Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

, 1995,14 (1), 57-74

Chemicals used as disinfectants:

active ingredients and enhancing additives
D.J. JEFFREY *

Summary: Active ingredients used in microbiocidal products in the European

Union constitute some 250 chemical entities. Approximately 100 of these
chemicals are commonly used in disinfectant products. The majority of these
substances may be classified into distinct chemical groupings. A brief review of
the chemical, physical and microbiological properties of each group is given,
together with some indications of additives which may be used to enhance their
properties, and factors which may detract from them. Some indications of usage
areas are given.

KEYWORDS: Additives - Chemicals - Disinfection - Microbicidals.

INTRODUCTION

As a result of t h e p r o p o s e d E u r o p e a n U n i o n Biocidal P r o d u c t s Directive,

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the disinfectants industry in E u r o p e were asked to identify t h e
number of active components used in products which were likely to come under the
scope of the Directive. Some 250 chemical entities were thus identified (8). Not all these
actives are in c o m m o n use: some have particular applications for a specific p u r p o se
(so-called ' n i c h e ' p r o d u c t s ) , while others have applications as preservatives, water
biocides, 'slimicides', etc., and are not generally used in disinfectant formulations.
T h e list contains a wide r a n g e of chemicals, from simple inorganic molecules
(e.g. sodium h y d r o x i d e ) to relatively complicated molecules (e.g. polymerised
quaternary ammonium compounds [QACs] or substituted isothiozolones).
At first thought, one might wonder why such a plethora of active substances exists, if they
all kill microorganisms. However, on examination, the reason becomes obvious. The
physical and chemical properties of disinfectants can limit the choice for a particular
application. It would not be reasonable to use a sodium hydroxide solution on surfaces
containing tin, zinc or aluminium, as the solution would react with and corrode such
materials. It would be unwise to use hydrochloric acid on mild steel or iron for similar
reasons. Oxidising agents cannot be used in the presence of reducing substances, which
would neutralise their effect. Surface-active properties may be required for some purposes
but not for others, and a number of additional properties (tainting, staining, toxicity, etc.)
must also be taken into account, as they could render an active component unsuitable.
In addition to physical and chemical properties, the microbiological attributes of the
active substance must also be considered. Few active substances are able to kill all the
types of microorganisms (and their spores) which are likely to be e n c o u n t e r e d , and
these substances are not suitable in all applications for various reasons.

* Jeyes Limited, Brunei Way, Thetford, Norfolk IP241HF, United Kingdom.

58

Most chemical actives are not effective against bacterial spores, and most are only
mildly effective against mycobacteria or lipophobic viruses. Some actives are relatively
ineffective against fungi, while others are insufficiently effective against Pseudomonas
spp. Not all bacterial or fungal species are equally susceptible to a given concentration
of a given product, and even different strains of the same species of bacteria, fungus or
virus may vary in resistance.
For the above reasons, a large number of active chemicals are now commercially
available. It should be possible to choose at least one active substance (or a combination
of actives) to obtain the best results in any given situation.
Most of the active chemicals on the above-mentioned list (8) fall into particular
chemical groups, and most are well established. Only approximately one-third of the
available actives are commonly used in the veterinary field.
Active disinfectant substances may be classified into the following groups:
- QACs
- phenols
- halogen-releasing compounds
- halogenated phenols
- aldehydes
- biguanides and polymeric biguanides
- amphoterics
- iodine-based compounds
- alcohols
- acids
- peroxygen-based compounds
- alkalis
- miscellaneous.
Details of the active ingredients are presented below, together with a discussion of
potential enhancing additives.

QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

All QACs have the basic structure shown in Figure 1.

R1 is nearly always a C -18 alkyl group. R may be a long- or short-chain alkyl group
8 2

or an aryl group. R and R are usually short-chain alkyl groups. X is usually a chloride
3 4

ion but may be a bromide ion.

A few Q A C s have a pyridinium ion with long-chain alkyl groups and some are
polymerised. The structure of most common types of QACs is given in Figure 2.

x-

FlG. 1

Basic structure of quaternary ammonium compounds

 59

CH 3 CH,
I
Br CnH:2n+1 V — C H Cl
C H
n 2n+ i - N — CH
+
3 n
n
n n + 1

CH, CH,
alkyltrimethyl ammonium bromide dialkyldimethyl ammonium chloride

CH 3

I
• 0 — (CH ) 6 2 (CH )n 2 CH 3 Br

CH 3

domiphen bromide
CH, CH3 CH3
i i
>-CH 2 l\T — C H - C H 0 - CH - C H 0 - <
2 2 2 — C — CH — C - C H 2 2 CH 02

l I I
CH 3
CH3 CH3
benzethonium chloride

CH 3

f
-CH —N 2
+
C H n 2 n + 1
cr >— N* — ( C H ) — C H 2 1 5 3 Cl H 0
2

CH 3

benzalkonium chloride cetylpyridinium chloride

CH 3

c H n 2 n + 1 — r — CH 3

I
CH 2

I
^ Cl

Cl
alkyI(dichlorophenyl)methyldimethyI chloride

CHoCI CH,

— 0 — C H — C H — N — CH 2 2
+
2 C H — N — CH — CH —
2
+
2 2

CH 3 CH 3

polymeric quaternary ammonium compound

FIG. 2

Chemical structure of the common types of quaternary ammonium compounds

60

All Q A C s are cationic. The first use of these compounds dates back to 1916 (6) but
not until 1935, when the chemistry had been further developed, did Q A C s begin to
e n t e r c o m m o n use (3). Since then, Q A C s have b e e n widely used in disinfectants,
antiseptics, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Since 1935, it has been shown that QACs are much more effective in preventing the
growth of bacteria than in killing them. Q A C s have been shown to be far more active
against Gram-positive bacteria than against Gram-negativ e bacteria, to have m o r e
bactericidal than fungicidal activity, and to be effective against lipophilic viruses but not
against lipophobic viruses. QACs may be sporostatic (7), but they are not sporicidal and
are relatively ineffective against mycobacteri a (9). N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the abov e
comments, the bactericidal activity of QACs against most bacteria is sufficient for them
to have found many applications.
Used alone, Q A C s possess a certain degree of surface activity, but they are usually
formulated with compatible non-ionic detergents to increase detergency. The activity of
Q A C s declines in the presence of h a r d water, and they are usually formulated in
combination with chelating agents (e.g. the salts of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
[ E D T A ] ) or chemicals such as sodium citrate or t r i p o l y p h o s p h a t e (which r e m o v e
calcium and magnesium ions from the water). The activity of QACs is greatly reduced
in the presence of soiling matter, and it is therefore best to clean away heavy soiling
before using these c o m p o u n d s . Q A C s are not compatible with soaps or ordinar y
anionic detergents; if these are used for cleaning, they must be rinsed off before
applying Q A C s or the disinfectants will lose much of their activity. Q A C s are m o r e
effective in alkaline conditions t h a n in acid conditions, and a n u m b e r of Q A C
formulations contain alkalis, such as sodium carbonate or metasilicate. Some care must
be taken in composing such formulations, as QACs can lose some of their activity if the
ratio of the various constituents is incorrect.
Q A C s are sometimes formulated in combination with o t h e r actives (notably
Chlorhexidine or polymeric biguanides) to increase their efficacy against some Gram-
negative species, or they may be formulated in combination with glutaraldehyde to kill
the whole spectrum of microorganisms more rapidly than glutaraldehyde alone.
Q A C formulations (both alone and in combination with other substances) have been
widely used in veterinary disinfectants.
The action of these formulations is reasonably rapid, they have a high concentration
exponent, and a rise in t e m p e r a t u r e increases their activity. In use dilutions, Q A C s
are usually non-corrosive to surfaces, but strong concentrations can corrode mild steel
or iron.
A wide range of QAC-based products exists and selection is difficult. The literature
supplied by manufacturer s should be consulted, but l a b o r a t o r y tests on these
formulations give highly variable results, and the only way to prove their efficacy in a
given situation is to assess the products in practice.

PHENOLS
Phenols are among the oldest established active disinfectant substances. Originally
derived from coal tar, they were extensively used in the early 20th century and still play
a major role in the disinfectant armoury today. In the Unite d Kingdom and Ireland,
over 3 0 % of disinfectants used in veterinary applications are based on phenols.
However, in Germany, only 7% of veterinary disinfectants are phenolic (4). All these
substances are chemically based on the phenol molecule (Fig. 3).
 61

Phenols

phenol o-cresol m-cresol p-cresol

2,4-xylenol 2,6-xylenol 3,4-xylenol 3,5-xylenol

o-ethylphenol o-phenylphenol

Chlorinated phenols
OH OH
CI

CH, CH, CH 3

CH,
CI CI
4-chloro-3,5-metaxylenol (PCMX) 2,4-dichlorometaxylenol (DCMX)

OH OH

-CH,-

CI CI
4-chloro-2-o-phenylphenol (MCOPP) 2-benzyl-4-chlorophenol (OBPCP)

PCMX: parachlorometaxylenol

FIG. 3

Phenols and chlorinated phenols

62

Phenol itself is rarely used now, as it is highly toxic and corrosive, but the higher
homologues (cresols, xylenols and ethylphenols) are still used. Phenols have a wide
spectrum of activity against bacteria, viruses, fungi and mycobacteria, while their
sporicidal activity is minimal. Phenols have poor surface activity and have therefore
traditionally been formulated in soap solutions to increase their penetrative power. The
choice of soaps which may be used is very limited: the sodium or potassium salts of
castor oil, linseed oil or resin acids have generally been used for this purpose. Soaps
based on tallow, tall oil or oleic acid markedly decrease the activity of phenols.

Phenolic disinfectants are divided into three categories, as described below.

Clear soluble phenols

'Clear solubles' are so called as they yield a clear, opalescent solution in distilled
water. T h ey essentially consist of cresol, xylenol, o-ethylphenol (alone or in
combination) dissolved (20-30%) in a liquid soap. Ethyl alcohols or glycols may also be
included in the formula. Such products are effective under conditions of heavy soiling
and are therefore among the products of choice where such conditions exist. Clear
solubles are incompatible with acids or strong alkalis. Acids break down the soap, and
alkalis convert the phenol to the phenate ion, which is less effective than the phenol
molecule and can cause resinification, resulting in loss of activity. Products based on
cresol are corrosive to skin, but those based on xylenols or higher phenols are less
corrosive. Clear solubles have a low concentratio n exponen t and are almost as
bactericidal as bacteriostatic; they must therefore be used at the r e c o m m e n d e d
concentration or their activity will be lost.

White fluid phenols

'White fluid' phenols are produced by making a colloidal solution of a low boiling-
point tar acid fraction and so-called ' n e u t r a l ' oil (a complex eutectic mixture of
naphthalene, dimethylnaphthalenes, acenaphthene and other aromatic hydrocarbons)
in water. This is usually made in a colloid mill or in a homogeniser, but ultrasonics can
also be used. A small amount of soap is usually added and the emulsion is held together
by a colloid protectant (usually glue or casein). White fluids have a distinct advantage
over nearly all other types of disinfectant in that they can be diluted with seawater or
brackish water without breaking down or losing their activity (nearly all the navies of
the world formerly used these disinfectants). They are effective in conditions of heavy
soiling and have a wide spectrum of microbicidal activity. White fluid phenols have been
used extensively for terminal disinfection in farm buildings. However, they are toxic and
have a tarry odour, and if the emulsion breaks down they can leave tarry deposits.

Black fluid phenols

'Black fluid' phenols are based on a tar fraction of higher boiling-point than that used
for the white fluids. This tar fraction is a complex mixture of higher homologues of
phenol, naphthols, indanols, anthracols, etc. It is quite insoluble in water and must
therefore be solubilised in 'neutral' oil. This mixture is then solubilised with a soap
solution or an ethoxylated castor oil sulphonate; glycerols or glycols may also be added.
T h e high boiling-point tar acids used in these product s do not have the same wide
spectrum of activity as those used in the white fluids. These products are effective
against a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, but are relatively
ineffective against Pseudomonas spp. and mycobacteria, and are not effective against
lipophobic viruses. However, their level of fungicidal activity is quite high.
 63

Black fluid phenol products are effective in conditions of heavy soiling. They form
white emulsions w h e n diluted and h a v e a tarry odour. By formulating tar acids in
combination with sulphonic acids and acetic acid, highly bactericidal, fungicidal and
virucidal products have been formulated for farm use. Formulations have also b e e n
developed using triethanolaminedodecylbenzene sulphonate as an emulsifier.

One phenol worthy of special mention is o-phenylphenol. This can be incorporated

into clear soluble products and is quite often used in combination with halogenate d
phenols to enhance their activity. It is less toxic and less corrosive than most other phenols.

Formulating with phenols requires great care, as the activity of the formulation relies
on both oil/water partition and micelle concentration.

HALOGEN-RELEASING COMPOUNDS

Sodium hypochlorite solutions are probably the best known of the halogen-releasing
compounds and are among the oldest and most common of all disinfectants. They are
extremely effective against all types of microorganisms (Table I) but lose much of their
activity in the presence of soiling. Sodium hypochlorite solutions do not wet surfaces
effectively and have consequently been formulated with various detergents (e.g. amine
oxides, soaps, alkane sulphonates and ether sulphates) to enhance their detergency.
These additions do not affect the microbicidal activity of these products.

The advantages of sodium hypochlorite solutions over other disinfectants include

low toxicity at use concentrations, ease of use and relatively low cost. Concentrate d
solutions are corrosive to skin, metals and other materials. These products are usually
formulated with a little sodium hydroxide to enhance stability; otherwise, stability is
greatly affected by trace metals (particularly copper, nickel and c h r o m i u m ), which
catalyse the rapid breakdown to salt and water. These solutions should never be mixed
with acids, as the resultant reaction releases toxic chlorine gas.

For many years, sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used in water treatment, in
dairying operations, in the food industry and in the home.

As the stability of hypochlorite solutions is exponentially related to concentration,

strong solutions lose more of their activity in a given time than weak solutions. Thus, in
six to nine months under normal storage conditions, a 10% solution would decrease to
5%; whereas a 5 % solution would fall to 2 . 5 % . With increasing quality assessment at
manufacture, the stability of hypochlorite solutions has improved in recent years and it
is possible to obtain 5 % solutions which only decay to 4.0% in nine m o n t h s u n d e r
normal storage conditions.

Potassium h y p o c h l o r i t e has p r o p e r t i e s similar to those of sodium hypochlorite.

Neither of these chemicals is stable in solid form, whereas lithium hypochlorite and
calcium hypochlorite are stable as solids, and may t h e r e f o r e be used to formulate
powders. Other powdered compounds which release hypochlorite ions in solution are
trichloroisocyanuric acid (giving 9 0% active chlorine), sodium dichloroisocyanurate
(55-60%), d i c h l o r o d i m e t h y l h y d a n t o in (55%), chlor.amine-T, h a l o z o n e , N-chloro-
succinimide (40%) and chlorinated trisodium phosphate (10%). Trichloroisocyanuric
acid, sodium dichloroisocyanurate and calcium hypochlorite have all been formulated
into tablets to give c o n c e n t r a t ed solutions of active chlorine in solution. Dichloro-
64
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dimethylhydantoin, N-chlorosuccinimide and chloramine-T are less soluble but have

also been incorporated into powder formulations with detergents and have all been
used for water treatment. Chlorinated trisodium phosphate has been incorporated into
various d e t e r g e n t sanitisers; it has the grease-emulsifying p r o p e r t i es of trisodium
p h o s p h a t e , with the antimicrobial activity of active chlorine. Any tablet or p o w d e r
formulations containing this substance must be kept dry, as chlorine loses activity very
rapidly when wet. All these chemicals are extremely reactive, and care must be taken in
formulating with them. Non-ionic detergents generally react with these substances, but
p o w d e r e d anionic d e t e r g e n t s (e.g. sodium d o d e c y l b e n z e n e s u l p h o n a t e or alkane
sulphonate) are suitable.

A l t h o u g h b r o m i n e is m o r e antimicrobially active than chlorine, few b r o m i n e -

releasing p r o d u c t s have found a place in the disinfectant m a r k e t to d a t e .
B r o m o c h l o r o d i m e t h y l h y d a n t o i n has b e e n used for water t r e a t m e n t , and sodium
b r o m i d e is commonly a d d e d in p o w d e r e d sanitiser formulations containing active
chlorine products, as the chlorine releases bromine in solution. A number of powders
which can release chlorine dioxide have recently appeared on the market. Chlorine
dioxide is said to have greater antimicrobial activity than hypochlorite and to be more
environmentally friendly. These powders usually contain sodium chlorate or sodium
chlorite and an acid which releases chlorine dioxide in situ.

HALOGENATED PHENOLS

As suggested by the n a m e , in halogenated phenols one or m o r e of the hydrogen

atoms in the phenol molecule has been replaced by a halogen atom, usually chlorine or
bromine. Halogenation of the molecule significantly alters the phenolic properties.
These substances are less soluble, less corrosive and less toxic than the corresponding
phenol; they have a higher activity against b o t h Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria but are less effective in the presence of soiling matter. Halogenated phenols are
generally formulated by dissolving in pine oil or other terpene hydrocarbons or alcohols
and then emulsifying the resultant solutions with liquid soap. T h e s e actives can b e
formulated with some anionic detergents, but most anionic, non-ionic and cationic
detergents reduce their activity.

Formulations containing parachlorometaxylenol (PCMX), 2,4-dichlorometaxylenol

(DCMX) and o-benzyl-p-chlorophenol (OBPCP) (see Fig. 3) have been widely used as
antiseptics. Together with monochlorophenylphenol, halogenated phenols have also
been used in pine disinfectants, sometimes in combination with o-phenylphenol. Some
have b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d into clear soluble phenolic disinfectants to e n h a n c e their
activity. Halogenate d phenols have an intense odour and can be very tainting; they
should therefore not be used near food.

The activity of these substances against Pseudomonas spp. is increased by including

chelating agents, such as E D T A or ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid ( E G T A ) , in the
formulation.

Increasing the degree of substitution of halogen in the molecule decreases solubility

and generally decreases bactericidal activity, while increasing fungicidal activity.
Products containing halogenated phenols have not found wide use in veterinary
applications, although they have been used as fogging sprays.
 67

T h e halogenate d bisphenols, particularly trichlorsan, have found applications in

antibacterial hand soap formulations. They are very effective against Gram-positive
bacteria but much less effective against Gram-negative bacteria.

ALDEHYDES

Some aldehydes have a wide s p e c t r um of activity against bacteria, fungi,

mycobacteria, spores and viruses. Formaldehyde is the best known, and certainly the
most established, of these substances. It has b e e n used extensively in liquid
p r e p a r a t i o n s , particularly in G e r m a n y, A u s t r i a and Switzerland; according to
Haskoning (4), 30% of veterinary disinfectants used in Germany are aldehydic.
F o r m a l d e h y d e has b e e n used extensively in liquid p r e p a r a t i o n s in the U n i t e d
Kingdom for disinfection of chemical toilets. It has also been used as a fumigant, by
boiling formalin solutions, reacting formalin with potassium permanganate or heating
p a r a f o r m a l d e h y d e . High relative humidity is r e q u i r e d for o p t i m u m efficacy.
Formaldehyde is not very penetrative.
Glutaraldehyde is said to be at least three times as active as formaldehyde, but lacks
chemical stability in strong solution. It has b e e n extensively used in solutions for the
chemical sterilisation of sensitive medical i n s t r u m e n t s (e.g. e n d o s c o p e s ) .
Glyoxaldehyde, glycidaldehyde and succindialdeyhyde have also been used in some
preparations but are generally less effective than glutaraldehyde.
All the above-mentioned aldehydes can work in conditions of heavy soiling; all act
rather slowly with a low concentration exponent. Aldehydes oxidise slowly and are
relatively reactive with other chemicals. Care must therefore be taken in formulating
with aldehydes to obviate these p r o b l e m s . C a r e must also be t a k e n in using these
substances, as they are potential respiratory sensitisers.
In more recent times, aldehydes have been formulated in conjunction with Q A C s or
amphoterics to achieve a synergistic effect, obtaining m o r e rapid action and higher
activity over a wider spectrum.

BIGUANIDES AND POLYMERIC BIGUANIDES

This section details the properties of alexidine, Chlorhexidine and the polymeric
biguanides.
All these actives h a v e a b r o a d s p e c t r u m of antibacterial activity, but they have
limited fungicidal and virucidal properties. They function across a limited pH: 5-7 in the
case of alexidine and Chlorhexidine, and 5-10 for the polymeric biguanides. They are all
incompatible with anionic detergents and inorganic anionic compounds.
Chlorhexidine itself is insoluble in water, but Chlorhexidine gluconate is quite soluble
and is the salt most generally used. Chlorhexidine gluconate is much more bacteriostatic
than bactericidal; it has virucidal properties but is not sporicidal or mycobactericidal. It
has been formulated in aqueous or alcoholic solutions for pre-operative skin treatment
and has been used in conjunction with quaternary ammonium compounds in antiseptic
and detergent sanitiser formulations.
Alexidine has mainly been used in oral antiseptics.
68

Polymerie biguanides have been used extensively in combination with either Q A C s

or non-ionic detergents in the brewing and food industries. They have a wide spectrum
of activity, and b o t h polymeric biguanides and Chlorhexidine are generally m o r e
effective against Pseudomonas spp. than QACs, although resistance to Chlorhexidine
has been reported. These substances cannot be formulated with alkalis.

AMPHOTERIC COMPOUNDS

A m p h o t e r i c c o m p o u n d s have b o t h positive and negative charges in t h e sam e

molecule (so-called 'switterions'). They can thus be formulated with either anionic or
cationic substances. In the 1950s, some amphoteric detergents were discovered to have
antimicrobial properties. Of these, one particular group based on alkyl betaines was
commercially exploited. Subsequently, increasing the number of amine nitrogens in the
molecule was found to increase the activity of these detergents. Amphoteric compounds
are less active than most QACs, but the spectrum of microbicidal activity is less biased
towards Gram-positive organisms. Amphoterics have good detergency in their own
right and are more easily rinsed off than most quaternaries. They have found extensive
use in the dairy and pharmaceutical industries.

Amphoterics cannot withstand heavy soiling, their virucidal activity is limited to

lipophilic viruses and they are ineffective against spores, although they are reported to
have some mycobactericidal activity (5). These substances have been formulated in
conjunction with flutaraldehyde and formaldehyde to give products with detergency
and a wider spectrum of activity.

Amphoterics can possibly be used to enhance the activity of some phenols (E. Reeve,
personal communication).

IODINE-BASED COMPOUNDS

Iodine itself is not very soluble and is generally too toxic, corrosive and staining for
use as a microbicidal active, although it is among the most active disinfectant substances
known.

In the early 20th century, iodine was used extensively as an antiseptic, in solutions in
which the iodine was dissolved in alcohol and potassium iodide. These tinctures of
iodine were found to be too irritative to skin and mostly fell into disuse. Iodine was
discovered to be reactive with neutral polymers, particularly polyvinyl pyrrolidine, to
yield a product which has found extensive use as a surgical hand-wash and antiseptic.
Iodine was also found to react with ethoxylated surfactants to p r o d u c e i o d o p h o r s .
These iodophors are usually stabilised with either acids or acidic buffers. They have an
extremely wide spectrum of activity against bacteria, spores, mycobacteria, fungi and
viruses, and have found extensive use in the veterinary field.

Iodophors have a low temperature coefficient compared to most other products, and
therefore work almost equally well at low and high temperatures.
Iodophors cannot be mixed with other products, nor can they be used in alkaline
conditions. They can cause staining if not used properly.
 69

ALCOHOLS

Although some alcohols have been extensively used as skin disinfectants, they are
not particularly active. Ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol and M-propyl alcohol are most
active at 7 0 % concentratio n and retain some activity down to approximately 1 0 % .
However, alcohols have found extensive use as solvents and have b e e n used in
formulations of disinfectants in combination with phenols, halogenated phenols, QACs
and Chlorhexidine. Alcohols have the advantage of evaporating quickly and leaving no
residues; they have therefore been used as spray disinfectants in the food industry.
T e r p e n e alcohols also have s o m e germicidal p r o p e r t i e s and have b e e n used in
combination with halogenated phenols in so-called 'pine fluids'.
P h e n o x y e t h a n o l and phenylethyl alcohol have also been used in formulations to
increase activity against Pseudomonas spp.

ACIDS

Inorganic acids (e.g. nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, phosphoric and sulphamic acids)
are used as cleaners for removing limescale, milk stone, etc. They all have microbicidal
properties due to the low p H levels, but are generally slow-acting. Inorganic acids are
efficient cleaners, but have strict limitations due to corrosiveness to b o t h skin and
materials.
In addition , m a n y organic acids (e.g. formic, citric, lactic, mallic, glutaric and
propionic acids) have been used in disinfectant formulations to enhance virucidal and
fungicidal p r o p e r t i e s . T h e ir activity is greatly e n h a n c e d in t h e p r e s e n c e of anionic
detergents of the sulphonate or ether sulphate type, and this property has been used in a
number of sanitiser formulations; these formulations usually use hydratropes, such as
substituted alkylmonocarboxylic acids.
Acetic acid and benzoic acid work through the action of the undissociated molecule.
Acetic acid has an acrid smell but has been used as a disinfectant in lavatory cleaners
and in combination with some phenolic formulations; it is a component part of peracetic
acid. Benzoic acid is most often used as a preservative in the soft drinks industry.
All acids are slow-acting and have a low concentration exponent.

PEROXYGEN-BASED COMPOUNDS

H y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e has good a n t i b a c t e r i al p r o p e r t i e s and has b e e n used in

formulations at 5-20%. It is not very fungicidal, and t h e organisms which contain
catalase are resistant to low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . H y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e is a very reactive
material, is not very stable and is destroyed by alkalis. To increase stability, the p H is
adjusted to approximatel y 5 and p h o s p h o n a t e s a r e a d d e d . H y d r o g e n peroxid e has
found intensive use in sterilising cardboard packaging used for milk. The breakdown
products are water and oxygen, thus rendering hydrogen peroxide particularly suitable
for this purpose.

Of t h e o t h e r p e r o x y g e n - b a s e d p r o d u c t s , p e r a c e t i c acid has found use in food

processing and dairying. It is p r e s e n t e d in a mixture with acetic acid and hydrogen
70

p e r o x i d e . Peracetic acid has an acrid o d o u r but kills all types of microorganisms,

including spores, and is active in the presence of soiling matter.
Many other peroxygen c o m p o u n ds (e.g. p e r c a r b o n a t e p e r l a c t a t e , persuccinate
p e r b e n z o n a t e and pervalerate) have microbicidal properties, but they are generally
unstable and have found little use in the disinfectant industry.
Sodium and potassium monopersulphates have the property of producing chlorine
from salt solutions and peroxide in acid solution. This p r o p e r t y has b e e n used in
p o w d e r e d disinfectant formulations, one of which has b e e n extensively used for
veterinary disinfection.
Sodium metaperiodate has been added to some formulations to increase activity, as it
has chelating powers for some heavy metals.

ALKALIS

Sodium and potassium hydroxide have b e e n extensively used for their cleaning
properties in the food and dairy industries. They have microbicidal properties as well as
good grease- and debris-removing properties, but their activity is slow. The activity of
these chemicals is much increased by raising the t e m p e r a t u r e and using high
concentrations. Sodium and potassium hydroxide are very corrosive and must be
handled with care. They are used extensively in 'cleaning-in-place' systems, usually
followed by an acid rinse.
Quicklime (calcium oxide) has often been used to disinfect animal corpses. Sodium
carbonate and sodium metasilicate have little microbicidal activity but have been used
in formulations with other actives to increase their grease-removing properties, enhance
penetration and raise the pH.

MISCELLANEOUS MICROBICIDES

The list of miscellaneous microbicides is long, but it is probably worth mentioning a

few of these chemicals. Products for the hygiene of hands have been formulated using
1,3-propanediol, 2-bromo-2-nitro, 3,4,4'-trichlorocarbanilide and 3',4',5-trichloro-
salicylanilide, while the hydroxybenzoates have been widely used as preservatives and
have found some application as additives to disinfectant formulations.
In the vapour phase, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide have been extensively used,
and ozone has been used in water treatment.

CONCLUSION

The formulator of microbicidal products is therefore faced with a wide choice, while
not all products are suitable for all applications. When deciding which formulation to
use for a particular application, the user must first define the conditions of use and then
ask some of the following questions:
- Is heavy soiling present?
- If cleaning is to be performed first, is the product compatible with the cleaning agent?
 71

- Is hard water to be used?

- Will tainting pose problems?
- How quickly should the required product work?
- What is the working temperature?
- Is corrosion or staining likely to be a problem?
- What is the required price range?
T h e user should then select a few formulations which satisfy the criteria, read the
literature supplied by the manufacturer and then make a choice.
The types of product in use in the United Kingdom for particular applications in the
veterinary area are listed in the Appendix.

* *

PRODUITS DÉSINFECTANTS CHIMIQUES : ÉLÉMENTS ACTIFS ET

ADJUVANTS. - D.J. Jeffrey.

Résumé : Les composants des produits microbicides utilisés dans l'Union

européenne constituent quelque 250 entités chimiques. Une centaine de celles-ci
environ sont couramment utilisées comme produits désinfectants. La plupart de
ces substances peuvent être classées en groupes chimiques distincts. L'auteur
passe brièvement en revue les propriétés chimiques, physiques et
microbiologiques de chaque groupe. Il donne quelques indications concernant
les additifs qui peuvent être utilisés pour renforcer leur activité ainsi que sur les
facteurs qui risquent de réduire cette activité. Il précise également les indications
d'emploi de ces différentes groupes.

MOTS-CLÉS : Additifs - Désinfection - Microbicides - Produits chimiques.

*
* *

PRODUCTOS DESINFECTANTES QUÍMICOS: ELEMENTOS ACTIVOS Y

ADYUVANTES. - D.J. Jeffrey.

Resumen: Los componentes de los productos microbicidas usados en la Unión

Europea constituyen alrededor de 250 entidades químicas. Unas cien de éstas se
usan corrientemente como productos desinfectantes. La mayoría de estas
sustancias pueden clasificarse en grupos químicos distintos. El autor hace una
breve enumeración de las propiedades químicas, físicas y microbiológicas de
cada grupo. Da también algunas indicaciones acerca de los aditivos que se
pueden utilizar para reforzar su actividad así como sobre los factores capaces
de reducir esta actividad. Ofrece por último indicaciones para el uso de cada
uno de los grupos.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Aditivos - Desinfección - Microbicidas - Productos

químicos.

* *
 72
Appendix
Types of product in use in the United Kingdom for particular veterinary applications

Regulatory
Application area Efficacy Ellert ot Use CorrosionToxicological codes
of Standard tests Typical products
soiling temperature properties
practice

Cattle farming/dairy
Housing/equipment Wide spectrum of Thorough clean Hot or cold Non-corrosive LowtoxicityDiseases of Foot and mouth Chlorine-based
animal pathogens first if possible. No taint Animals Act disease test iodophors, QACs,
Active in presence BS 5305 BS 6734 amphoterics; not
of milk BS 5226 phenolics
Calf pens Wide spectrum of Clean first. Hot or cold Non-corrosive Low toxicity in Diseases of Foot and mouth Phenolics, iodophors,
animal pathogens Active in presence use dilution Animals Act disease test glutaraldehyde/
of straw, excreta - BS 6734 peroxygen products

Teat skin, udders Active against Active in presence Cold - Must not cause Medicines Act Lyophilised pig Chlorhexidine,
organisms causing of milk irritation skin test iodophor
mastitis
Fish farming
Equipment/housing Active against fish Active in presence Cold Non-corrosive Low toxicity MAFF Code BS 6734 Lime, chlorine-
pathogens of slime, fish to fish of Practice releasing products,
(bacteria, fungi scales or protein hypochlorite,
and viruses) iodophors, QACs,
sodium hydroxide
Eggs Active against fish Active in presence Cold Non-corrosive Non-toxic MAFF Code of - Iodophors
pathogens of fish, eggs and to fish eggs Practice
(bacteria, fungi related soiling
and viruses)
Sheep farming
Housing/lambing Sheep pathogens Active in presence Cold - Low toxicity in Diseases of BS 6734 Phenolics, iodophors,
pens of straw, excreta use dilution Animals Act glutaraldehyde/
peroxygen products
Equine practice Active against Active in presence Cold - Low toxicity to Diseases of BS 6734 Phenolics, iodophors,
Equipment/housing equine pathogens, of dirt, hair, straw, horses in use Animals Act BS 2462 glutaraldehyde/
bacteria, fungi, excreta. dilution BS 541 peroxygen
viruses Clean first if BS 808 combinations
possible CA Test
Pig farming
Equipment/housing Active against pig Active in presence Cold - Low toxicity to Disease of Swine vesicular Glutaraldehyde,
pathogens of dirt, straw, pigs in use Animals Act disease test iodophors,
excreta. dilution BS 6734 phenolics
Clean first if BS 2462
possible BS 541
BS 808
CA test
Poultry farming
Equipment/housing Active against Active in presence Cold - Low toxicity to Diseases of Newcastle disease Phenolics, iodophors,
poultry pathogens of litter, excreta. poultry in use Animals Act (fowl pest) test glutaraldehyde,
Clean first if dilution. BS 6734 formaldehyde
possible No taint BS 2462
BS 808
Eggs Active against Used on clean Controlled - Non-toxic and - BS 6424 Formaldehyde,
poultry and eggs conditions non-staining BS 6471 iodophors, chlorine-
human pathogens releasing products,
QACs

Veterinary practice Wide spectrum Clean first. Some Hot or cold Non-corrosive Low toxicity Diseases of BS 6734
required soiling present but to surfaces Animals Act; BS 2462
generally light and instruments Medicines Act BS 541
BS 808
CA test
Abbatoirs
Housing/equipment Wide spectrum Active in presence Hot or cold - Non-tainting MAFF Code of - Caustic products,
required of blood, excreta, Practice chlorine-releasing
body fluids, fat, products
protein. Clean first
Layerage Wide spectrum Active in presence Cold - - Diseases of BS 6734 Iodophors,
of straw, excreta Animals Act BS 2462 phenolics,
BS 541 glutaraldehyde

73
BS 808
BS: British Standard QAC: quaternary ammonium compound MAFF: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food CA: Crown agents
 Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz., 1995,14 (1), 47-55

Modes of action of disinfectants

P. MARIS *

Summary: The exact mechanism of action of a disinfectant is not easy to

elucidate. The notion of 'target' in the bacterial cell, frequently evoked for the
antibiotics, is not clear for disinfectants (except for some, e.g. Chlorhexidine). In
understanding the mode of action of a disinfectant, it can be difficult to
distinguish the primary stage (characteristic of the mode of action) and the
secondary stage (consequence of the action). The author describes the actions
of disinfectants on the external membrane, cytoplasmic membrane and energy
metabolism of cells; these actions include rupture of the membrane, loss of
permeability and coagulation of the cytoplasm.

KEYWORDS: Bacteria - Disinfectant action - Disinfectants - Viruses.

INTRODUCTION

Disinfectants can act on microorganisms in two different ways: growth inhibition

(bacteriostasis, fungistasis) or lethal action (bactericidal, fungicidal or virucidal effects).
Only the lethal effects are of interest in disinfection and, as the objects of t r e a t m e n t
have no inherent means of defence, lethality is the desired objective.
A l t h o u g h microbiologists h a v e b e e n working for m o r e t h a n a century on the
problems associated with disinfection, understanding of the m o d e of action of active
molecules remains vague: numerous hypotheses exist but few certainties. Many authors
have long maintained that disinfectants and antiseptics act in a non-specific manner, in
contrast to antibiotics which have distinct cellular targets within the microorganism.
A l t h o u g h many studies still n e e d to be p e r f o r m e d in this field, it is clear that this
distinction cannot be made for some molecules.
The discussion below focuses on the action of a certain number of active molecules.
However, disinfectants are usually complex formulations of active molecules,
sometimes also containing co-solvents, chelating agents, acidic or alkaline agents, or
surface-active or anti-corrosive products.
It should also be noted that there may be considerable variation (in terms of p H ,
hardness, salinity, etc.) in the media surrounding the target microorganisms, and the state
in which the latter is present (e.g. bacterium isolated or included in complex biofilm).
Understanding the mode of action of disinfectants requires an examination of the
structure and functions of the bacterial cell.

* Laboratoire des Médicaments Vétérinaires, Ministère de l'Agriculture et de la Pêche, La Haute

Marche, Javené, 35133 Fougères, France.
48

POSSIBLE STAGES OF THE MODE OF ACTION

(2, 4, 6, 9, 21)

In an analysis of the action of a disinfectant, it may often be difficult to distinguish

between the primary stage (characteristic of the m o d e of action) and the secondary
stage (merely a consequence of the action).
Action on the external membrane of the bacterial wall
A bacterium is protected from its environment by a membrane, the integrity of which
is essential to survival of the bacterium. This membrane consists of basic compounds
+ + + +
such as phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides, and is stabilised by M g and C a
cations. Thus, if ionised disinfecting molecules are absorbed or repelled by electrical
charges at the initial contact and absorption stage, the following means of action will
theoretically be possible:
- non-polar molecules may dissolve and enter the lipid phase
- specific carrying systems will lead other molecules through the membrane
- o t h e r molecules will be able to disturb the organisation of the m e m b r a n e by
remaining bound to certain sites.
Action on the bacterial wall
T h e bacterial wall is important, as this confers rigidity and differs considerably
b e t w e e n Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This diversity leads to g r e a t
variation in the affinities of the hydrophilic disinfectants.
Action on the cytoplasmic membrane
An active molecule, such as a nutrient, may penetrate the cytoplasmic membrane in
the following ways:
a) passive diffusion (non-specific and slow)
b) active transport (specific, enabling the accumulation of products in bacteria after
either transformation or binding to a membrane protein).
Action on energy metabolism
Some disinfectants acting on adenosine t r i p h o s p h a t a s e (ATP) p r o d u c t i o n are
studied below (in the section A c t i o n of various disinfectants').
Action on the cytoplasm and nucleus
T h e disinfectant mechanism may o p e r a t e on the cytoplasm and nucleus at the
chromosome level.
Action on bacterial spores
T h e impermeability and the presence of dipicolinic acid in bacterial spores m a k e
these forms much m o r e resistant to disinfectants than vegetative forms. T h e active
disinfectants include highly oxidising products, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine,
which can destabilise this structure in spores.
 49

ACTION OF VARIOUS DISINFECTANTS

T h e following analysis is a review of the l i t e r a t u r e on a topic which has b e e n

continuously evolving since the 1950s. T h e author has ignored generalities, retaining
only experimental data.

Acidic and alkaline compounds (6, 21)

T h e efficacy of acidic and alkaline agents is linked to the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
+
hydrogen ( H ) and hydroxyl (OH~) ions, as follows:
+
- H ions destroy the amino-acid bond in nucleic acids, modify the cytoplasmic p H
and precipitate proteins;
- O H " ions saponify the lipids in the enveloping membrane, leading to destruction
of the superficial structure.
A p H higher than 10.0 disorganises the structure of the peptidoglycane and causes
hydrolysis of the nucleotides of the virus genome. Similarly, the p H must exceed 12.0 to
act on mycobacteria.

Chlorine and derivatives (1, 3, 6, 21, 22)

Chlorine is electronegative, and t h e r e f o r e oxidises p e p t i d e links and d e n a t u r e s
proteins. Hypochlorite and chloramine in water produce hypochloric acid, which then
decomposes. Both chlorine and oxygen are involved, and thiol groups are oxidised.
Exposure of strains of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas spp. and Staphylococcus spp.
to lethal doses of hypochloric acid causes a decrease in A T P p r o d u c t i o n . Chlorine
dioxide acts on the permeability of the external membrane of E. coli through a primary
+
lethal phenomenon which consists in a substantial leakage of K ions; such leakage does
not occur for macromolecules. Sub-lethal doses inhibit cellular respiration due to a non­
specific oxidising effect.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (5, 6,17,19, 20, 21, 23)

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) irreversibly bind to the phospholipids
and proteins of the m e m b r a n e , thereby impairing permeability. T h e capacity of the
bacterial cell to absorb such molecules influences sensitivity, as follows:
- The antimicrobial activity of quaternary ammonium with an alkyl chain is related
to lipophilia and peaks between C and C (for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
12 16

bacterial strains).
- Several active compounds have less inhibitory effect on Pseudomonas spp. than
on Bacillus spp., due to the presence of lipoproteins and liposaccharides on the outer
layer of peptidoglycane.
- In Pseudomonas spp., the higher content of phospholipids and n e u t r a l lipids
increases resistance. Benzalkonium chloride makes the cell more permeable. The same
phenomenon is observed in Enterobacter cloacae.
- In Gram-positive bacteria, the product becomes bound to the wall proteins and is
thus able to enter and destroy the membrane.
- U n i f o r m a b s o r p t i o n may be observed in Gram-positive and G r a m - n e g a t i v e
bacteria, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to an increase in permeability and loss of viability
50

(e.g. cetyltrimethylammonium in E. coli). E l e c t r o n microscopy reveals d a m a g e in

Pseudomonas aeruginosa at the level of the outer membrane.
- In Staphylococcus aureus, cetyltrimethylammonium causes a leak in metabolites
with low molecular weights (metabolic injury and modification of the permeability).
Amphoteric compounds (6,14, 21)
A study of the action of dodecyldi(aminoethyl)glycine in two strains of P. aeruginosa
shows that the amino-acid properties of this molecule enable it to enter the cell wall and
the cytoplasmic membrane. The cell wall is thus punctured by tubular knobs.
Phenolic compounds (6,10, 21)
P h e n o l acts specifically on the cell m e m b r a n e and inactivates intracytoplasm
enzymes by forming unstable complexes. T h e lipophilic molecules are trapped by the
membrane phospholipids. The following processes are involved:
- If the concentration is low, the cell constituents (nucleic acids, glutamic acid) are
liberated in the external media.
- If the concentration is high, the disinfectants inhibit p e r m e a s e s , thus causing
denaturation of the bacterial proteins and lysis of the cell membrane.
In the case of Bacillus megaterium, for example, intracellular solutes are released
from the testing cell or during growth (small solutes, such as protein derivatives), as a
secondary effect of an interaction with enzymes bound to the cytoplasm membrane.
Peracetic acid and hydrogen peroxide (21)
Peracetic acid oxidises and denatures proteins and lipids of microorganisms, leading
+
to disorganisation of the membrane. Swelling may take place in saturation of H ions,
which attract water. In many formulations, this action is difficult to dissociate from that
of hydrogen peroxide.
Iodine compounds (6, 21)
Understanding the action of iodine-containing disinfectants requires study of the
behaviour of iodine in aqueous or alcoholic solution.
Iodine-containing products are chiefly used for antisepsis of intact or damaged skin.
However, iodine monochloride has recently been proposed as a disinfectant for inert
surfaces.
Iodophors (complexes associating iodine with a solubilising or carrier agent) are also
listed as iodine-containing products. T h e bactericidal activity of such p r o d u c t s is
determined by the galenic form.
I o d i n e acts by decreasing the oxygen r e q u i r e m e n t s of aerobic microorganisms.
Iodine interferes at the level of the respiratory chain of the microorganisms by blocking
the t r a n s p o r t of electrons through electrophilic reactions with the enzymes of the
respiratory chain.

Iodine also interacts preferentially with the proteins of the cytoplasm membrane in a
form with a positive ( H 0 +1) or neutral (I or H O I ) charge.
2 2

Hydrogen peroxide (21)

Peroxides play an important part in degrading the bacterial cell.
 51

In the presence of oxidising agents such as peroxides, bacteria such as E. coli defend
themselves by producing enzymes which either destroy the oxidising agent before
bacterial degradation takes place or help the restoring mechanisms.
Oxidised molecules are more sensitive to proteolysis than other molecules, and it has
been suggested that a 'system of cell sanitisation' may enter into effect under the action
of an oxidising agent such as H 0 . 2 2

Ozone (21)
O z o n e p r o b a b l y acts on bacteria by oxidation. In viruses, ozone inactivates
bacteriophages F2 and T4 by attacking the protein capsid to release and then inactivate
the nucleic acids.
Aldehyde compounds (6, 21)
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde acts on proteins by denaturation and on nucleic acids by alkylation, as
follows:
0 = CH o 2 Protein-NH-CH -OH 2

=> Protein - N H - C H 2 - N H - Protein.

The reaction is irreversible at the level of nucleic acids:
0 = C H => P r o t e i n - N H - C H - N H - D N A .
2 2

The action of formaldehyde is identical at the ribo- and deoxyribonucleotide levels,

except for g u a n i r i b o - d e o x y r i b o n u c l e o t i d e s . T h e 5' d G M P (deoxy-guanosine
monophosphate) interacts more rapidly with formaldehyde than 5' GMP.
T h e reaction with receptive nucleotides occurs rapidly and the equilibrium shifts
towards hydroxymethylation. This action is pH-dependent, working better at alkaline
p H and less well at neutral or acid p H .
Glutaraldehyde (21)
The mode of action of glutaraldehyde is similar to that of formaldehyde. The action
of glutaraldehyde is favoured by an alkaline p H (e.g. 8.0), but the solution is less stable
in such conditions, the molecule is polymerised and the disinfectant activity decreases.
The addition of inorganic cations has been proposed, in combination with the effect
of alkaline pH, to increase bactericidal activity.
++
The activity of glutaraldehyde is increased in the presence of magnesium ions ( M g ) ,
as more cellular alkaline phosphatase (PAse) is released. The PAse is found to be entirely
localised in the periplasmic space at p H 6.8, whereas half of the PAse is released into the
extracellular medium at p H 7.4. This may explain the observed difference in activity
between acid and alkaline glutaraldehyde-based formulations. The presence of divalent
cations at alkaline p H reinforces the bactericidal activity by concentration of the wall
and/or plasmolysis of the bacterial cell. This potentiation of glutaraldehyde activity in the
+ +
presence of M g has also been reported in moulds and spores.
Biguanides
T h e m o d e of action of the polyhexamethylene biguanide ( P H M B ) family, which
includes Chlorhexidine, has been described in numerous publications (6,13,21).
52

The primary site of action is the cytoplasmic membrane, with resulting modification
of m e m b r a n e permeability. This effect was observed to be due to electrostatic
interaction of the P H M B with the acid phospholipids in the cytoplasmic m e m b r a n e .
Given the size of the P H M B molecules, this implies actual absorption o n t o the
cytoplasmic m e m b r a n e of G r a m - p o s i t i v e or G r a m - n e g a t i v e bacteria, leading to a
destructive effect at this level. Unlike certain antibiotics (penicillins, bacitracin and
novobiocin), there is no accumulation of bacterial wall precursors; destruction is caused
by rupture of the membrane and loss of permeability without lysis of the cell wall.
R e l e a s e of the cell constituents occurs at very low concentrations. At the high
concentrations used under antiseptic conditions, the bactericidal effect is very rapid,
due to coagulation of the cytoplasm. Therefore, bacterial death is not due to leakage of
the cell constituents at all concentrations of P H M B .

PARTICULAR MODE OF ACTION OF

VIRUCIDAL DISINFECTANTS

The elucidation of the exact mechanism of action of a disinfectant against viruses is

m o r e difficult t h a n for action against bacteria. N e v e r t h e l e s s , many studies on the
susceptibility of viruses to chemical agents demonstrate that the following factors are
important in understanding this action:
- presence of lipids in the viruses
- size of the viruses.
Noll and Youngner (18) classified the viruses in three groups:
- group A: lipid-containing viruses (e.g. H e r p e s v i r i d a e , P a r a m y x o v i r i d a e ,
Orthomyxoviridae)
- group B: small (20-30 ran), non-lipid viruses (e.g. Picornaviridae, Parvoviridae)
- group C: other non-lipid viruses (e.g. Adenoviridae, Reoviridae, Papovaviridae).
Over the last thirty years, many authors have reached the same conclusions - from
very different in vitro tests - regarding the susceptibility of viruses to chemical agents:
Klein and Deforest (11,12), Scott (24), Derbyshire and Arkells (7), Evans et al. (8) and
Maris (15,16) all observe that the presence of lipid in a virus is uniformly associated
with a high degree of susceptibility to all disinfectants; the absence of lipid and small size
are associated with resistance to lipophilic chemical agents.
Fifty disinfectants with lipophilic p r o p e r t i e s ( Q A C s , h o m o l o g u e s of phenols,
amphoterics, polymeric biguanides) are active against group A viruses and not against
group B. However, chlorine and iodine compounds, oxidising agents, some aldehydes
(glutaraldehyde) and strong acidic or alkaline agents are active against most viruses.

CONCLUSION

Although the notion of a target in the bacterial cell is frequently evoked in the case of
antibiotics, this aspect remains r a t h e r vague with regard to disinfectants. N o r can
disinfectant action be considered specific to a particular bacterial species, whereas such
specificity is commonplace in antibiotics. A t most, disinfectants may be said to have
 53

bactericidal and/or fungicidal specificity. However, this obviously masks a certain

disparity related to differences in activity between Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria.
O n e must also r e m e m b e r the principal parameters which condition the action and
therefore the efficacy of a disinfectant (e.g. t e m p e r a t u r e , p H , concentration, time of
contact).
The possible conjugated effect of several disinfectants also merits reflection. Again,
as the modes of action are not always well defined, it is difficult to speak of a synergistic
effect. A t most, an additive effect is exerted when the concentrations of the active
ingredients are suitably adapted. D u e to the relatively scant knowledge of modes of
action, and the existence of complex formulations, p r o d u c t s from two different
manufacturers should not b e mixed, in view of the possible antagonistic effects of
different products.
Brief mention must be made here of microbial resistance to disinfectants, which has
no parallel with resistance to antibiotics. Manufacturers within the agricultural and food
industries often claim that the bacteria on their premises have become resistant to the
product used as disinfectant. Little is known of the microbial ecology of production
units in t h e s e industries, as analysis in this field is not systematised. N e v e r t h e l e s s ,
various studies have shown that certain bacteria become resistant to chlorine following
chlorination treatment of water. Future research should concentrate on discerning the
mode of action of disinfectants on viable bacteria, bacteria under stress and bacterial
components of a biofilm, under the normal conditions of use.

U n d e r such conditions it will obviously be difficult to obtain a 99.999% reduction in

the bacteria present, as r e q u i r e d by the s t a n d a r d s of the Association française de
normalisation (French Standardisation Association).
Cleaning and disinfection must be fully effective, restricting contamination to an
acceptable minimum level which is compatible with further manufacture.

* *

MODES D'ACTION DES DÉSINFECTANTS. - P. Maris.

Résumé : Le mécanisme exact de l'action d'un désinfectant n'est pas facile à

établir. La notion de « cible » dans la cellule bactérienne, souvent évoquée pour
les antibiotiques, n'est pas claire pour les désinfectants, sauf pour quelques-uns
d'entre eux comme la Chlorhexidine. Dans l'analyse du mode d'action d'un
désinfectant, la difficulté réside dans la distinction entre la phase primaire
(caractéristique du mode d'action) et la phase secondaire (conséquence de ce
mécanisme). L'auteur décrit les effets des désinfectants sur les membranes
cellulaires externe et cytoplasmique ainsi que sur le métabolisme énergétique de
la cellule. Il envisage en particulier la rupture de la membrane, la perte de
perméabilité et la coagulation du cytoplasme.

MOTS-CLÉS : Action désinfectante - Bactéries - Désinfectants - Virus.

*
* *
54

MODOS DE ACCIÓN DE LOS DESINFECTANTES. - P. Maris.

Resumen: No es fácil determinar el mecanismo de acción exacto de un

desinfectante. La noción de «blanco» (target) en la célula bacteriana, que suele
usarse para los antibióticos, no es clara en el caso de los desinfectantes - salvo
en el caso de algunos de ellos, como la clorhexidina. La dificultad para analizar
el modo de acción de un desinfectante obedece a la distinción entre la fase
primaria (característica del modo de acción) y la fase secundaria (consecuencia
de ese mecanismo). El autor describe los efectos de los desinfectantes en las
membranas celulares externa y citoplasmática así como en el metabolismo
energético de la célula, y en particular la ruptura de la membrana, la pérdida de
permeabilidad y la coagulación del citoplasma.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Acción desinfectante - Bacterias - Desinfectantes -

Virus.

* *

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