on hang ups
formation. Finally, empirical observation confirms that if a draw bell design generates hang ups, all photographic techniques and
related uses for fragmentation characterization on draw points are insufficient to recognize the full block-sized distribution, and its
results tend to underestimate the true fragmentation.
of the rock mass, but stresses on the cave back, the height
1. INTRODUCTION
of the ore column and draw bell geometry also will
Fragmentation performance may determine the success control fragmentation results on DPs.
and profitability of a block-caving operation (Brown,
The El Teniente mine is one of the biggest caving
2007). In fact, if a large number of Hang Ups (HU) occur
operations in the world and, considering production
during production, because of the nature of the rock mass
started in 1905, is also one of the oldest. The first 80 years
and rock fabric, ore delivery will be constrained by our
of mine production occurred in a highly fractured and
ability to manage secondary breakage or to introduce
weak rock mass known as secondary ore, located mainly
changes in mine design and/or rock mass preconditioning.
near to the surface (<600m.). The deepening of the mining
Cases such as the Palabora mine in South Africa showed
run out the secondary rock, giving way to the low grade
low productivity of 350 tons between HU and delayed
and stronger primary ore. In 1982 primary ore mining
ramp up (Moss et al., 2004). Conversely, the Cadia mine
started with mechanized Load-Haul-Dump (LHD)
in Australia was able to reach productivity several times
equipment. Geotechnical problems such as collapses,
that number (Catalan et at., 2017).
seismicity and coarse fragmentation were experienced
Fragmentation also influences mine design and operating due to the primary ore being massive and competent. Due
parameters, such as; Draw Points (DPs) size and spacing, the ongoing problems, the geological department of the El
equipment selection, draw control procedures, production Teniente Division started to track fragmentation in DPs,
rates, HU and the need for secondary breakage, among with the aim to understand the fragmentation process and
others (Brown, 2007). Laubscher (1990) has presented a develop a tool for fragmentation predictions. An internal
guide to adjust mine design to the fragmentation and rock fragmentation tool was developed (Blondel et al., 1995)
mass quality assessment for a jointed rock mass. and is still being used during feasibility studies to assess
Fragmentation mostly depends on the rock fabric nature

1
the likely fragmentation encountered in any future mining
project.
The adopted fragmentation measurement method
comprises the characterization of the two major
components of size distribution; the fine material that
usually fills up the DPs mouth and the coarse material
related to HU and secondary brakeage. Several
fragmentation measurement campaigns have been
undertaken at the mine site, considering different mine
sectors and rock types, including those with and without
rock mass preconditioning.
Hydraulic Fracturing (HF) preconditioning was
introduced at El Teniente in 2005 to reduce the seismic
hazard. A detailed description of managing seismic risk
and the role of HF is presented by Rojas and Balboa
(2017). After an almost three-year trial, HF was
implemented mine-wide as part of the mining method,
with a standard HF spacing of 1.5 m and HF holes placed
in a grid of 40 m by 40 m. HF usually grows horizontal
and perpendicular to σ3 to a radius of 20 m.
Blasting preconditioning was implemented only once as a
trial to treat the stronger and most competent rock mass at
the El Teniente mine. The detailed work undertaken and
the post-evaluation that included determining HU
frequency, was published by Brzovic et al., (2014a), and
Brzovic et al., (2015). Those works and the work of
Blondel et al., (1995) are the only published material
related to fragmentation observations from El Teniente
mine after more than 35 years of mining in the massive
and competent primary ore.
The main focus of this paper is to present new findings of
rock mass behavior related to fragmentation after an
extensive review of the large fragmentation database. It
demostrates that rock blocks break in a consistent manner
during flow through the ore column, and subsequently
may have a large impact on mine productivity if HF at
reduced spacing is undertaken. These findings provide a
potentially useful basis for future block-caving operations
in massive and competent rock masses.
2. EL TENIENTE OVERVIEW
The primary copper ore at the El Teniente mine has been
described as very competent and massive; it exhibits a
brittle behavior, often failing violently under high-stress
conditions (Rojas et al., 2000). This description is
consistent with the geological description of a rock mass
having few or no discontinuities (joints) by the definition
provided by International Society of Rock Mechanics
(ISRM, 1981). The only true discontinuities are faults,
although they are widely spaced within the rock mass
(spacing around 10m). The primary copper ore has a high
frequency of veins, in which the copper mineralization is
hosted typically as vein network structures or stockwork
(Figure 1). The main rock types at El Teniente include
mafic (gabbros, diabases and other called CMET) and
felsic (dacite and tonalite-diorite porphyries) intrusives
and hydrothermal breccias of Miocene age (Skewes et al.,
2002).
It has been observed that vein mineralogy plays a big role
in rock mass fragmentation at El Teniente, with soft veins
containing weak minerals (chalcopyrite and anhydrite
mainly, Figure 1) controlling the disassembling of the
rock mass during caving (Brzovic and Villaescusa, 2007).
Those vein types and faults are considered the weaker
path of the massive and competent primary ore. Based on
that finding, rock mass characterization has focused on
determining the content of weak veins within a unit
volume (Brzovic et al., 2014b). The results of the
characterization demonstrated that the rock types can be
classified from weaker to stronger as follows: Cmet
Footwall (Fw), Cmet Hanginwal (Hw), diorite and dacite
(Table 1). Fw is to the east.
The El Teniente mine is located in the Andes range about
50 km east from the nearest city, Rancagua. The ore body
is surrounded by a rough landscape where overburden
from current mine operations may vary between 400 to
1,300 m in height (Figure 1). Thus, stresses may vary, but
it is known that at the production level of Esmeralda and
Reno mine sectors where relevant seismicity has been
experienced, in situ principal stresses are around 50-60
MPa (σ1) and 20-30 MPa (σ3). The trend and plunge of the
in situ principal stresses are around 300/08 (σ1), 239/06
(σ2) and 110/80 (σ3) according to Windsor et al., (2006),
also in Figure 1.
3. FRAGMENTATION MEASUREMENTS
Fragmentation measurement campaigns have been
undertaken at El Teniente since 1993 to understand the
fragmentation process and develop proper internal tools
for fragmentation forecasting in future projects.
A typical fragmentation assessment campaign includes
measurements of two portions of the block size
distributions in DPs, namely a) the finer fraction material
that represent the muck at the draw point itself (Figure 2),
and b) the coarser fraction material that represents all
larger blocks requiring secondary blasting or breakage for
material handling, which included HU. Both size
fractions are quantified through the measurement process
along with the corresponding Height of Draw (HOD).
Fragmentation in DPs show rock blocks with a typical,
well-developed polyhedral form that reflects the
structural fracturing process as shown in Figure 2.
For the coarser fraction material, a process has been
developed to convert the two-dimensional observations of
a rock block in HU, to a three-dimensional volume and
tonnage (in section 3.1). This process involves the
characterization of individual, larger rock blocks that
report to the DPs by the relationship of dimensions along
2
Fig. 1. Plan view (left) with main rock types, major faults, mine sectors and main in situ stresses orientations at the El Teniente mine.
General cross section (top right) and some pictures showing stockwork vein characteristics of the massive and competent primary
rock mass. It also shows a typical rock block at the production draw point, where the faces are sulfide vein types.

Fig. 2. Main characteristic of the fragmentation measurements at the El Teniente mine. For the fine fraction material, the flip chart
is used to help to tune the visual observation (from Moss et al., 2004). All single rock blocks for secondary breakage are measured
across three sections for shape factor estimations as shown in the bottom right photo.

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 Table 1. Rock Mass Characterization of Main Rock Types at the El Teniente mine (Gonzalez, 2018).
UCS E Weak Veins Intensity Fault Intensity
Unit Main Rock Type
(MPa) (GPa) P10: average ± SD (m-1) P10 (m-1)
Zone 2 Dacite 151 39 0.4 ± 0.4 0.05-0.16
Zone 3 Diorite 140-162 48-49 0.6 ± 0.6 0.07-0.16
Zone 4 Cmet Hw 135 57 1.0 ± 0.6 0.12-0.43
Zone 5 Cmet Fw 108 50 3.1 ± 1.7 0.12-0.49
Notes: Lineal frequency measurements or P10 (Dershowitz and Herda, 1992) are from multiple core and orientations (160.000 m core samples). For faults, 3 orthogonal
cores were used. SD is standard deviation. Data from El Teniente internal report.

Table 2. Details of fragmentation measurement campaigns at the El Teniente mine.

Draw Point & Shovel
Preconditioning Fragmentation
Year Mine Sector Rock Type Features
Technique Measurement
(H*W, m2, yd3)
Few selected DPs
1993/4 Ten 4 Sur Cmet None -, -, 6
CM of Fine & Coarse
1999 Esmeralda Cmet & Diorite None CM of Fine & Coarse -, -, 6
Diablo None in 0-43 HOD
2007/8 Cmet CM of Fine & Coarse 4.0*4.6, 16.6, 13
Regimiento (DR) HF in 44-93 HOD
2007 Reno Cmet None CM of Fine & Coarse 3.5*3.5, 11.0, 7
2007 Ten 4 Sur Diorite None CM of Fine & Coarse -
2010 Reno Cmet HF CM of Fine 3.5*3.5, 11.0, 7
HF and Blasting
2011/13 SuaPi Cmet & Dacite CM of Fine & Coarse 3.5*3.5, 11.0, 7
Preconditioning
2015 Whole Mine All Rock Types HF Only Coarse & HU -
2016/17 Reno Dacite HF Only Coarse & HU 4.1*3.8, 14.0, 10
2017/8 Esmeralda Cmet & Breccias HF Only Coarse & HU -, -, 7
Notes: CM, continuous measurement; DPs, draw points; HU, hang up; HF, hydraulic fracturing. Fine & Coarse refers to size fraction characterization. H*W, free
draw point height and width; m2, free draw point opening or sieve capable of passing; yd3, shovel size and volume.

the three major axes. These measurements are used to
determine the shape factor defined by Gy (1967), which
measures the deviation from a cubic shape. The shape
factor "ƒ" is a dimensionless unit parameter, which varies
between 0 and 1. The shape factor is obtained by the
multiplication of the ratios of rock block major axes
having the largest axis as denominator as follows:
ƒ= ∗ ∗
where l1, l2 and l3 represent the major, middle and minor
axes of the rock block as is shown in Figure 2 (bottom
right). It is important to note that most of all large rock
blocks that the LHD cannot carry are usually
characterized with a statistical analysis being undertaken
to estimate the fine and coarse fraction tonnage.
The detailed procedure for measuring both the finer and
coarser fractions is as follow:
 The size distribution of the fine fraction is
measured by visual inspection of the draw points in
four size ranges: [<0.25 m], [0.25 m to 1.0m], [1.0
m to 1.5 m] and [1.5 m>]. A comparative “flip
chart” developed in Palabora mine (Moss et al.,
2007) is used to help to estimate the percentages of
each size range by visual inspection (Figure 2).
 The coarse fraction material represents all rock
blocks identified during secondary blasting,
including HU. The coarse fraction is also counted
in ranges of: [1.0 m to 2.0 m], [2.0 m to 3.0 m] and
[3.0 m>]. Each single, large rock block is
characterized by its main size dimensions along the
three major axes to determine the shape factor.
Some large blocks that form HU are also
characterized by its main axes (more details in
section 3.2).
 Both size distributions are combined and correlated
(1) to the production database to account for the full
distribution size. Data analysis is undertaken for a
certain number of DPs that have similar geological
conditions and/or have received similar rock mass
preconditioning.
A fragmentation campaign may take from a couple of
months to a couple of years, depending on the rate of
draw. It may consider measurement of a single or both
fractions in a continuous manner (including night shifts).
In order to undertake the fragmentation measurements,
usually technicians join the secondary breakage crew for
all shifts. Table 2 summarizes the fragmentation
campaigns completed at the El Teniente mine between
1993 and 2018. HF has been the main preconditioning
technique undertaken since 2005 but only systematically
from 2010 onward. Blasting preconditioning was
undertaken once as a trial in SuaPi mine sector between
2010 and 2011 to treat the strongest and most massive
dacite rock type.

4
Fig. 3. Rock block shape factor measured along the El Teniente history considering mine sectors, rock types, and preconditioning
techniques. PC, blasting and hydraulic fracturing preconditioning; HF, hydraulic fracturing; HOD, height of draw.

3.1. Shape Factor rock block with large aspect ratio (l1 and l2 greater than l3),
All large blocks characterized by their main axes are used will have higher probabilities for breakage.
to determine the shape factor; average values from all of
the fragmentation campaigns (Table 2) according to the
HOD are presented in Figure 3, which includes different
mine sectors, rock types and applied preconditioning
techniques. The plotted data demonstrate most samples
are contained within the range between 0.3 and 0.4, based
on the finding that the value of 0.35 had been selected for
planning purposes at the El Teniente mine. A value of
0.35 means length ratios of 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5. In other
words, the largest and shortest block lengths tend to
follow a ratio of 2:1. It is important to mention that
observed large rock blocks tend to be almost an irregular
polyhedron of three sides. For simplification, a
parallelepiped shape is assumed to calculate the volumes.
3.2. Main Axes Ratios
The following graphs in Figure 4 show the axes ratio
between major and minor axes (l1/l3) of large rock blocks
left by LHD at the DPs, which are plotted according to
their volume. The data in the figure support the idea that
whatever the conditions (i.e. rock types, HOD and
preconditioning techniques), the largest and shortest
block length tend to follow a ratio of 2:1. In that figure,
rock volume was calculated as regular parallelepiped with Fig. 4. Ratios between the largest and the shortest rock block
a factor k of 0.8 (angles between 60 and 70 degree). axes considering mine sectors, rock types, preconditioning
techniques and rock volume. (HF, hydraulic fracturing).
These results are very consistent, since it is logical to
conclude that a parallelepiped rock volume under It is interesting to note from Figure 4, that as the LHD in
constant movement (as occurs within the muck pile use in the Diablo Regimiento (DR) mine sector is the
column in the cave) tends to break to form a volume largest used at El Teniente (13 yd3, in Table 2), only large
having similar axes lengths. In fact, the Block Cave rock blocks are left for secondary breakage (mostly >3
Fragmentation software known as BCF (Esterhuizen, m3). In addition, as the draw points in the DR mine sector
2005) uses the “aspect ratio” variable to estimate the are also the largest ones designed at the mine (in Figure 5
likelihood of a rock block to break during the secondary and Table 2), with an opening of almost 4.0 m by 4.6 m,
fragmentation process (flow within the muck pile). The largest rock blocks are able to report to the DPs mouth

5
(mostly between 3 and 90 m3). Those largest rock blocks
do not appear in other mine sectors (sieving effect). This
finding demonstrates that by characterizing only the fine
fraction material in DPs, means that it is impossible to get
an insight of the true fragmentation. In other words, the
true fragmentation can only be determined by
characterizing both fraction materials – fine and coarse.
In this respect, if a draw bell design generates HU, any
related data analysis from photographic and related
techniques used for fragmentation characterization on
DPs, will underestimated the true fragmentation.
Fig. 5. Draw bell and DPs geometry used in different mine
sectors at the El Teniente mine (see also Table 2).
Observation of HU may allow to identify two of the three
major axes of the large rock blocks as seen in Figure 6.
The figure, is a 3-D image of a HU (upside down) using a
laser-scanning technique (Pinilla, 2016). It is highly
likely, in that image, that the missing axes is the middle
one, otherwise the arch may be unstable. Under the
assumption that 2 major axes of the block (l1 and l3) may
be measured by visual inspection, the 3-D volume of the
rock blocks forming the HU may be reconstructed by
using the shape factor of 0.35. Based on that, more than
1,000 large rock blocks observed in several HU from the
DR mine sector are plotted in Figure 7 to evaluate the
relationship between the number of large rock blocks and
HU.
Fig. 6. 3-D image of a HU (upside down) using laser-scanning
techniques (Pinilla, 2016). From that observation, at least two
main axes of the rock block may be determined (arrow and
dashed black line).
Figure 7 can be read as the likelihood of one or many
major rock block(s) to form a HU. The figure shows that
largest number of HU have a single large rock block. For
instance, 40% of the HU have a single rock block with a
volume of 20 m3. A smaller percentage of HU have larger
blocks with only 8% of the HU having two rock blocks
with a total volume of 20 m3. The figure indicates that HU
with multiple large rock blocks do not occur. In addition,
the HU defines rock volumes that range between 10 m3
and 100 m3 in this particular mine sector and draw bell
geometry.
Fig. 7. Observed distribution of large rock blocks in HU in DR
mine sector. More than 1,000 blocks in over 400 HU are plotted.
3.3. Fragmentation Performance
Fragmentation performance is described as the DPs
productivity as a function of the tonnes drawn between
each HU. The optimum mine design including business
objectives should be based on a high tonnages drawn
between HU or in the best case scenario without HU.
Figure 8 presents observed productivity of main rock
types at the El Teniente mine without rock mass
preconditioning, based on HOD. As it is expected, the low
productivity occurs at the beginning due to low secondary
fragmentation within the caved ore pile, and then increase
by higher HOD.
Fig. 8. Historical productivity of primary ore rock masses at the
El Teniente mine, considering rock types and HOD.
6
Figure 8 also shows, an average productivity of the The particular implementation of the HF design within the
massive and primary ore types that range around 800 and Reno mine sector is shown in Figure 10. It also shows the
1,000 tons between HU. Variations and less productivity HF intensity by calculating the area of fracturing by HF
are also observed in rock masses considered stronger, in a unit volume or P32 (m2/m3) as a block model. HF
such is the case for the diorite rock type (second strongest started in 2007 at that mine sector, initially as a trial, and
as illustrated in Table 1). then from 2010 onward, in a more systematic process
(regular grid). The block model was developed using the
3.4. Fragmentation and Preconditioning HF drill core location, the induced stresses by the Reno
The first studies to observe changes of fragmentation
cave when HF was implemented, HF features such as 20
performance by preconditioning the rock mass occurred
m radius and 1.5 m spacing (from Rojas and Balboa
in 2004. These studies, undertaken at the El Salvador
2017), and HF implementation performance or
mine in Chile, indicated a reduction of 84% of HU located effectiveness, which was not being affected by rock types.
between 5 and 12 m in height within the draw bell (Baez,
HF effectiveness is reported daily by operations, and have
2010). Another internal studies at the El Teniente mine,
shown successful rates over 90% of the mine wide.
back in 2007 at DR mine sector, observed change in
productivity from 605 tons between HU (0-43 m HOD
without HF) to 891 tons (45-90 m of HOD with HF), but
those changes were attributed to secondary fragmentation
process rather than HF effect at that time (Hurtado et al.,
2007).
A comprehensive study of fragmentation performance
considering different preconditioning techniques
undertaken in dacite rock type within SuaPi mine sector
was presented by Brzovic et al. (2015), and these studies
showed that preconditioned rock mass nearly doubled
productivity. It may be considered that the dacite rock
type is the strongest rock mass within the El Teniente ore
body or the one with less weak veins as shown in Table 1.
Mining within that massive rock mass was avoided until
preconditioning came to the El Teniente mine. The SuaPi
was used as the trial for future mining of dacite rock type
in the Reno mine sector, which started in 2016.
The following Figure 9 shows that applying HF in all
Cmet rock type at the Reno mine sector resulted in
productivity doubling. These results were also observed
in other rock types (Diorite rock type in Figure 8 and 9).

Fig. 9. Fragmentation performance by HF as preconditioning Fig. 10. HF-implemented design in the Reno mine sector (top)
technique used at the El Teniente mine by main rock types. and a block model plan view at 2160z of HF preconditioning
Cmet Reno without HF (2007) is included for comparisons. intensity or P32 defined by HF design (bottom).

7
This systematic implementation of the HF mine wide  Considering HF design at 1.5 m spacing,
(Rojas and Balboa 2017) resulted in a homogenization consequently, the dimensions of the large rock
process of the rock mass (preconditioned), which allowed block, that secondary fragmentation may create
the El Teniente mine to achieve all production targets set during ore flows will be as follows: main axes as
in the last few years. However, despite that 3.0 m, 2.1 m and 1.5 m (shortest ones by HF
homogenization process for all rock types, the natural spacing, and using the shape factor of 0.35), giving
geological condition of the rock mass still plays a role in a rock volume of 13.5 m3.
rock mass behavior (fragmentation). As can be seen in
Figure 9, the dacite rock type, with the same HF design as  If HF is decreas to 1.0 m spacing, and considering
Cmet rock type (particularly after the regular HF grid was that all above rules apply, the large rock block
achieved in Figure 10) has not reached a productivity would has main axes as 2.0 m, 1.4 m and 1.0 m,
above the 500 tons between HU, which can be attributed then the rock volume will be of 4.0 m3.
to the lack of weak veins within that rock mass (Table 1).
The result of diorite rock type in Esmeralda mine sector
(2017/18), which also increase productivity by double,
but still below Cmet rock type (in Figure 9), confirms that
interpretation.
3.5. Possible impact on Fragmentation
performance by close HF spacing
The previous section shows how fragmentation during
material flow within the ore columns is characterized by
a consistent process of fracturing. The ratio between the
largest and the shortest rock block axes tends to be a value
of 2, irrelevant of rock types, HOD and preconditioning
techniques.
Figure 11 provides an illustration of the simulated
examples of how HF reduces large rock blocks during
caving in a massive and poor fracture rock mass. This
figures shows the two different scales of Discrete Fracture
Network (DFN) modeling that was undertaken. The larger
scale at the top shows caving propagation simulation in a
rock mass with and without HF. The smaller scale below Fig. 11. DFN modeling for dacite and Cmet rock types to
shows the simulation for a poor inter connected rock illustrate the effect of block size reduction by applying HF at
fabric with and without HF. For both cases the HF was at 1.5 m spacing. Color means in situ rock block defined by rock
1.5 m spacing and shows that large rock blocks will structure inter connection at the bottom images (Dacite).
reduce by improving rock structure interconnection and
then fragmentation. The calculations seem to be accurate since a thin
Following these two main aspect of fragmentation parallelepiped of rock block layer (defined by HF as
observed at the El Teniente mine, the additional impact in shown in Figure 11) under constant movement that occurs
fragmentation performance by close HF spacing may be within the muck pile column in the cave will be very
hypothesised as follow: unstable and easy to break. This is especially true if there
is a high intensity of weak and perpendicular (in relation
 Based on observation, it is considered that the to HF) veins. Therefore, reducing HF spacing, and
largest axes of rock block will be double of the ensuring that they are parallel, will have a significant
smallest one (described in section 3.1). impact on reducing the number of large rock blocks in
HU, which subsequently will result in increas draw point
 Then, reducing the smallest side of a rock block by productivity. Reducing HF spacing will cut all major
a fixed value using HF, will also reduce the size of blocks that form HU as is shown in Figure 7, helping to
largest side of a rock block during ore flow. reduce hang up occurrence. Based on Figure 7, only 10%
 It is assumed that HF grows as parallel plains, as of HU have one single large rock block of 4 m3. The
observed in mine drives at the Cadia mine, where remaining 90% of HU, have large rock blocks above 4 m3,
HF was mapped on mine walls that were parallel which would be eliminated by reducing HF spacing up to
over 15 m long at 1.25 m spacing (in Burger et al., 1 m.
2011).

8
4. CONCLUSIONS
The data gathered from El Teniente DPs by the geological
department during the last 25 years of underground
mining in the massive and competent primary rock mass,
allows for discovery of important empirical observations
of rock mass behavior. Those finding are also consistent
with the mechanics of fracturing. These findings are also
relevant for future block-caving operations in the world
that have massive and competent rock mass as in the El
Teniente mine. These findings are as follows:
No matter what mine conditions, rock types, HOD and
preconditioning techniques being applied, rock mass
breakage during material flow within the muck pile ore
column occurs in a consistent manner. The largest and
shortest block length of a rock block tends to define a ratio
around the value of 2.
By the application of hydraulic fracturing (using 1.5 m
spacing) as a rock mass preconditioning technique, DPs
productivity, as the amount of tonnes drawn between HU,
may double in a Cmet rock type. The same
preconditioning technique applied to a more massive and
competent rock mass, such as the dacite, resulted in draw
point productivity of approximately 400 tons between
HU, which is one-third of that which was achieved in the
Cmet rock type. It can be inferred, that the rock fabric
(weak veins in this case), help or constrain fragmentation
performance at the El Teniente mine. The fragmentation
performance observed for diorite rock type also support
that interpretation.
The application of hydraulic fracturing as a rock mass
precondition technique, even to small spacing (less than
1.5 meters for instance) will have a large impact in
reducing fragmentation and increasing DPs productivity
because large blocks (>10 m3) that control the HU
formation (70 percent in a particular mine sector) will
reduce significantly.
In order to characterize the true fragmentation of a rock
mass, the fine and the coarse fraction material must be
characterized. Fine fraction is what is observed in the DP
mouth, and coarse fraction is what required secondary
blasting for muck handling (large rock blocks in HU and
that LHD cannot carry out). In this respect, if a draw bell
design generates HU, photographic and relates techniques
used for fragmentation characterization on DPs will be
insufficient to achieve the true fragmentation. The results
from the data analysis using those technique will
underestimate the actual fragmentation.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the El Teniente Division of
Codelco-Chile for their permission to publish this work
and for supporting many years of intensive fragmentation
measurements. The authors also are grateful to our
colleagues, particularly Jorge Pereira, who were
responsible for some of the data collection campaigns.
6. REFERENCES
1. Báez, F. 2010. Preacondicionamiento del Macizo
Rocoso en Codelco, 1999-2010. Santiago, Codelco
Chile-IM2. [Spanish]
2. Blondel, J., J. Pereira and F. Celhay. 1995.
Consideraciones de Geología Aplicada en Estudios de
Fragmentación de la Roca Primaria, Mine El Teniente.
Revista Minerales, Instituto de Minero de Chile, 50: 209,
7-19. [Spanish]
3. Brzovic, A. and E. Villaescusa. 2007. Rock mass
characterization and assessment of block-forming
geological discontinuities during caving of primary
copper ore at the El Teniente mine, Chile. International
Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 44,
565-583.
4. Brzovic, A., J.P. Hurtado and N. Marin. 2014a. Intensity
Rock mass Pre-conditioning and Fragmentation
Performance at the El Teniente Mine, Chile. In
Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on
Block and Sublevel Caving, Santiago, Chile.
5. Brzovic, A., P. Schachter, C. de los Santos, J. Vallejos
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