MODULE-4

ENERGY
RESOURCES
 Evolution of energy source
Wood fires

Coal

Petroleum

Natural gas

2
 Energy resources

Energy

Energy consumption of nation – index of development

Energy consumption on average per person in a year
U.S 60 barrels of oil
Bhutan or Ethoipia 0.5 barrel of oil!

3
 Classification of energy

Energy
generated continuously in nature Exhaustible and cannot be
and are inexhaustible replenished quickly

Renewable Non-renewable
- Solar energy - Coal
- Wind energy - Petroleum
- Hydropower - LPG
- Tidal energy - Natural gas
- Ocean thermal energy - Compressed natural gas
- Geothermal energy - Nuclear energy
- Biomass energy
- Biogas
- Biofuel
- Hydrogen as fuel 4
 Non-renewable or conventional energy
Fossil fuels

Coal Oil Natural gas

Nuclear fission
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 Non-renewable energy sources

Fossil fuels

coal petroleum natural gas

peat lignite bituminous Anthracite

>50% of carbon brown coal 80% carbon 90% carbon
70% carbon soft coal hard coal

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 Coal reserve

Coal deposits are in 100 m thick and tens of thousands of km2

India has 5% of World’s coal. Lignite Reserves in India

State Reserve(MT)
The all India power generating capacity = 1,24,222 MW Tamilnadu 31,119
Gujarat 1,527
Thermal = 66% Kerala 128
Hydro = 25.9% Rajasthan 108
Nuclear 3% Jammu & Kashmir 2286
Wood = 1% Total 34,168
MT = million tons
Indian has coal reserve of about 2,14,000 MT
Coal contribute 60% of installed capacity

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 Effects of burning coal

At present rate of usage coal cannot last more

than 200 years

Upon burning coal CO2 is produced which

enhance global warming.

Coal contain S and N impurities so when it

burns it produce oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
which are toxic gases.

Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen gases

contribute to acid rain.
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 Effects of air pollution-Acid rain
Skin disease in humans and animals, irritation
to eyes.
Severe damage to plants and seed
germination. Reduces fertility of soil.
Trees more susceptible - cold temperature,
drought etc.
Severe damage to aquatic animals. Aquatic
animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as
Al, Hg, Mn, Zn and Pd which leak from
surrounding rocks due to acid rain.
Many lakes in Sweden, Norway, Canada -
fishless due to acid rain.
Damages clothes, paper, leather and buildings.
Increases rate of corrosion of metals, steel,
buildings and marble. 9
 Deterioration of the Taj Mahal-Acid rain
At present rate of usage coal cannot last more than 200 years

Oil refinery in Mathura near Taj Mahal – emits large amount of SO2 1.7
kg/m3 results in acid rain.

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 Petroleum

Fossil fuels
Very important
among fossil fuels

coal petroleum Natural gas

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 Petroleum

Total amount of oil in the World is estimated to be 4 trillion bbl

Saudi Arabia has ¼ of World oil reserve

The estimated oil reserve in India is 4000 million tonnes. Only ¼ of it is exploitable.
Mumbai – 63%
Gujarat – 18%
Assam – 16%
AP, TN etc. – 3%

It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbon

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Petroleum

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 Petroleum
It has to purified and refined by a process of
fractional distillation.
18 oil refineries are their in our country.

Various petroleum products - kerosene,

petrol, diesel, lubricant oil, paraffin wax
asphalt, tar etc.

Clean and easy to transport.

Demand is very high for petroleum and its
products.

India imports about 50 million tons of

petroleum products every year.
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It may not last more than 40 years.
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Main component is – butane (little

amount of propane and ethane)

Butane is converted to liquid under

pressure (LPG)

LPG – odorless so LPG is mixed with

ethane thiol to detect the leakage.

Uses – cooking gas, vehicular

applications, coolant etc.

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 Fossil fuels

Fossil fuels
cleanest among fossil fuels

coal petroleum Natural gas

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 Natural gas
Composed mainly of CH4 Natural gas found with oil fields

Natural gas processing unit

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 Natural gas

Natural gas resources in the World 2,28,125 million tonnes.

Russia (40%), Iran (14%) and USA (7%) has maximum reserves.

India has recoverable reserve of 700 billion m3 natural gas

Natural gas reserves in India – AP, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Assam, Andaman and
Nicobar, Krishna and Godavari basins.

Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) – Processing, transportation and marketing

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 Uses of natural gas

It has high calorific value (50 kJg-1)

It is used as domestic, transportation and

industrial fuel

It is used as fuel in thermal power plant.

It is source of H2 gas in fertilizer industry

Easily transportable through pipe lines.

CH4 pressurized to ~200 atm - Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

Synthetic Natural gas (CO + H2) 19

 NUCLEAR ENERGY

NUCLEAR ENERGY
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 Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy – not only for destructive purpose (nuclear weapons) it can be use
for constructive purpose (electricity generation)

Nuclear energy

Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion

Larger mass nuclei splits to smaller nuclei during Forms heavier nuclei as of He from those of
which enormous amount of energy is released lighter nuclei H2 (isotopes).

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 Nuclear fission

Generally used nuclear fuels are uranium & plutonium.

8.68x107 kJ of energy is released per gram of U235
Large amount of fission energy can be released in two ways
(i) uncontrolled manner (ii) controlled manner

Controlled release – Nuclear reactor

Nuclear reactor - initiate and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction – generation of
electricity and in propulsion of ships.
Controlled in such a way 1 neutron left from each fission to excite further fission to
keep up the chain reaction remain steady and control.
Cd-rods absorb excess neutrons
Moderators (graphite, D2O) – slow down neutrons 22
 Nuclear fission
Most of fission energy released in form of heat used for production of electricity or
marine-propulsion
There are many types of reactor
Graphite moderator reactor
Heavy-water reactor
Light-water reactor
Molten salt reactor
Liquid metal cooled reactor
Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
Boiling water reactor (BWR)
Prototype fast breeder reactor (PFBR)

5 nuclear power plant - India - Tarapur, Rana PratapSagar near Kota, Kalpakkam,
Narora and Kudankulam. Nuclear power in India is not very well developed.

Leakage - explosion & nuclear pollution, health risk, disposal of nuclear waste problem
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 Renewable Energy Resources

Just as the 19th century belonged to coal and the 20th century to oil,
the 21st century will belong to the sun, the wind, and energy from within the earth.
Lester R. Brown

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 Classification of energy

Energy
Generated continuously in nature Exhaustible and cannot be
and are inexhaustible replenished quickly

Renewable Non-renewable
- Solar energy - Coal
- Wind energy - Petroleum
- Hydropower - LPG
- Tidal energy - Natural gas
- Ocean thermal energy - Compressed natural gas
- Geothermal energy - Nuclear energy
- Biomass energy
- Hydrogen as fuel

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Statistics of fossil fuel consumption and production

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 Renewable resources-alternate for fossil fuels
Biomass Solar energy Wind energy

Tidal energy Hydropower energy

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Solar energy

Ultimate source of all form of energy

Nuclear fusion reaction in sun releases

enormous energy (~1.4 kJ/s/m2) in form of
heat and light.

On global scale amount of solar energy

received in 2 weeks is equivalent all known
reserves of coal, oil and natural gas on the
earth!

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 Problem associated with harnessing solar energy

India has 250-300 sunny days it can be potentially tapped for various
purposes.

Designing a system that can efficiently harness the diffused sunlight.

Converting solar energy to other form that be efficiently transported,

stored and used.
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 Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency: measure of how much work we can get from each
unit of energy we use.

In day to day life, energy

efficiency is never = 1 or 100%

By improving efficiency -
energy usage & wastage can
be reduced.

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 Why Energy Efficiency is a important energy resource?
We waste huge amounts of energy – ~84%
of commercial energy is wasted.
Due to inefficiency - large part of energy is
wasted in
Internal combustion engine (80% of energy
wasted as heat)
Nuclear power plant (92% of energy wasted
as heat)
Coal-fired power plant (80% of energy
wasted as heat) grid.
Industrial motors, motor vehicles.
Living & working in leaky, poorly insulated &
badly designed buildings - require excessive
heating in winter & cooling in summer 31
 Why Energy Efficiency is a important energy resource?
Saving energy saves us money & also reduces
our environmental impact.

Increasing energy efficiency - reduce energy

use & waste, lowering our gasoline utility,
reduce dependence on oil, reduce greenhouse
gas emissions, reduced pollution, save money
by lowering health care and insurance costs &
taxes used for pollution control & cleanup.

Energy Efficiency -important energy resource

Improving energy efficiency save the world at

least 1/3rd of energy it uses. 32
 Ways to reduce energy waste-Energy efficiency
Combined heat and power generation (CHP) - steam produced in generating
electricity can be used to heat power plant or other nearby buildings.
Recycling of materials – steel from recycled scrap iron uses 75% less energy
than producing steel from virgin iron ore & emits 40% less CO2
Switch from low-efficiency incandescent lighting – CFL or LED – less energy
consumption & longer life.
Switching to smarter electrical grids - digital technology (consist of controls,
computers, internet, automation, & equipment working together) - manages
electricity demand in sustainable, reliable & economic manner.
Energy efficient buildings - natural lighting, passive solar heating, solar cells,
solar water heaters, recycling wastewater, & energy-efficient appliances &
lighting.
Energy efficient Vehicles –fuel-efficient vehicles, gasoline–electric hybrid car,
energy-efficient biodiesel car, mass transit, tax break-fuel efficient vehicles
33
.
 Ways to reduce energy waste-Energy efficiency
Energy efficient Vehicles – economic incentives to buy more fuel-efficient
vehicles, encourage bicycle use by building bicycle lanes along highways
& city streets, developing modern, superefficient, ultralight, and ultra
strong (composite materials such as fiberglass & the carbon-fiber
composites ) cars that could get up to 130 kpl, biodiesel, fuel cells.

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 The Energy and Research Institute(TERI)-a sustainable habitat
Established – 1974; conducts research work in the fields of energy, environment and
sustainable development.

Ranked topmost global think-tank by the International Centre for Climate Governance

The 36 ha TERI campus constructed about three years ago at Gual Pahari, Gurgaon.

Renewable energy is seen as an effective option for ensuring access to modern

energy.

Important features of the building

Efficient utilization of energy
Integrated use of both natural resources
and renewable energy technologies
Efficient waste management.
Climate responsive building 35
 The Energy and Resource Institute(TERI)-a sustainable habitat

Solar water heater

2000 litres of hot water to the living quarters.
PV capture solar energy and store it in a bank of batteries, which is the main source of power at
night. Even water pump is powered by solar panels.

Biogas gasifier
Building is powered by a biomass gasifier in the day time. which is fed by firewood, twigs,
branches, and crop stubble from the campus itself.

Underground earth tunnels

Waste water recycling – purification of sewage water.
Rain water harvesting (water conservation)

Daylight simulation results for building 36

 Solar energy
Solar cooker – cooking

Solar furnace – power generation

Solar cells – production of electricity

Solar cooker
Prepared food is more nutritious due to slow heating.

Limitation
Not useful when there is little or no sunlight
direction of cooker has to adjusted to direction of
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sun rays
Solar power plant

Used to generate electricity.

Sun rays are focused using a parabolic mirror on the

focal line of the mirror and water is circulated through it.
Cause boiling of water and produce steam. The steam
turbine runs the generator.

A temperature of 200-300 °C is attainable

Used for industrial purpose and power generation.

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 Solar furnace

Several small mirrors arranged in parabolic fashion to

concentrate on a tower.

A temperature of about 500 °C is achievable. A 50 ha

mirror array shall produce 100 MW power.

Edison Solar plant in Mojave Desert, U.S generates

100 MW power using mirrors (2000) focused on a 100
m tall tower.

Sometimes even temperature of about 3000 °C is

attainable.
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Solar cells
Solar cells – convert solar
energy to electricity.

Solar cells made of

semiconductor materials like
Si, Ga or doped
semiconductors like Ga-As,
CdS etc.

Upon shining light e- jumps

from valence to conduction
band and results in
production of electricity.

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Solar cells-applications

Solar cells cluster to harness large amount of solar

energy to produce enough electricity to run street light,
irrigation pump, calculators, electronic watches,
television, cars etc.

Has no movable parts, negligible maintenance cost,

produce no pollution. But, prohibitively high initial cost.

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 VIJAYAWADA, April 9, 2016

Solar boat makes its debut in State

An eco-friendly solar-powered boat was launched on

the pristine waters of River Krishna
Only a handful of such boats operating on solar power
in the country. The 12-seater pontoon-shaped boat
can cruise at a speed of 7 knots for an estimated
range of over 35 miles.
Solar-powered boats get their energy from the sun.
Using electric motors and storage batteries charged by
solar panels fitted to the roof, these boats can
significantly reduce or eliminate use of fossil fuels.
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Solar Impulse 2 – A solar power aircraft
• Solar Impulse 2 without fuel.
Instead, its wings were
equipped with 17,000 solar cells
that powered propellers and
charged batteries. The plane ran
on stored energy at night.
• A plane powered by the sun's
rays landed in Hawaii after a
record-breaking five-day (118 h)
journey across the Pacific Ocean
from Japan.

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 Advantages of solar cells
Solar energy is abundant and free
It is inexhaustible and clean
It can be used for large scale
generation of electricity in desert areas
Does not need any machinery and
moving parts
Photo voltaic system is very durable
It does not require any maintenance
Now the cost of electricity generation by solar
cell is of the order of Rs. 300/W.
But in 2020 it is estimated to be Rs. 55/W.
With 15% efficiency and a 30 year life, solar
cell should be able to produce electricity for
around Rs. 3/kW. At that time electricity
produced by thermal power plant and nuclear
power plant would be much higher!
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Advantages of solar cells

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WIND ENERGY

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 Wind energy
Wind mill-wind farm
Wind’s kinetic energy converted into electricity.

Wind has energy due to its motion – kinetic

energy.

Sun is the driving force for the wind.

Kinetic energy of wind rotates the wind mill blade

which in turn rotates the generator to produce
electricity. It also drives number of machines like
water pump, flour mill etc.

A cluster of wind mills forms wind farm. It

generates large amount of electricity. 47
 Statistics of wind power
World Meteorological Organization has estimated that about 20 million
MW of wind power could be tapped worldwide.

5 countries mainly driven the wind power market: Germany (20,236 MW),
Spain (11,791), U.S (9,149), India (5860 MW) and Denmark (3,122 MW).

Ideal locations for wind farms – coastal region, open grasslands or hilly
regions etc.

Minimum wind speed required for generation of electricity is 15 km/h.

Wind potential of our country is estimated to be 46,092 MW. But, installed

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capacity is around 5,860 MW.
 Renewable energy resources
Denmark is striving to become the world's first carbon-neutral nation

Science 27 Nov 2015: Vol. 350, Issue

6264, pp. 1020-1023.
DOI: 10.1126/science.350.6264.1020

49
Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy
Initial cost is very high, but operating cost is
negligible - cost effective.
It is cheap, clean and renewable.
It cannot be adopted in all locations.

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HYDROPOWER ENERGY

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Hydropower energy

Hydropower - potential energy of water converted to electrical

energy.

Turbine fixed at the bottom of the dam move with the fast
moving water which in turn rotate the generator and produce
electricity.

A minimum of 10 m height waterfall is necessary to generate

electricity.

Hydropower potential of India is estimated to be about 150,000

MW. Only 21.5% of it was utilized!

It is clean and renewable energy.

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 Hydropower energy

Norway generates 99% of its electricity through hydropower!

Brazil, New Zealand and Switzerland produce 75% of their electricity by hydropower.

Canada is the World’s leading producer of hydroelectricity. Which operates 400

power stations with installed capacity exceeding 60,000 MW.

The World potential for hydropower is 3 million MW. We are using only 25% of
potential of hydropower.

‘Three Gorges Dam’ on Yangtze river China is the largest hydroelectric dam in the
World. It generates about 22500 MW.
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 Advantages of hydropower energy
It is renewable and clean

About 80-90% of mechanical

energy of water is converted into
electrical energy.

Generation of electricity can be

controlled by opening or shutting
the shutter.

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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
Huge amount of
the sun’s energy is
stored as heat in
the world’s oceans.
But temperature of
this widely
dispersed energy is
so low that we
cannot use it to
heat matter to a
high temperature.
Thus ocean’s
stored heat is low-
quality energy.

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 Water resources

Ocean is World’s largest solar heat collector and energy storage system.

On an average day 60 million km2 of tropical seas absorbs heat equivalent to

250 billions barrels of oil.

If 1/10 of 1% of this stored solar energy is converted to electric energy, it is

equivalent to 20 times of total amount of electricity consumed in U.S. per day
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Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)

OTEC – technology which exploits natural thermal gradient

of adjoining seas for power generation.

Tropical seas are ideal for OTEC.

OTEC utilizes temperature difference between the surface

of sea and deep water (1km).

A temperature difference of 20 °C or more is required for

OTEC

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 Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)

OTEC

Closed cycle OTEC Open cycle OTEC

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Closed cycle OTEC

Warm sea water at surface is used to evaporate the

working fluid, NH3. The high pressure vapor runs the
turbine coupled to a generator that produce electricity.

Cold deep water is used to condense the NH3 vapor and

cycle continues.

Closed OTEC was first developed by French physicist

J.D.Arsonval in 1881.

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Open cycle OTEC

In open system warm sea water is working fluid.

Warm sea water is flash-evaporated in a vacuum

to produce steam which runs the turbine coupled
to a generator to produce electricity.

The steam exiting the turbine is condensed with

cold sea water pumped from ocean’s depth.

The condensed sea water provides supply of

desalinated water

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 Drawbacks of OTEC

Due to low pressure, large size steam turbine is used.

Very large vacuum pump is needed to maintain the vacuum.

In closed system working fluid(NH3) is expensive.

Cost of the plant is high.

Severe ocean storm have to be withstood.

Corrosion of plants due to salt water.

Construction of plant is very difficult.

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Geothermal power plant in Iceland produces electricity and heats a nearby spa called the Blue Lagoon

Geothermal Energy

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 Geothermal energy
Harnessing the energy of the hot rocks lie beneath the earth
is called geothermal energy.

Energy of hot rocks under the earth is exploited for

generation of electricity.

There is 1°C rise in temperature for every 30-40m depth

within the earth. At a depth 3-4 km water bubbles up and at
10-15 km depth temperature is around 1000 °C.

Geothermal energy is probably generated from decaying

radioactive thorium, uranium, and potassium dispersed
throughout the Earth's interior.

Place where dry, hot rocks lie beneath the earth is termed as hot spot.

When ground water comes in contact with hot spot, high temperature and high pressure steam exists.
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 Geothermal energy

In some places steam or hot water comes out through cracks in the form of natural
geysers. Eg. Manikaran and Kullu (in Himachal pradesh) and Sohana (in Haryana).

In absence of natural geysers geothermal energy can be exploited artificially.

Through drilled holes, cold water can be circulated via hot rocks to obtain steam or
hot water for power generation.

Geothermal energy accounts for power generation of

180 MW in U.S
370 MW in Italy
40% total energy of New Zealand

In India geothermal energy utilized in J&K and H.P

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 Advantages of geothermal energy
Very high efficiency and low initial cost but
it is highly local resource.

It can used for heating and cooling all the

year round.

Reduce emission of greenhouse gases by

70%

Geothermal energy is odor free and clean.

It requires less complicated mechanical

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devices and machinery.
Biomass Energy

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Biomass and biomass energy
Solid biomass fuels
Wood logs, charcoal,
Agricultural waste
(stalks, other plant debris)
Timbering wastes
(branches, treetops & wood chips),
Animal wastes (Dung),
Aquatic plants (Kelp & water hyacinths)
Urban wastes
(paper, cardboard and other combustible materials)

anaerobic digestion or
fermentation
Conversion to gaseous
Direct burning or liquid biofuels

Biogas Liquid Biofuels

mainly CH4 Ethanol, methanol
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 Biomass energy

Biomass – organic matter

Biomass energy or bioenergy – energy from organic

matter.

Wood is still our largest biomass energy resource

Solar energy is stored as biomass energy via

photosynthesis.

Biomass is directly burnt for cooking, warming, lighting,

heat buildings etc.
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 Agriculture waste biomass
Agriculture waste – were burnt to meet the energy demands.
Agriculture and animal wastes
agri waste bagasse coconut shell peanut hulls

cotton stalks animal dung poultry waste fishery waste

30% of Brazil’s electricity is obtained by burning bagasse

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 Biomass energy
Solar energy trapped by plants via
photosynthesis & converted to biomass energy.

Energy plantation (fast growing tress) –

cottonwood, poplar, non-woody herbaceous
grassed, sugarcane, sweet sorghum and sugar
beet, hyacinth, potato, cereals etc. produce
energy by burning or converted into burnable
gas or into liquid fuels.

Petro crop – rich in hydrocarbons and yield oil

like substance which can be burnt in diesel
engine eg. Europhobias, oil palms, vegetable
oil extracted from soybeans, rapeseed,
sunflowers seeds, jatropha shrubs, etc.
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 Draw backs of biomass energy

Produce lots of smoke

Cause air pollution

Energy efficiency is less (<8%)

Burning destroy nutrients like N and P

Above draw backs - overcome by converting biomass to biogas or biofuels.

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Biofuels

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Biogas

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 Biogas
Gasification – use high temperature and an oxygen-
starved environment to convert biomass (especially Biomass
woody mass) into gas (CH4, H2 and CO).

Anaerobic (in absence of oxygen) digestion – gasification Anaerobic digestion

involves bacteria to decompose organic matter
(especially animal dung) into gas – biogas
(CH4(major), CO2, H2 and H2S)

Biogas
Anaerobic digestion depends on:
Temperature
pH
retention period
solid concentration

The most common method of energy generation from biomass is through anaerobic digestion.
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 Biogas
Biogas – CH4 = 65%, CO2 = 32%, H2 = 1.5, N2 =1.1%, H2S = 0.3%, CO = 0.1% produced by anaerobic
degradation of animal wastes.

It is mainly useful in rural areas. And India has the

largest cattle population.

From cattle dung alone 22500 Mm3 of biogas can be

produced annually.

Advantages of biogas – non-polluting, clean & cheap, high energy efficiency, directly shifted from
plant to usage area so no storage problem, sludge left may be used as manure as nutrients are
preserved, air tight digestion/degradation avoids health hazards.

Biogas can be used for power generation (run turbine coupled generator, fuel cells etc.) and cooking.
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 Types of biogas plants
Biogas plant types

Floating gas-holder type Fixed dome type

it has well shaped digester tank
working principle is same as floating gas-holder

placed under the ground
steel gas holder is replace by dome shaped roof

digester tank is covered by steel gas holder
made of bricks and cement.

drum floats to hold the bio-gas produced
single unit main digester

sometime corrosion of steel gas holder
lead to leakage of biogas. The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy sources promoting biogas program
76
Hydrogen (H2) Energy
H2 fuel is attractive only when it produced from water via either
solar energy or by electricity produced from renewable resources. 77
 H2 as a fuel
H2-fuel

Highest calorific value

Non-polluting – H2O by-product

H2 projected as fuel of future. But, most daunting problem with H2

production is energy needed to produce it.

According to current technology, energy output up on H2 burning is less

than energy input for its production.

Unlike other renewable resources, H2 fuel can be used at any climatic

conditions. Extract & store the energy in form of H2 molecule.
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 H2 production methods
H2 production methods - thermal dissociation, electrolysis & photolysis of
water.

Electrolysis

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 H2 production methods

Photobiological production - green algae and

cyanobacteria can use solar energy to split
water into H2 & O2.

Solar-Hydrogen - any method of production

that uses the power of Sun to produce H2.

Advantages of solar hydrogen - pollution free,

totally renewable, only H2O is by-product
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 Solar-Hydrogen production
Planet earth has plenty of water & get lots of sunlight as energy. If we
can split water into H2 & O2 by solar methods, & use H2 to meet our
energy needs, no CO2 to pollute, water being the only by-product we are
saving economically, ecologically & environmentally.

81
 Solar-Hydrogen production
Photocatalytic water splitting – artificial photosynthesis
What is photocatalyst – a material that
functions as catalyst when exposed to light.
When sufficient photochemical energy -
applied, electrons (e-) excited into conduction
band, leaving e- holes in valence band &
excess e- in conduction band. These electron-
hole pairs play key roles in redox reactions of
water splitting. Electrons are responsible for Minimum band gap for a suitable water
reducing protons to hydrogen molecules, and splitting photocatalyst should be 1.23 eV
oxygen anions will be oxidized by the holes.
Band gap of
semiconductor materials
should be less than 3 eV to
have a visible light
response UV or Visible light
UV light photocatalyst
TiO2, ZrO2, ZnTiS, NaTaO3.
Visible light Photocatalyst
Pt, Cr or Ta-TiO2, GaP, BiVO4 ,
CdS, carbon nitride (C3N4),
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ZnO.
 Uses and draw backs of H2 fuel

Uses of H2 fuel
Liquid H2 is used as fuel in spaceship
H2 is used to produce electricity in fuel cells

83
 Uses and draw backs of H2 fuel

Draw backs of H2 fuel

Highly inflammable
Explosive in nature
Handling, storage and transport is difficult
Since it is light it should be stored in bulk

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Transition to more sustainable energy future

85
Transition to more sustainable energy future

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87