Name: Jegathiswary A/P Ganasan

Matrics: S56094

Code: BIO4102

Date: 11/07/2021

Section B:

Question 3

Activation by Phosphorylation

PKA is activated by cyclic AMP. CREB (cAMP–response element binding protein) binds to DNA in a
dimer, with each peptide providing a -helix to DNA binding. CREB binds to another protein named
CBP after being phosphorylated by the conversion of ATP to ADP (CREB binding protein). CBP has a
number of domains, some of which can interact to other proteins. By activating transcriptional
activity, the CREB-CBP complex increases it. MAP Kinases and Janus Kinases are some examples of
transcription factor. Calcineurin activates NF-AT, which causes dephosphorylation and affects the
immune response.

Activation by oxydation

Oxidative stress may influence the level of gene expression in 3% of the genome. H2O2 activates
OxyR (an antioxidant gene regulator) in E. coli by creating a disulphide bond between cys199 and
cys208, changing cellular activity. Yap1 was activated in S. cerevisiae by thioredoxin-mediated
oxidation. Yap1 is activated by oxidation (H202), which is controlled by another protein, Gpx3.
Because NPR1 has been reduced from an oligomer to a monomer, gene expression has changed.

Steroid Hormone Binding

By interacting with intracellular receptors, which are modular proteins comprising of a ligand binding
domain, a DNA binding domain, and multiple transactivation functions dispersed along the molecule,
steroid hormones impact the transcription of a vast number of genes.

Question 4

Similarities

 The enzymes kinase and phosphatase both transfer phosphate groups between molecules.
 Kinases and phosphatases both play a role as intracellular signaling components.
 Both control the activity of proteins in a cell, usually in reaction to external stimuli.

Differences

 Phosphatases catalyse the hydrolysis of organic phosphate in an acidic or alkaline media,

whereas kinases catalyse the transfer of phosphate group from ATP to a particular molecule.
 Phosphorylation occurs when kinases attach a phosphate group, whereas dephosphorylation
occurs when phosphatases remove a phosphate group.
  Kinases receive phosphate groups using ATP, whereas phosphatases transfer hydroxyl
groups using water molecules.
 Phosphatases normally turn a protein off, whereas kinases usually turn it on.
 Signaling proteins must be activated by kinases, while signaling proteins must be inactivated
by phosphatases.
 Phosphotransferases are kinases, while phosphatases are hydrolases.
 MAPKs and hexokinases are examples of kinases, while nucleotidases and PP2A are
examples of phosphatases.

Question 5

Reception

1. The Ras independent pathway is known as PI-3K/AKT signaling pathway, is activated by a

series of events that aid glucose uptake by the cell.
2. Insulin, hormone from β cells of pancreas, bind to the extracellular α subunit of receptor
causing a conformational change in the intracellular β subunit, leading in
autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues in the intracellular domain of RTK.
3. Phosphotyrosine-binding (PTB) domains of adaptor proteins recognise these residues (IRS).
4. When a receptor is activated, tyrosine residues on IRS proteins are phosphorylated, which
are recognised by the SH2 domain of the PI3-kinase regulatory subunit p85.

Transduction

5. Phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2] by the catalytic

subunit of PI3-kinase, p110, results in the production of Ptd(3,4,5)P3.
6. AKT, which is recruited to the plasma membrane, is a main downstream effector of
Ptd(3,4,5)P3.
7. Activation of AKT also needs the protein kinase 3- phosphoinositide dependent protein
kinase-1 (PDK1), which phosphorylates AKT in the presence of an unidentified kinase.

Response

8. AKT or activated protein kinase B (PKB) act on the transport vesicle in target cell, thus
vesicles migrate and fuse on the plasma membrane.
9. Glucose uptake increased via glucose transporters, GLUT 4.
10. Another response is, PKB phosphorylate glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3), inactive state.
11. Substrate of GSK3, glycogen synthase activated, hence glucose is stored as glycogen.