L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

4.1 Theorems of Pappus

A very simple method exists for calculating the surface area generated by revolving a plane curve about a nonintersecting axis in the plane

of the curve. In Fig.1, the line segment of length 𝐿 in the x-y plane generates a surface when revolved about the x-axis. An element of this

surface is the ring generated by 𝑑𝐿. The area of this ring is its circumference times its slant height or 𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝐿. The total area is then

4.1

Fig.1

Because 𝑦L = y dL, the area becomes

4.2

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 1

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

where 𝑦 is the y-coordinate of the centroid C for the line of length L.

In the case of a volume generated by revolving an area about a nonintersecting line in its plane, an equally simple relation exists for finding the
volume. An element of the volume generated by revolving the area A about the x-axis, Fig. 2, is the elemental ring of cross section 𝑑𝐴 and
radius y. The volume of the element is its circumference times 𝑑𝐴 or 𝑑𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑦𝑑𝐴, and the total volume is

4.3

Fig.2

because 𝑦𝐴 = 𝑦 𝑑𝐴, the volume becomes

4.4

where y is the y-coordinate of the centroid C of the revolved area A. Thus, we obtain the generated volume by multiplying the generating area
by the circumference of the circular path described by its centroid. The two theorems of Pappus are useful for determining areas and volumes of

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 2

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

revolution. They are also used to find the centroids of plane curves and plane areas when we know the corresponding areas and volumes created
by revolving these figures about a nonintersecting axis.

4.2 Area Moments Of Inertia

When forces are distributed continuously over an area on which they act, it is often necessary to calculate the moment of these forces about some
axis either in or perpendicular to the plane of the area. Frequently the intensity of the force (pressure or stress) is proportional to the distance of
the line of action of the force from the moment axis. The elemental force acting on an element of area, then, is proportional to distance times
differential area, and the elemental moment is proportional to distance squared times differential area. We see, therefore, that the total moment
involves an integral of form (distance)2 d (area). This integral is called the moment of inertia or the second moment of the area. The integral is
a function of the geometry of the area and occurs frequently in the applications of mechanics.

Rectangular and Polar Moments of Inertia

Consider the area A in the x-y plane, Fig. 3. The moments of inertia of the element dA about the x- and y-axes are, by definition, 𝑑𝐼𝑥 = 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴
and 𝑑𝐼𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴, respectively. The moments of inertia of A about the same axes are therefore

4.5

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 3

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

fig.3

The moment of inertia of 𝑑𝐴 about the pole 𝑂 (z-axis) is, by similar definition, 𝑑𝐼𝑧 = 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴. The moment of inertia of the entire area about

O is

4.6

The expressions defined by Eqs. 4.5 are called rectangular moments of inertia, whereas the expression of Eq.4.6 is called the polar moment of

inertia.

Because 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 , it is clear that

4.7

4.3 Radius of gyration

Consider an area A, Fig. 4a, which has rectangular moments of inertia 𝐼𝑥 and 𝐼𝑦 and a polar moment of inertia 𝐼𝑧 about O. We now visualize this
area as concentrated into a long narrow strip of area A a distance 𝑘𝑥 from the x-axis, Fig. 4b. By definition the moment of inertia of the strip
about the x-axis will be the same as that of the original area if 𝑘𝑥2 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥 . The distance 𝑘𝑥 is called the radius of gyration of the area about the

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 4

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

x-axis. A similar relation for the y-axis is written by considering the area as concentrated into a narrow strip parallel to the y-axis as shown in
Fig. 4c . Also, if we visualize the area as concentrated into a narrow ring of radius 𝑘𝑧 as shown in Fig. 4d, we may express the polar moment of
inertia as 𝑘𝑧2 𝐴 = 𝐼𝑧 .

Fig.4

In summary we write

4.8

The radius of gyration, then, is a measure of the distribution of the area from the axis in question. A rectangular or polar moment of inertia may

be expressed by specifying the radius of gyration and the area. When we substitute Eqs. 4.8 into Eq. 4.7, we have

4.9

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 5

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

Thus, the square of the radius of gyration about a polar axis equals the sum of the squares of the radii of gyration about the two corresponding

rectangular axes.

4.4 Parallel axis theorem

The moment of inertia of an area about a noncentroidal axis may be easily expressed in terms of the moment of inertia about a parallel centroidal
axis. In Fig. 5 the x0-y0 axes pass through the centroid C of the area.

Fig.5

Let us now determine the moments of inertia of the area about the parallel x-y axes. By definition, the moment of inertia of the element 𝑑𝐴
about the x-axis is

4.10

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 6

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

Expanding and integrating give us

4.11

We see that the first integral is by definition the moment of inertia 𝐼𝑥 about the centroidal 𝑥0 -axis. The second integral is zero, since 𝑦0 𝑑𝐴 =
𝐴𝑦0and 𝑦0 is automatically zero with the centroid on the 𝑥0-axis. The third term is simply 𝐴𝑑𝑥2. Thus, the expression for Ix and the similar
expression for 𝐼𝑦 become

4.12

By the eq. 4.7 the sum of these two equations gives

4.13

Equations 4.12 and 4.13 are the so-called parallel-axis theorems.

4.6 Composite areas

It is frequently necessary to calculate the moment of inertia of an area composed of a number of distinct parts of simple and calculable

geometric shape. the moments of inertia for the composite area about the x- and y-axes become

4.14

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 7

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

Although we may add the moments of inertia of the individual parts of a composite area about a given axis, we may not add their radii of
gyration. The radius of gyration for the composite area about the axis in question is given by 𝑘 = 𝐼/𝐴 , where I is the total moment of inertia
and A is the total area of the composite figure. Similarly, the radius of gyration 𝑘 about a polar axis through some point equals 𝐼𝑧 /𝐴, where
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 for x-y axes through that point.

4.7 Products of inertia

In certain problems involving unsymmetrical cross sections and in the calculation of moments of inertia about rotated axes, an expression

𝑑𝐼𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴 occurs, which has the integrated form

4.15

where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are the coordinates of the element of area 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 The quantity 𝐼𝑥𝑦 is called the product of inertia of the area 𝐴 with respect
to the 𝑥_𝑦 axes. Unlike moments of inertia, which are always positive for positive areas, the product of inertia may be positive, negative or zero.
The product of inertia is zero whenever either of the reference axes is an axis of symmetry, such as the x-axis for the area in Fig. 6.

Fig.6

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 8

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

Here we see that the sum of the terms 𝑥(−𝑦) 𝑑𝐴 and 𝑥(+𝑦) 𝑑𝐴 due to symmetrically placed elements vanishes. Because the entire area may be
considered as composed of pairs of such elements, it follows that the product of inertia 𝐼𝑥𝑦 for the entire area is zero.

4.8 Rotation of axes

The product of inertia is useful when we need to calculate the moment of inertia of an area about inclined axes. This consideration leads directly
to the important problem of determining the axes about which the moment of inertia is a maximum and a minimum. In Fig.7 the moments of
inertia of the area about the 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ -axes are

4.16

where 𝑥 ′ and 𝑦 ′ have been replaced by their equivalent expressions as seen from the geometry of the figure.

Fig.7

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 9

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

Expanding and substituting the trigonometric identities

4.17

and the defining relations for 𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦 give us

4.18

In a similar manner we write the product of inertia about the inclined axes as

4.19

Expanding and substituting the trigonometric identities

4.20

and the defining relations for𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦 give us

4.21

Adding Eqs. 4.18 gives 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼𝑥′ + 𝐼𝑦′ = 𝐼𝑧 , the polar moment of inertia about O, which checks the results of Eq. 4.7.

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 10

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

4.9 Principal axes

The angle which makes 𝐼𝑥′ and 𝐼𝑦′ either maximum or minimum may be determined by setting the derivative of either 𝐼𝑥′ or 𝐼𝑦′ with respect to
equal to zero. Thus,

4.22

Denoting this critical angle by𝛼 gives

4.23

Equation 4.23 gives two values for 2𝛼 which differ by 𝜋 since tan 2𝛼 = tan (2 𝛼 +𝜋 ). Consequently the two solutions for 𝛼 will differ by 𝜋/2.

One value defines the axis of maximum moment of inertia, and the other value defines the axis of minimum moment of inertia. These two
rectangular axes are called the principal axes of inertia.

4.10 Principal moments of inertia,

When we substitute Eq. 4.23 for the critical value of 2𝜃 in Eq. 4.21, we see that the product of inertia is zero for the principal axes of inertia.

Substitution of sin 2𝛼 and cos 2𝛼, obtained from Eq. 4.23, for sin 2𝜃and cos 2𝜃 in Eqs. 18 gives the expressions for the principal moments of
inertia as

4.24

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 11

L4_Engineering Mechanics Statics

4.11 Mohrs circle of inertia.

We may represent the relations in Eqs. 4.18, 4.21,4.23 and 4.24 graphically by a diagram called Mohr’s circle. For given values of 𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦 and
𝐼𝑥𝑦 the corresponding values of 𝐼𝑥′ , 𝐼𝑦′ , and 𝐼𝑥′𝑦′ may be determined from the diagram for any desired angle. A horizontal axis for the
measurement of moments of inertia and a vertical axis for the measurement of products of inertia are first selected, Fig. 8. Next, point A, which
has the coordinates (𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦 ), and point B, which has the coordinates (𝐼𝑦 , −𝐼𝑥𝑦 ), are located. We now draw a circle with these two points as the
extremities of a diameter. The angle from the radius OA to the horizontal axis is 2𝛼 or twice the angle from the x-axis of the area in question to
the axis of maximum moment of inertia. The angle on the diagram and the angle on the area are both measured in the same sense as shown. The
coordinates of any point C are (𝐼𝑥′ , 𝐼𝑥′𝑦′ ), and those of the corresponding point D are (𝐼𝑦′ , −𝐼𝑥′𝑦′ ). Also the angle between OA and OC is 2𝜃 or
twice the angle from the x-axis to the x'-axis. Again we measure both angles in the same sense as shown. We may verify from the trigonometry
of the circle that Eqs. 4.18, 4.21,4.23 and 4.24 agree with the statements made.

Fig.8

Mr. Patrick Ndwali Kasereka Page 12