Pump Pa HANDBOOKContents Rotary Pumps, Basic Considerations in their Applications Fosttive Displacement, Rotary Pump Characteristics Pump Horsepower and Efficiency .... Suction Pressure Filtration Viscosity Data, Formulas and Conversion Viscosity of Common Liquids Viscosty Blencing Chart Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluide ‘Typical Shear Rate Curves Conveision Data. Equivalent Values of Pressure Properties of the Lower Atmosphere ANS! Standard Pipe Flanges and Threads Properties of Welded & Seamless Steel Pipe... Pressure Loss in Standard Steel Pipe and Fittings IMO" Positive Displacement Rotary Pumps GTS™Geared Twin Screw Pumps. GIG" Grescent Internal Gear Pumps IMO® Three-Screw Rotary Pumps: ILMAG! Magnetic Drive Couplings IMO* Quick Selection Chart 25-28 29.20 at 32-45 46. 24647 48-49 50-53 62 53 Aokroweedgements: Some f the material for this handbooks has teen extracted from the followng scutess. Hygraulic Insite, Texaco Wc, Arestcan Natiena Stanares bstiute 2nd Engresrng Fandbook. thd edicn Informavon furnished heteinis uelleves accurate bul Ime Irusres Ine, asaurnes no labity whatsoever for ieRotary Pumps Basic Considerations In Their Applications In the application of rotary pumps there are certain factors which must bo considered in order to insure a successful installation. These are fundamentelly the same regardless of the fluids to be handled or the pumping conditions. Although the primary purpose of this paper is to acquaint you with these factors and ther relation to rotary pumps it might be well to first briefly consider the various basic type of pumps. In general, pumps may be put into three classes: centrifugal, reciprocating and rotary. The centrifugal pump develops iis pressure as a result of centrifugal force and is mostly used where larce volumes at relatively low pres- sures are requires. Pumps of thie type operate at comparatively high speed usually direct con- nected to their driver. They are not, however, sell-priming except in the case of some very special designs and the delivered capacity will vary considerably with any change in discharge pressure. Centrfugal pumps are not perticularly adapted to handling viscous fluids; although ‘they are occasionally used for applications ot this nature, the efficiency usually drops off quite rapidly if viscosities above 500 to 1000 SSU are encountered. The teciprocating pump hes positive pres- suro characteristics and is used principally to handle small volumes at relatively high pres- sures. Dus to its reciprocating motion and the inertia effect of the parts. speeds are relatively ow. This type of pump is self-primng and the delivered capacity is practically constant re- gardless of discharge pressure. It can handle with uniformly high volumettic efficiency prac Uically all types of fluids. The 1otary pump combines the rotary mo- tion of the centrifugel with the positive pressure characteristics of the reciprocating pump. Like the reciprocating pump it is a positive displace- ment device that delivers with each revolution a given quantity of fluid, is selt-priming, and gives practically constant delivered capacity regard- less of pressure, Spesds are much higher, how- ever, than normally found in reciprocating pumes with the result that in probably the majority of cases direct connected motors can be used. Rotaries are available for pumping practically any fluid that will fow, and thelr greatest field is in the handling of viscous fluids. The rotary pump is known as the ‘work horse of industry" and is today, keeping full the pipelines of many processes, that oterwise would be unable to function. ‘A rotary pump is a positive displacement pump consisting of a fixed casing containing gears, cams, scrows, plungers or similar ele ments actuated by rotation of the drive shatt. Pumps in this classification commonly fall into six basic types, the gear, the vane, the screw, the cam and piston, the shuttle block, and the multiple piston, practically all of which can be broken down into further subdivisions. The gear type which is perhaps the most common, consists of the external gear (fig. 1) inoluding spur, helical and herringbone teeth, the lobular or’ impeller type, (fig. 2) and the internal gear, (fig. 3). Depending on the design and service, gear type pumps may be furnished cithor with or without timing gears. All havo constant displacement characteristics. ‘The vane type pumps consist essentially of the sliding vane (fg. 4) and swinging vane, or bucket types, (fig. 5). Although the majority are designed for consiant displacement, there are designs available in the sliding vane type, Wherein the displacement is accomplished by Incorporating 2 device which governs the amount of vane movement. Screw pumps may have one, two or three rotors with threads of various contours, depend- ing on the design. The majority of two rotor pumps requires timing gears whereas the other types do not. All are of the constant displace-Fig. 1 External Geer Pump Fg. 2 Three Lobe Pump Fig. 4 Siiding Vane Pump ment type and are illustrated by Figures 6, 7 and 8. The cam and piston type (tig. 9) is exactly what iis name implies. it combines the rotary motion of a cam in combination with a piston. Usually two sets are utilized 180° apart so that a fairly steady flow results. This type of pump is particularly applicable on high vacuum serv- ice. The shuttle block pump (fig. 19) is essentially a piston type pump. It contains a slotted rotor having a pin set eccentric to it in such a manner that it will cause the pistons to move in and out as the rotor is tured. By varying the posi- tion of the pin differences in stroke can be ob- tained and as a result, variable displacement. Multiple piston pumps may be of the radial or axial type (fig. 11812). In either, a series of pistons are actuated by a rotor mounted off center in the casing. Pumps of thie tye have very high volumetric efficiences and are used ‘a great deal in the hydraulic field, they are particularly well suited where variable cisplace- ment is desired, The pumping action of all rotary pumps is essentially the same. As the pumping elements are rotated they open on the inlet side creating a wid. The fluid, forced by atmospheric pres- sure, flows in to fill this space. The continued turning of the rotors encloses the tluid between Fig. 5 Swinging Vane Pump Fig, 3 imemmal Gear Pump Fig. 6 Single Screw Pump the rotating paris themselves, or between these parts and the pump casing. Since the pump is a positive displacement device it is apparent that with every revolution of the shalt a definite quantity of fluid passes through. If no clearance existed this quantity, called “theoretical capacity,” would be dopon- dent only on the physical dimensions of the pumping elements and the speed. Clearances, however, do exist with the result that whenever a prassure differential occurs, there will always de internal leakace from the outlet side to the inlet side. This leakage, commonly known as “ip” may be relatively large or small depend- ing on the type of pump, the amount of clear- ance, the viscosity of the fluid handled, and the sifferential between outlet and inlet pres- sures. For any given set of conditions tis Usually Unattected by speod. Tho delivered or net capacity, therefore, is the theoretical eapac- ity lose tho slippage The theoretical capacity of any pump can readily be calculated providing all the essential dimensions are known. Slip can likewise be calculated but is usually based on empirical values developed as a result of tests. This data is a part of the ‘stock in trade" of every pump manufacturer and capacities can be accurately predicted for any given set of conditions. The selection of a pump for a specific appli- cation is not difficult if all of tho operatingconditions are known, It is often quite difficult, however, to obtein accurate information as to these conditions. This is particularly true with reference to inlet conditions and visccsity, since it ie a common feeling that in as much as the rotary pump is a positive disolacement device these items are unimportant, In any rotary pump application regardless of the design, suction lift, viscosity, and speed are inseparable. In order to insure’ quiel, efficient operation, it is necessary to completely fill with available concerning the fluid in question. For instance “'Bunker C or No. 6 Fuel Oi is known to have a wide latitude as to viscosity and us- ually must be handled over a considerable tom- perature range. The normal procedure in a case of this type is to assume an operating viscosity range of 20 to 700 SSF. The maximum viscosity, however, might very easily exceed the higher value if extra heavy oil is used or exceptionally low temperatures are encounterec. If either should occur the result may be improper filling Fig. 7 Two Screw Pump the fluid, the compartments in the pumping elements as they open and this becomes more difficult as viscosity or suetion lift, or both in- crease. BASICALLY IF YOU GET THE FLUID INTO A PUMP, OR RATHER THE PUMPING ELEMENTS AS THEY OPEN, YOU CAN GET IT OUT; THE PROBLEM IS GETTING IT IN. Speed of operation, tnerefore, is dependent on viscosity and suction fit, If @ true picture of these two items can be obtained, the prob- lem of making a proper pump selection be- comes infinitely simplor and it is probable that the selection will result in a more efficient unit It is not very often that a rotary pump is called upon to handle fluids having a constant viscosity. Normally, due to temperature varia- tions, it is expected that a range of viscosity will be encountered and this can be quite wide, for instance it is not unusuel that a pump is required to handle a viscosity range of 150 to 20,000 SSU; the higher viscosily usually being due to cold starting conditions. This is @ per- fectly satistactory range in so far as a rotary pump is cencerned, but if information can be obtained concerning such things as the amount of time the pump is required to operate at the higher viscosity, whether the motor can be overloaded temporarily, @ multi-speed motor used, or the discharge pressure reduced curing this period, a better selection can often be mage. ‘Guite often no viscosity is given but only the type of ‘luid. In such cases assumptions can sometimes be made if sufficient infcrmation is Fig. @ Three Screw Pump of the pumping elements, noisy operation, vi- bration, and overloading of the motor. Although it is the maximum viscosity and the expected suction ft that determines the size of the pump and sets the speed, It is the minimum viscosity that determines the capacity. Rotary pumps must always be selected to give the specitied capacity when handling the ex- pected minimum viscosity since this is the point at which maximum slip, hence minimum Capacity occurs. If this rule is not followed the pump will not moot tho requiromente of the system unless a considerable margin has been allowed initially in specifying capacity, or there is over-capacity available in the oump. The latter is olten the casa, since practically all rotary pumps are made in certain stock sizes and it is standard practice to apply the next larger pump when a capacity is specified that falls between sizes. It should also be noted that the minimum viscosity often sets the modal of the pump se- lected since it is more or less standard policy on the part of most manufacturers to down rate their pumps, in so far as allowable pres- sure is concerned, when handling liquids hav- ing @ viscosity of less than 100 SSU. This is done for two reasons. First, o avoid the poorer volumetric efficiency as a’ result of increased slip under these concitions. Second, due to the fact that a film of the liquid must be main- tained between the closely fitted parts which is ely to break down if 2 combination of low viscosity and high pressure should occur. Al Cam end Piston Pumpthough viscosity is not necessarily a definite Criterion of film strength, it fs generally so used by pump manufacturers, The viscosity of most liquids, as for example water and mineral oil, are unaffected by any agitation to which they may be subjected as long és the temperature remains conetant; thoy are accordingly known as “true” or "Newton- 1," fluids, There is, however, another class of liguide euch as cellulose compounds. glues greases, paints, starches, slurres, candy com pounds, etc., which change in viscosity as agitation is varied at constant temperature. Al- though to de absolutely correct different terms shculd be used to differentiate between in- crease or decrease at viscosity with rate of agitation, it is common practice to use the term “Thixotropy"” 10 cover both Ia liquid is known to be thixotropic the expected viscosity under actual pumping condi- tions should be determined since it can vary quite widely from the viscosity under static conditions, One instance comes to mind con- ceming the handling of a callulose product where the viscosity was given as 20,000 SSU which was its actual static, or apparent, viscos- ity. It later developed thet under actual pumo- ing conditions the viscosity was approximately 500 SSU. No serious harm was done, but a large low speed pump was installed where a smaller, less expensive, higher speed unit could have been usec. The reas manufacturing industry is very familiar with the thixotropic properties of its products, as evidenced by the numerous curves which hac been published wherein “anparent Viscosity” is plotted against “rate of shear." The Occasion is tate, honeve:, when one is ablo to obiain accurate information as to viscosity, when itis necessary to solect a pump for han- dling this matorial Fig. 11 Radi Fig, 10 Shull Block Pump It is understood that it is practically impos- sidle in most insiances 10 give the viscosity of grease in the terms most familiar to the pump manufacture, ie., Saybolt Seconds Universal 01 Saybolt Seconds Furol, but if only a rough Tam NOC Sr eR vay Plunger Pump approximation could be given it would be of great help. Grease penetration test results are Sometimes given, but sinco there is no relation between theze values and the conditions under which the material must be pumped they do ot mean too much. For applications of this type the information, if available, which would be of the greatest value to @ pump engineer is data taken from a similar installation. Such information should consist of type, size, capacity, and speed of already installed pumps, suction pressure, and temperature at the pump inlet flange, total work- ing suction head, and above all the pressure drop in 2 specified length of piping. From the fattor an oxcellent approximation of viscosity under actual operating conditions can be ob- tained, Suction lift occurs where the total suction head at the pump inlet is below atmospheric pressure. It is normally the result ot a static litt anc pipe friction. Although rotary pumps are capable of producing a high vacuum it 's not this vacuum that forces the fluid to flow. Ae previously explained, it is atmospheric pressure that forces the fluid into the pump. Sinca atmos: phorie pressure at sea-level corresponds to 14.7 sia or 30” Hg. this is the maximum amount of pressure avalable for moving the fluid and Suction lift cannot exceed these figures. Act- ually it must be somewhat less, since there are always pump inlet losses which must be taken into account. It is considered the best practice to keep suction lifts just as low as possible. The majority of rotary pumps operate with suction lifts of approximately 5 to 18” Hog. Lifts Corresponcing {0 24-25" Hg. are not uncommon fend there are numerous installations operating continuously and satisfactorily where the ab- solute suction pressure is within one half inch of the barometer. In the latier cases, however the pumps ere usually taking the {luié trom CL Fig. 12 Axial Plunger Pump tanks under vacuum and no entrained or dis- solved air or gases are present. Great care must bo taken in selecting pumps for these applications since the inlet losses can very easily exceed the net suction head available formeving the fluid into the pumping elements. There are known instances of successful in- stellations whore pumps were properly salected for tho suction conditions. There are also, un- fortunately. many othor installations with equally high suction lifts which are not so satisfactory. This is due to the fact thet proper consideration wes not given, at the time the installations were made, to the actual suction conditions at the pump inlet. Frequently, suction conditions are given as “flooded” simpiy because the source feeding the pump is above the inlet fiange. Ab- solulely no consideration is civen to outlot loesee from the tank or pipe friction and these can be exceptionally high when dealing with extremely viscous fluids ‘An outstanding and aimost unbelievable ex- ample in this respect is one concerning an inquiry relative to the handling of glue at 20,000 §SU. Although the inquiry stated that the suc- tion would be flooded, a request was made that the customer submit additional information con- cerning the piping layout on the suction sido. When the information arrived it was found by calculating friction losses that although the tanks wore elevated above the pump, and the total length of the suction line was only approx imately 20 feet, the smell size of the line plus a veritable maze of fittings and valves resultec in a totel friction loss of approximately 350 pounds, This obviously is an impossible pump- ing condition. ‘Where it is desired to pump extremely viscous fluids such as grease, chilled shortening, cellu- Jose proparations and the like, care should be taken to use the largest possible size of suction piping, eliminate all unnecessary fittings and valves, and to place the pump just as closely as possibie to the source of supply. in addition, it may be found necessary to supply the fluid to the oump under some pressure, which may be supplied by elevation, air pressure, or mechan ical means such as a screw conveyor. It was previously ateted thet viscosity and speed aro closoly tied together and it is impos- sble to consider the one without the other. Although rotative speed is the ultimate outcome, the besic speed which the manufacturer must consider is the velocity of the fluid going through the pump: this is a function of pump type and design. Certain types such as gear and vane pumps carry the fluid around the periphery Of the pumping elements and as a result the velocity of the fluid through tho pump can be- come quite high unless relatively low rotative eoeeds are used. On the other hand, in screw type pumps, the flow is axial and fluid speeds are relatively lower witn the result that higher rolative speeds can be used. Based on handling light fluids, say 100 to 500 SSU, gear or vane type pumps rarely exceed a rotative speed of 4800 RPM except in the case of a very small unt or special designs for a particular use, such as for aircraft purposes. Screw pumps, however, where timing gears are not required commonly operate without difficulty at speeds up to 5000 RPM and there are instances where special designs are operating at speeds of approxl- mately 24,000 RPM taking oll under lift from @ sump tank located below the pump. Although rotative speeds are relative and dependent on the pump type, they usually should be reduced whan handling fluids of high viscosity. This is due not only to the di culty of filling the pumping elements, but also to the mechanical losses which result from the shearing action of these perts on the fluid han- dled, The reduction of these losses is frequently of more Importance than relatively high speeds, even though the latter might be possible due to positive inlet conditions. No direct comparison can be mado as to mechanical loss between the various types of pumps, most manufacturers have established thair own data on a basis of tests mace under closely controlled operating conditicns and these are so-called “trade secrets.” In general, the losses for a given size and type of pump vary with the viscosity and rotetive sped and may or may not be effected by pressure, depend- ing on the type of pump under consideration. These losses, however, must always be based on tho maximum viscosity to be handled, since they will be highest at this point. If this is not done the resultant calculated horsepower will be too low and a motor selected on this basis will probably be overloaded. The other factor that determines the horse- power required to drive the pump is the actual work done in converting the fluid from its pres- sure condition on the inlet side to its corre- sponding condition on the outlet side. Since this work Is done on all of the fluid (this must be so because slip does not exist until a pressure differential occurs), the volume which must be considered is not the delivered capacity but the actual displacement volume, or theoretical ca~ pacity, of the pump, Any numoer of formulae can be davised for calculating this value, known as the “theoretical liquid norsepower,” depend- ing on the units in which capacity and head, oF pressure, are exoressed, It should be noted that the theoretical liquid horsepower is indepen- dont of viecosity and is concerned only with the physical dimensions of the pumping elements, the rotative speed, and the totel pressure. The brake horsepower required is the sum of the theoretical liquid horsepower and the me- chanical loss. Rotary pumps are available in a wice variety of pressure ranges. Aittough the great majority are sold for pressures less than 150 psi, whichts within the capabilities of almost any type of pump, a good size field exists for a great num- ber Up to 500 poi and literally thousands of pre- cision pumps are built for hydraulic service on machine ‘tools, and the like, whore prossuros Up fe 3000 psi may be encounterad. Rotary pumps do not in themselves create pressure, they simply transfer a quantity of fluid from the inlet to the outlet side, The pres- sure developed on the outlet sice is solely the result of resistence to flow in the discharge line. If, for example, a pump were to be set up and run without a discharge line, # gauge placed at the pump outlet flange would register zero no mattor how fast or how long it wes run Resistance usually consists of differoncos of elevation, fixed resistances such as orifices, and pipe friction. Nothing much can oe done about the first two since these are the basic reasons for using a pump, something however, can be done about pipe friction. Literally millions of dolla’s are thrown away annually due to ihe use Of piping that is too small for the Job. To be sure, all pige friction cannot be eliminated as long as fluids must be handled in this manner but every offort shoulé be made to use the largest pipe that is economically feasible. Numerous tables are available from which friction losses in any combination of piping may be calculated among the most recent of which are those pub~ lished by the Hydraulic Institute. Before any new installation is made the cost of larger size piping which will result in lower Pump pressures, should be carefully belanced against the cost of a less expensive pump, smaller motor, and a saving in horsepower over the expected life of the system, The larger pip- ing may cost a little moro in the beginning but the ultimate savings in power will often many times offset the original cost. These facts are particularly true of the handling of extremely viscous fluids. and although most engineers dealing with fluids of this type are conscious of what can be done, it is surprising the number of installations encountered where considerable savings could have been made if a little more study had been made initially Tho question is frequently asked “What io the efficioncy of a rotary pump?” This is rather difficult to answer because of the many vari- ables. Efficiency is dependent on practically all of the factors already discussed such as size of pump, rotative speed, viscosity, and pressure differential, it can be calculated for any speci- fied set of conditions but will vary with any change in these conditions. Sometimes an attempt is made to calculate the eificiency on the basis of guaranteed capac ity and brake horsepower, this is setisfactory provided that both were figured on the samo viscosity. Normally, however, where rotary pumps are used a viscosity range has been specified or assumed, the capacity guaranieed on the minimum viscosity and the brake horse- Power on tho maximum. IF these guarantee fig- lires are used in an attempt to calculate effic- iency a false vaiue will result Good efficiencies can be obtained if a pump is properly selected to meet one set of condi- tions only. For example, medium size pumps of about 50 to 100 GPM capacity operating ageinst 100 psi discharge pressure, normally have efficiencies of about 70% to 80%. Higher pres- sure pumps of about the same capacity, selec~ ted for optimum conditions, will give as high 2s 85% or 87% There is one other point that we have not as yet touched and that is the handling of fluids Containing abrasives. Due to the fact that rotary pumps depend upon close clearances for prop- er pumping action the handiing of abrasive fluids cen cause wear. Some progress has been made in the use of harder and more abrasive resistant materials for the pumping elements so that ¢ fair job can be done in some instances. It cannot be said, however, that perlormance is comparable to that obtained when handling clean fluids. On the whole, rotary pumps should not be used for handling fluids containing abra- sives unless frequent replacements are accapt- able. Over the last twenty-year period, areat prog- ress has been made in the design and appli- cation of rotary pumps and further progress is being made constantly. Pumps of this type are available for ihe Nandling of fluids ranging trom aviation gasoline and water to semi-plastics such as cellulose procucts, chilled shortening ané greases. Where required, oxtremely high vacuum, pressures, and speeds are possible and practical I complete information is given as to suction conditions, viscosity, air or gas entrainment, dis- cherge pressure, etc. so that a proper pump selection can be made, and the proper atten- tion is paid to installation features particularly on the suction side, there is absolutely no rea~ son why a satisfactory installation will not result. In this day and age of specializetion, pump specialists aro available and can help you with your problems. Practically all manufacturers have sales and application engineers available who are familiar with the capabilities and limi= tations of their own products and usually of their competitor's as well. To be sure, their prime object is to sell their equipment, but very few of them desire to misapply that equioment ‘or run the chance of a “trouple” instaliaton. All have a background of successful installations and can bo of invaluable help in assisting you.Positive Displacement, Rotary Pump Characteristics Theoretical Capacity—Q,—pump displace- ment at 0 PSI differential pressure, in GPM. Differential Pressure—/P—Algebraic sum of discharge pressure (gage) end suction pressure (cage) Slio"—Q.—Internal leakage (‘hrough working clearances) due to AP, in GPM. Delivered (rated) capacity —Q,— theoretical capacity minus “slip.” Brake Horsepower—3HP—pump input horsepower. The curves shown below demonstrate in gen- eral how capacity and BHP of most posttive displacement rotary pumps vary with speed (pressure constant) and with pressure (speed constant). The effect of viscosity is also demon- strated. Looking at the curves, one can see that theoret- Ical capacity is directly proportional to speed and is constant regardless of differential pres- sure. The difference between theoretical capac- ity and delivered capacity is the "slip" of the pump for a given viscosity. Depending on de- sign, slip can be affected by speed, pressure and viscosity. GPM x AP sonstart Poin horsepower curves increase as speed (capacity) or differen- tial pressure increases. It is most important to note the effect of viscosity on horsepower. The Gifference between actual horsepower and theo- retical horsepower for given viscosity is the mechanical loss and slip. Mechanical loss is primarily tho loss within tho pump duo to tho resistance of the fluid to shear. Mechanical loss increases with increasing speed and viscosity, and may or may not be dependent on differential pressure. One significant point demonstrated by these curves is that theoretical capacity is directly proportional to speed white delivered capacity is not, due to the effect of “slip.” Thus, halt capacity cannot be achieved simply by operet- ing at half speed. Since HP = sree caracryPump Horsepower and Efficiency The brake horsepower required to drive a rotary pump is the sum of the theoretical liquid horsepower and the internal power losses. The theoretical liquid horsepower is the actual work done in moving the fluid from its inlet-pressure condition to the outlet at discharge pressure This work is done on all the fluid of theoretical capacity, not just delivered capacity, as slip does not exist until a pressure differential oo- curs. Rotary pump power ratings are expressed in terms of horsepower (530 ftlb/sec| and theoretical liquid horsepower is calculated: QAP tlhe = ya Note that theoretical liquid horsepower is in- dependent of viscosity and is concerned only with the physical dimensions of the pumping elements, the rolative speed, and the differential pressure, Tho intornal powor locecs aro mado up of two types: mechanical and viscous. The mechanical Suction Pressure The identification of the pump suction re- quirement is significant in any pump application, Specifying a higher suction lift than actually exisis results in selection of a pump at a lower speed than necessary. Not only does this mean a larger, more expensive pump but also a cost- lier driver. Should the suction lift requirement be higher than specified, the outcome could be a ncisy installation due to pump cavitation. There is 2 common misconception that pumps “pull” fluid into the inlet opening unassisted by any outside force. Actually, fuid flows into the pump due 1o a difference in pressure between pump inlet and the fluid source. A primary step in pump selection is the calculation of system Net Inlet Pressure, sometimes called Net Posi- tive Inlet Pressure. This is the absolute pressure abore fluid vapor pressure at pump inlet and Is determined as follows: 1, Atmospheric pressure (at jovsite altitude— FSIA) losses include all power necessary to overcome the mechanical friction drag of all the moving parts within the pump, including bearings, gears, mechanical seals, ote. The viscous losses in. clude all the power lest from the fluid viscous- drag effects against all the parts within the pump as well as from the shearing action of the fluid itself. It is probable that the mechanical loss is the major component when operating at low viscosities and high speeds while the viscous loss is the larger at high viscosity and slow speed conditions. Volumetric Efficiency, Ey La a Overall Pumo Efficiency, E, - SUP where OHP (oil horsepower) Mechanical efficiency, © Q, = delivery capacity, GPM Q) = theoretical capacity, GPM AP = differential pressure, PSI 3. Minus inlet line friction josses inclucing en- trance loss from reservoir to pioe. pressure drops through vaives, titings, strainers, etc. (at maximum viscosity—PSI) 4, Minus fluid vapor pressure (usually et maxi mum pumping temperature—PSIA) 5. Equals system Net Inlet Pressure in PSIA. Note that wher Net Inlet Pressure is expressed in feet Of figuie. Is called Net Festive Sucton Pressure System Net Inlet Pressure available must al- ways equal or exceed pump Net Inlet Pressure required, Suction conditions of rotary pumps ere nor mally rated as suction lift capability in inches of mercury vacuum (with air-free oil of necli- gible vapor pressure at sea level). This can be expressed as Net Inlet Pressure required by subtracting suction lift capability irom 80" Hg and converting the remainder to PSIA. Pump Net Inlet Pressure required must always be less than or equal to sysiem Net Iniet Pressure avall- 2, Plus static head (minimum level of fluld able above pump inlet—PSI) Suction condition is the most trequentiy over- or looked parameter in pumo selection. Time spent Minus static lit (maximum lovel of fluid bo: determining it accurately can optimize pump low pump irlet—PSI) selection and roault in a quiet inatellation.. Gage | Absolute Gage | Absolute 1 Atmosphere ng —}— 30” hg 0 PSIG—}— 147 PSIA eeu 30" hg—— 0" hg 147 Psig—!— 0 PsiFiltration As mentioned, positive displacement rotary pumps are not ideally suited to handling abra- sives. Relatively close clearances and actual part contact allow dirt, foreian material. etc. to cause scoring, galling, and in extreme cases jamming or seizure. Fine abrasives will cause wear which ultimately reduces pump capacity by in- Greasing slip due to increased clearances. Firm recommendations for fluid titers are very difficult to make. As a minimum, rotary pumps should have suction strainers to exclude such material as dirt, weld bead, slag, scale, chips, rags, nuls, bolts, otc, Since = su strainer contributes to suction line loss, the de- gree of filtration must often be determined by acceptable frequency of cleaning, allowable pressure drop, and cost. When pumping viscous fluids (over 5000 SSU}, probably the finest suc- tion filtration practical is 1/18”. On light fluids such as distillate fuels, hydraulic oll, and light lube olls, suction strainers of 100 or even 200 mesh are feasible and highly desirable. On re- circulating systems, pressure and return tine filters of 25 or 10 microns are excellent and quite realistic. In hydraulic servo systems, 2 micron pressure filters are not uncommon. Strainers and filters require periodic cleaning and, therefore, must bo sized and instrumented accorcingly. Since clogging of a suction strainer can cavitate a pump, it is particularly important to provide automatic protection by pressure switch or a similar device. Particle Size Comparison and Conversion Chart mee © on ove oa oo 208 0 microns 7 2% 4 mo a 19 pm 1 op 100 MESH TABLE SALT | ain SCREEN INDUSTRIAL HAZE 200 MESH SCREEN HUMAN HAIR POLLEN FOG VISIBILITY LIMIT WHITE BLOOD CELLS L. 1 MIORON (n) = 10+ METER TALGUM POWDER IGS NETER ag RED BLOOD CELLS BACTERIA Mesh INGHES-—sicRONS | MESH INCHES «MICRONS | MESH «INCHES MICRONS asd 0,000 6 | 1 coms no | 2 0.028 ne 360) 0.0005 | 10 © ome) tia | o.oo ore 50.0010 | i ooo aays | 0.089 1009 a(t fo | 00 © ooss, wo | 48 cos tie 260 © .0024 @ 0 opet tse |e 0.081 1208 20 © 0.002 % © doom =| 0.060 198 fe 003, & 70 © ooore, «S200 | 10 O07s 1923 170 0.003 2 eo Ope a8 3 esr 2480 40 o.gose a7 s oat? 00 6 one 00s 48 © dgot 100 0 ont8 286 5 0150 tor 14008 so (8.00 518 4 0208 5206Viscosity Viscosity is that property of any fluid (liquid or gas) which tonds to resist a shearing force It is important to fluid flow because nearly all ‘luid motien is accompanied by shearing force. The two basic viscosity parameters are the DYNAMIC (or ABSOLUTE) VISCOSITY, 4, hav- ing the dimension, force time/(length):, and the KINEMATIC. VISCOSITY, », having the ¢l- mension, (lengin}/time. The ‘parameters are related through the mass density of the fluid», such that,» ~ y/»—yg/y, where y is tho specific woight and ¢ is the acceleration of gravity. The unit of dynamic viscosity in English meas- ure is the pound-second per square foot which is numerically identical with the slug per foot- second. The unit of dynamic viscosity in Metric measure Is the dyne-second per square centi- meter, called the POISE, which is numerically Identical with the gram per centimeter-second. Numerical values generally cre expressed in CENTIPOISES, a unit which is one hundredth ‘of a Poico. unit called the REYN, equal to ‘ona pound-second per square inch, is used in lubrication problems. The unit of kinematic viscosity in English measure Is the square (oot per second. The unit of kinematic viscosity in Metric measure is the square centimeter per second, called the STOKE, Numerical values ganorally are ex- pressed in CENTISTOKES, 4 unit which is one hundredth of a Stoke. Widespread use of the Saybolt viscosimeter has lod to the use of the time of effiux in seconds, for 60 ec. of liquid, as an arbritrary unit of kinematic viscosity. The term SSU (Seconds Saydoit Universal] refers to the smalier, and the term SSF (Seconds Saybolt Furo)) refers to the larger of two orifices with which the instrument may be equipped, Other empirical measures ot Kinematic viscosity may be converted to basic units by the charts that follow. Tho dynamic viscosity of any fluid is a fune- tion of temperature and pressure. The dynamic viscosity of most liquids increases with increase of pressure but, fortunately. the changes may be neglected for the ranes of pressure usually encountered in engineering problems, The dynamic viscosity of gases. is virtually. inde- pendent of pressure except at extremely high or low pressures. Pressure is very important in determining the kinematic viscosity of a gas due to its influance on the mase density. Vis- cosities of air and water at 68°F. and atmos- pheric pressure are as follows Dyramie Viscosity » Kinertatic viscosity Fluid Polses | tbsec/sq nt | stotes | Sq t/sec [8S ar fieoaxiow|assegxio | assor | toxoxton] — water |oatanar | 21067 io | Cortes | 10877 10~ | 30 Viscosity Conversion Factors and Formulas Matti by to cbtain Foises 100 ‘centipoises pound-seconds/q. $7,880 centipoises Reyne 6.89479 x 10:0 centipoises centipoises 2.03885 x 1 ‘pounc-seconds sa centipoieae 4.45000 « 10 Reyne ‘Stokes 700 centistoves: sa. tt./secord 92,0084 centistoves centistokes 1.07630 x 103 19, ft/second a ‘centlpoises| __.rigi0x 10" centipoises in pounde/u. ft 29, th/agcons Saybolt Viscosimeter Conversion Formulas i in constokes — 0.226 x SSU— 195/8SU__ for SSU < 100 iin contistoker — 0.220% SSU— 120/8SU_ for SSU> 100 sin contistohes ~ 2.24 x 98F —104/SSF eras, < BOF. sy Ineantisiokes — 2.161 SSF —BO/SSF tr SSF > 40ne a 0 ee) AN way aa te SHS ——__ yes uh fasoonn strane ‘Serene oy reoora RY i az OL] e0e | o8@ ov | ~ | Govat| coz] ozex onoce| @ es | an] os coctt| _cosi| _ Orze| onvet| z ‘se | 96 | oF care | 01) onic xoot ze | se | cae wz9. 226: | 0006 ie |e | % | me ica | toe | 522i |86e | sz] @ | oe ‘ozes | coz | 0151 |onoz x ze| cs | esc ows | cos | ssi |o008 ® at} a | siz x Ln a | at 7 i [Fee | eat £ 8 |v | eo 5 et jest | oF | w 9 [rst | 99 T s+ er H ey [io | te ty jee | 6c . [ee los | se 4 ve ise | ot a re jez | s¢ 3 ze lee | te a ot [oo | siz ¥ ¥ 2a lng ed Na ‘poss eps, sly age UOISIeAUOD Ayisoosi170 160 10 140 130 110 Effect of Temperature on Fuel Oil Viscosity 00000 0000 oO ILs APPROXIMATE VISCOSITIES as 2 350 30 320 310 00 200 260 20 20 240 220 220 210 200 190 180 170Effect of Temperature on Turbine Oil Viscosity TURBINE OILS APPROXIMATE VISCOSITIES g£988 €2 seee eee e @ B 8 20000 +0000 000 ao00 3000 2000 ye00 180000 s000 MIscOSITY, SECONDS SAYBOUT UNIVERSALEffect of Temperature on SAE Crankcase Oil Viscosity SAE CRANKCASE OILS APPROXIMATE VISCOSITIES 00000 50000 20000 10000Viscosity of Common Liquids viscosity Liquid *Sp Gr at 60°F AUF ssu Contistokes ASPHALTS: Unblended or Virgin Asphalts 111015 2,500 to 12,000 53910 2.810 | 250 6600 to 2,600 13010776 | 300 Blended Asphalt RS-1, MS-1 or SS-1 emulified 1.0 approx. 155 to 1,000 arome | 77 primer or binder 90 to 350 18110755 | 100 RCO, MCO or SC.0 cutbacks or binders | 1.0 approx. 737 t0 1,500 is9r0324 | 77 280 10 500. 60510 108 | 100 AC-1, C1 oF SC-1 cutbacks or binders | 1.0 spprox. 2,400 to 5,000 518 w 1,079 | 100 737 10 1,800 te9to3z¢ | 122 RC-2, MC2 or SC-2 cutbacks or binders | 1.0 epprox 2,400 to 5,000 8180 1,079 | 172 1,000 to 2,000 21610 432_| 140 RC-3, MC3 or SC-3 cutbacks or binders | 1.0 approx. 6,000 to 13,000 1,298 to 2,810 | 122 2,500 to 5,000 539 t0 1.079 | 140 FC-4, MC-4 or SC-4 eutbecks or binders | 1.0 epprox 8,000 10 20,000 1,726 to 4,320 | 140 1,250 to 2,500 27010538 | 180 FIC, MC or SC-6 cutbacks or binders | 1.0 epprox. | 28,000 t0 85,000 | 6,040 to 18,300| 140 3,000 to 8,000 648 to 1,295 | 180, CHEMICALS: ‘Glycerine (100%) 1.26 @ 68°F, 2,950 eg eae B13 76 100 Glycol Propylene 1.038 @ 68°F. 240.6 52 70 Triethyiens 1.125 @ 68°F 485.7 40, 70 Diothylone 112 @ 08°F. 148.7 32 70 Ethylene 1.128 @ 68°F. 884 7.8 70 FISH AND ANIMAL OILS: | Bone oi 218 20 as 130 5 16 212 Cod Oi 928 160 a1 100 95 joe 130, Lard 96 287 2.1 100 _ 160 343 130, Lard on 912.928 | 19010 220 4it047.6 | 100 112 to 128 2340 77.1 | 130 Menhadden O1 933 140 23.8 100 90 18.2 130_| Neatsfoot Oil a7 230 49.7 100 130 2s | 130 Sperm 283 110 23.0 100 78 15.2 130 ‘Whale Git 928 163 to 184 351039.6 | 100 97 0 112 1990 23.4 | 130 “Unies otherwise note.Viscosity of Common Liquids viscosity Liquid “8p Gr at 60F. ACF ssu Centistokes WINERAL OILS: ‘Automobile Crankeate Oils (Average Midcontinent Paraffin Base): **.880 t0 935 165:0240 | 35410519 | 100 90 19 120 w2t02.3 | 130 SAE 20 ** 880 to 935, 2a0:0400 | s1.9t0866 | 100 12010185 | zstosea | 130 ‘SAE 30 ** 880 to 935 40010880 | 85.6t0 1255 | 100 18510255 | 39gt086.1 | 130 ‘SAE 40 *7 880 10 935, 58010950 | 1255102056 | 100 253 t0 $5.1 t0 150 80 156, 210 SAE6O g50t0 1.600 | 2056t0%2 | 100 180 t 105, 15610216 | 210 SAE 60 935 | ie00t02,300 | s62t507 | 100 10510125 | 21610262 | 210 ‘SAE TO 93 | 2,300%03,100 | sortoce2 | 100 12510 160 | 26210318 | 210 SAE 10W 935 | 6.000% 10,000 | 1,100%02200 | Oo ‘SAE 20W 935 | 10,000 :0 40,000 | 2,200t08800 | 0 ‘Automobile Transmission Lubricants SAE 80 935 ‘100,000 max. | 22,000 max. o SAE 90 035 00:0 1,500 | 173.2 v0.27 | 100 300t0500 | 64.5t0103.2 | 150 SAE a0 995 950 109,200 | 205610607 | 130 120%0200 | 2.110429 | 210 SAE 260 *¥.880 to 035 ‘Over 2,300 ‘Over 507 130 Over 200 Overa29 | 210 ‘AGMA Gear Oils ‘AGMA No. 1 {880 to 935 18010240 | 3810518 | 100 45 10 48 98t0106 | 210 ‘AGMA No. 2 880 to 935 27510360 | 59310776 | 100 “50 t058 11910121 | 210 _| AGMA No. 3 {880 to 935 49010850 | 105t0140 | 100 63071 13910156 | 210 ‘AGMA No. 4 880 to 935 650t01.000 | 140%0216 | 100 71 toa? 15.61019.2_| 210 AGMA No. 5 “880 t0 935 87510 1.350 | 18910291 | 100 83t0 10 | 184%0223 | 210 ‘AGMA No. 6 880 t0 935 1350 t0 1,850 | 281 to 398 | 100 Yost 125 | 223%025.5 | 210 ‘AGMA No. 7 880 to 935 1.850 t0 2,500 | 3080530 | 100 1260160 _| 2650319 | 210 ‘AGMA No. & 88010 835 2500 t03,700 | 539%0797 | 100 15010120 | 31.9t0402 | 210 ‘AGMA No. 88 880 to 935 3,700 104,700 | 797%0 7,015 | 100 19010215 | 402t045.6 | 210 ‘Unless omernise noted **Dependson orign or percent and type of slvent.Viscosity of Common Liquids viscosity “3p Gr a 09°F ee ssu Contstokes Dies! Engne Lubricating Os (Based on ‘Aetage Midcontinent Paraffin Base): Federal Specification No, 9110 *+az0%0 935 | 1510200 | asarooi9 | 100 90 %0 120 Ye2w259 | 10 Federal Speciication No, 9170 “aw % 635 | 3000410 | B45t8R8 | 100 vow 160 | 29310388 | 139 Federal Specification No. 8250 vee 10.995 | 4701690 | 1018t01778 | 100 2001 255 | 43210551 | 130, Federal Specification No. 8370 **g80 10.935 | g00t01.100 | 1732102981 | 100 : 32010430 | 69310931 | 130 Federal Soeilcation No. 9500 **880 10.835 | 490%0600 | 108.1 01299 | 130 210108 | 18A4t0216 | 210 Dies Fuel Ole ‘No. 20 **82 0.95 | 32610458 2106 100 2 10397 | 130, No. 30 "a2 0.5 | A510 5 p17 | 100 38 10 48 3970678 | 130 No. 4D 782 0 5 140 max 208mex. | 100 Toma iaimex | 130 No. 6D 7782 10.05 | 400 mex 266 122 188 ma 252men. | 160 Fool Oi No.1 “82 10 2A t0 40 2201422 | 70 2210 35 2.60 100 Noa 782 10.06 26 to £0 30% 78 70 Rea 2arteaza | 100 Noe "aw 2610 4 2.6910 564 | 100 aaaiezo | 206t0307 | 190 No. SA “a2 ws | BIS Tat 264 | 100 ww | asitois7a_ | 130 No.8 2 10.05 126 t6 2.ato 100 00) 385 122 mrosio | rseateor.1 | 180 No.6 “a2 10.9 | #50%05000 | 9740660 | 120 175 760 | srewie | 160 Fuel Oil — Navy Specification 7.980 max T1025 | 2310485 | 122 estore | 1,08%0239 | 160 Fuel OW Navy Wl TOmax 7500 max 3247 max. | 122 “480 max. 1Oimex | 160 Gisdine 68 10 74 4et0.88 | 60 ‘a0ro.7i | 100 Gasoline Natural) 765 cearees APL | a 68 Gee ot 28 cagrees API 3 739) 70 5 78 100 *Uniess otherwise note. Depands on origin or percent and type of solvent.Viscosity of Common Liquids ‘ viscosity Liguia *Sp Grat 60°F Ave su Contistokes Insulating Oit ‘Transformer, switches and 118 max 244 max co ercult oreakers 5 max 11.15 maa, 109 Kerosene 7Bi0 82 35 26 Cy 22s 2 100 Lubricating Oi iso32 91 Ave. 190 32 100 85, 7 130 15046 a1 Ave 25 48 100 15 24 130 180.68 97 Ave. 318 68 100 180 32 130 18090 97 Ave. 420 20 400 195 4a 190 1s0 148 91 Ave. 685 148 00 280 60 190 ‘Mineral Lard Guiting Oil Foderal Spocification Grado 1 14010199 29.1041 100 86 10 110 17221023 190 Federal Specification Grade ? 19010290 att047 6 400 110 to 125 2310 26.4 190 Potroiature 28 00 206 390 7 148 160 VEGETABLE OILS Castor Oil 96 9 68 F 1200101500 | 260.803247 | 100 4450 t0.600 grato12e9 | 120 (Chira Wood of) 948 1425 2085 9 560 1985 100 ‘Gocpenut OH 928 100 143, 2.810315 100 76t080 t4e9t0157 | 190 Gorn oi 92 138 287, 130 34 359 212 Cotton Seed Oi “8810 925 176 78 100 100 2. 130 Linseed Oi, Faw “925 10.999 148 205 100 3 18.94 130 Giive Oi O10 to 18 200 2 100 118 244 190 Palm Oi) 920 195 2 100 32 234 190 Peanut Oil 928 22) wa 100 125 Exs 330 Rape Seed Ou a8 250 oat 100 145 a 130Viscosity of Common Liquids viscosity Liguid *Sp Gr at 60°F ne sou Centistoes Fosn Oil 980 1,800 3247 100 ‘00 v9.9 130 Rosin (Wood) 5000 70.000 1082 9 4,400. | 200 1,000 t6 50,000 | 216.410 11,000 | 190 Sexe Oi! 928 184 396 100 10 2 130 Soja Bean Oi 927 10.8 185 354 100 38 19.68 130 Turpentine 36 10.87 3 20 60 326 20 100 ‘SUGAR, SYRUPS, MOLASSES, ETE. Cécn Svruos 14 10147 | 5,000%0500,000 | 1.1090 110,000 | 100 415001 60.000 | a7 13.200 | 120 Giucore 185 1144 | 350006 100000 | 7,700%0 22,000 | 100 4.000% 11,000 | “Ba0%02420" | 150 Honey (Raw) 340 736 100 Molasses "A 140 10146 | 1300% 23,000 | aen1:5070 | 100 (First) 700 to 8,000 1515 to 1,760 130, Molases "8" 143 to148 | 6400%60,000 | 1410%0 13,200 | 100 (Second) 3.00010 15,000 | 660%03300 | 130 Molasses "6" 148 10149 | 17000» 250000 | 2630705500 | 100 (Bleckstrap or final 61000 2 75,000 | 1.3200 16,500 | 130 ‘Sucrose Saations Sagar Syrups 80 Brix 129 230 497 70 92 18.7 100 62 Brix 1.30 310 a7 70 m 72 | 100 4 Bix 1a 440 952 70 148 31s | 100 66 Brix 1.526 650, 140.7 10 198 420 | 100 68 Bix 138 1,900 264 70 275 305 | 100 70 Bix = 1,650 364 70 ‘00 265 | 100 72 Bix 136 2,700 595 70 ‘40 1385 | 10 74 Bix 1.976 5500 1210 70 1,100 238 100 76 Bix 1 10,900 70 2.000 100 Unless otherwise noted, ‘Depends en origin oF percent and type of salvent.Viscosity of Common Liquids viscosity Liu *SpGrat60F NF ssu Contietokoe TARS: Tar-Coke Oven 4.124 3,000 to 8,000 {600 to 1,760 n £0 to 1,400 1407 10 308 100 Tar-Gas House 1.16 10 1.30 15,000 ro 200,000 3,300 to 66,000 70 2,000 0 20,000 ‘4a0 to 4400 100 Road Tari Grade AT-2 1.07 200 to 300 43.210 64.9 122 55 10 60 8.77 t0 10.22 212 Grade RT-4 4.08" ‘4000 700 26,6 to 154 122 651075 11.63 10 14.28 212 Grade RT-6 4.09" 1,000 to 2,000 2164 10440 122 85 to 125, 168310262 212 Grae ATS 113 3,000 to 8,000 (600 t0 1,760 122 180 10.225 91.8 10 48.3 22 ‘Geode AT-10 1a 20,000 to 60,000 14,400 to 13,200 122 | "250 t0 400 527 1086.6 212 Grade RT-12 115+ 114,000 10 488,000 | 25,0000 75,000 | 122, £00 0 800 108.2 t0 173.2 212 Pine Tar 1.96 2500 569 100 ‘500 1082 132 MISCELLANEOUS: Corn Stareh Solutions 22 Baus 118 160 21 10 130 75 100 24 Baume 1.20 600 1298 70 440 952 100 25 Baumé 12 1.400 303 10 300 1732 100 Ink — Printers 1.0010 1,98 2,800 to 10,000 550 10 2,200 100 1,100 to 3,000 208.1 t0 660 130 lla 918 Avg Es 207 212 Milk 1.9210 1.06 13 68 Varnish — Spar 2 1425 a 650 443 100 Water—Fren | 10 13 oo | 55 130 *Unlow omerise noted, ea **Degerds on orian oF percent and type of solvent.Viscosity Blending Chart 3000 3000 2000 2000 1500 1500 1000 1000 750 750 500 500 400 400 300 300 200 200 150 150 100 loo 30 80 80 80 70 70 60 60 55 55 50 50 45 45 40 40 VISCOSITY SECONDS SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL OIL B (THE LOW VISCOSITY COMPONENT) OLA O 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 60 30 100 OLB 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 PERCENTAGE OF COMPONENT OILS. ‘At tho same temperature, plot viscosity of oil A (high viscosity component) on the right hand scale and oil B (low viscosity component) on the left hand scale. Connect the two points with a straight line. Then read the blend viscosity es a function of percentage of oll A or B VISCOSITY SECONDS SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL OIL A (THE HIGH VISCOSITY COMPONENT)Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids Newtonian Materials Newton ceduced that the viscosity of a given liquid should be constant at any panicular tem perature and pressure and independent of the fate of shear, as illustrated in Fig. 13. In such “Newtonian fluids,” choar strose is directly pro: portional to rate of shear. At temperatures above their cioud points most mineral oils are Newtonian fluids. viscosity SHEAR STRESS o Fo. 13. Charactcistes of Newtonian lids. a) Vscosiy is indopendent of ile of shear (b) Shear stess is recy pre Portal ate 9 shea Non-Newtonian Materials The viscosities of some materials, such as greases and polymer-thickened mineral oils, are affected oy shearing effects, and these materials ate termed non-Newtonian. In other words, the viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid will de- Pend on the rate of shear at which it is mea sured, Since a non-Newtonian fluid can have fan unlimited number of viscosity values (as the shoar rato variod) tho term apparent viscosity is used to describe its viscous properies. Ap- parent viscosity is expressed in absolute units and is @ mesure of the resisiance to flow at a given rate of shear It has meaning only if the rate of shear used in the measurement is also given and is obtained experimentally by measuring and dividing the shear stress by the rate of shear. A “rheogram” or “flow curve” relating shear stress to rate of shear is fre quently used to doscribe completely the viscous properties ef a non-Newtonian material Nor-Newionian materials may be divded into five types: plastic, pseudo-plastic, dilatant, thixo- tropic, and theopectic. Figure 14 presents char acteristic rheograms in which shear stress (eg, pressure in a steady-fiow system) is plotted against rate of shear (2g, flow velocty). The curves at the left in Fig. 15 ilustrate how the apparent viscosities of non-Newtonian materials vary with changing rates of shear “Rneology He scince Keating a getermation ane How 0 matee As illustrated in curve 1 of Fig. 14 @ plastic material, such as 2 grease, putty or molding clay, is characterized by a “yield point" or “yield value” This means that a definite mini- mum strove or force must bo applied to tho ma terial beiore any flow takes place From a rheological standpoint. tomato catsup is a com- mon example of a plastic material. if a bottle BEAR Orme Fig. 14, Flow cunes illustrating she aout ypes of nates characterises of is shaken only gently, its contents may not flow out because the “yield point” has not been ex: ceeded. However, if the bottle is struck or shaken more vigorously, the yield point is ex- ceeded, the viscosity is reduced, and the catsup gushes forth While a pseudo-plastic fluid has no yield point, its apparent viscosity also decreases with increasing Shoar ratos but stabilizes only at very hhigh rates of shear Many emulsions such as waterbase fluids and resinous materials show this type of behavior. Oppesitely, the apparent viscosity of a dila- tant fluid increases as the rate of shear in- creases. Such a fluid often solidifies at nigh rates of shear Examples are pigment-venicle Suspensions such as paints and printing inks, and somo starches. The throo fluids described above—plastic, pseude-plastic, and dilatant—are also known as time-independent non-Newtonian fluids, since their rheological or flow properties ate inde- pendent of tima. The rate of shear at any point in the fluid is a simple function of the shear stiess at that point. ‘On the other hand, the flow properties of two other non-Newtonian’ materials—thixoiropic and rheopectic—are dependent on time. The ap- parent viscosity of these more complex fluidsdepends not only on the magritude of the shear rate but also on the length of time during which shear has been applied, as illustrated in Fig. 15. Ifa thixotrope fluid is subjected to a constant its structure is rate of shear for some time, gradually broken down and its apparent viscos: ity decreases to some minimum value. When the shear effect is removed and the fluid is at rest, the structure rebuilds gradually and ap- parent viscosity increases with time to the original value. This is called reversible thixot rophy. stiess, a value less than the original viscosity is obtained with time, the phenomenon is known as reversible thixotropty. Some oils contain ing high-molecular-weight polymers and mineral oils at temperatures below their cloud point show this latter effect. During rotary drillng of deep oil wells, a very special “drilling mud" with thixotropic _proper- ties is pumped down the hollow drill stem to force cuttings back to the surface. As long as the mud is agitated by rotation of the drill stem and by pumping, it remains fluid and removes whenever drilling is diilling debris. “However, stopped, the driling mud solidifies to a gel, holds the cuttings in suspension, and thereby Avpanesr viscosity If, however, uoon removing the shear for a time, again Some greases are intentionaly manufactured to have partial rheopectic properties, which facilitate pumping from a drum or central grease storage in which the grease is in a relatively fluid condition. Upon shearing in a bearing however, the grease builds up to a higher ap- arent viscosity or consistency and stays. in place. Such a grease does not have full rhec- pectic characteristics, however, since after shearing and resting, ‘it still retains a higher consistency. Since the viscosity of a non-Newtonian lubr- cant is dependent upon the rate of shear acting on it, the importance of measuring viscosity et verious shear rates that will be encountered in the use of such a lubricant can be readily seen In some machine elements, shear rates up to 3 million reciprocal seconds may De encountered, while in other applications only a few reciprocel seconds or a few tenths are the order of magnt tude. In dispensing greases, shear rates as low as 0.1 reciprocal second ‘are sometimes er- its apparent viscosity decreases countered, while leakage from housings during Periods of shutdowns involves an even lower range, rHixOTRONE Tine AY GONBTANT GEAR Fig, 15. iterers types of ron:Newtonan denser. prevents them from setting and subsequent drilling, Quicksand is also thixotropic, since it be comes more and more fluid when agitated: therefore anyone caught in this water-and-sand mixture improves his chance of survival by re- ‘maining as motionless as possible. I a theopecic fluid is subjected to a constant rate of shear for a given period of time, its ap- Parent viscosity increases to some maximum value. Upon cessation of shearing and resting Interfering with isos ve. 0 of shear or Nowonan anc now As illustrated by Fig. 16, the determination of viscosity of a non-Newtcnian liquid at only one shear rate is not usuelly sufficient Incorrect, conclusions would be drawn and application difficulties would be invited if the viscosities of a Newtonian and a non-Newionian oil were measured at some specitic shear rate Ay, where the two curves happened to cross each other While both oils have the same apparent vis cosity at this one point, the remainders of their viscosily-shear curves are entirely different.z i APPARENT. VISCOSI1 Typical Shear Rate Curves 200000 100000 50000 20000 10000 MINERAL [Ol 5000 2000 ia = 7 gers 2 R & SRRseg 8 g 8 geggse a ad m t © OR DBD SHEAR RATE—INVERSE SECONDSCon version ENGLISH sySTEM Data MeTRic svsTEM Tocewer | Miliolvav | Toebtin Toconert | Multiow by | Toobtain Toobin Divide by | To convert Teoban | Oniveny | Tocowen UNITS OF LENGTH UNITS OF LENGTH rm 36 in. on 03907 in. ya 3 te ‘moter 33) ie va B.coosee lee oe Saat © Ties 62.360 in mretere 419936 ya. lise 5,280 fe Km Sat fe ‘ioe 1.760 va tem Yona ya, ris (naut.) | 61076 te ken eat Inlies UNITS OF AREA UNITS OF AREA maya 3 © mm ‘coors str fava 2.090206 S hom 55, sain cies 43.560 * Siimews | 10.768 ft Sore. 4340 va Stimetes | 1.199) sy Saye. 11236 Ine ake 3861 0 lies UNITS OF VoLUME UNITS OF VOLUME 2.00803) me, cen ‘cosro2 ein D.eooe20 ee oo 02391 fon 0.c000214 cu yal chmetee | 3h ou fe 23) eu In Siimetee | 1308 fu. ya 1397 cu fe ieneeet ale eaal US ou D.codes, ou. ya. Witere 61.02 cule D.coo00s07 | scree teers 003551 ett cae bat iat titers 02842 tsa Osa Imperial ga. 1720 oun 78 al. UNITS OF WEIGHT UNITS OF WEIGHT 9.00229, ez gars 15.43, ‘ies B.o90t420 6. fers 0333 = B.on00000714 | tors io 52 oe eae rans 3 22046 i S.0sa5 & 3 oor 102 US tone 000003125 | tons tones 22086 tb Bane be tone oes US tone 42002 ai VOLUME ~ FLOW RATES = aa aie tp euettine. Itersmin. z Be por es Sn, = he ane ae ama = Water at 20°F.