1

CHAPTER I

MILITARY DIPLOMACY TO ENHANCE NEPALESE FOREIGN

POLICY

“When diplomacy ends, War begins”

Adolf Hitler

1.1 Background of the Study

Diplomacy is one of the tools of foreign affairs for a nation to achieve the desired national
objectives. Diplomacy includes the peaceful activities of interactions, engagements and
negotiations among the nations with regards to issues of politics, economics, trades,
environments, social and cultural aspects, human rights, developments, peace and harmony,
conflict prevention and resolution and many more. The main aim of diplomacy is to achieve the
national objectives in peaceful means. To achieve this aim, nations produce the capable
professionals to engage in diplomatic missions. Diplomacy in international relation is a vast
subject and is one of the most studied subjects. There are many definitions of diplomacy in
international relationship. But there is no exact meaning of the diplomacy. Sir Peter Marshall had
distinguished at least six related meanings of diplomacy (McKercher, 2012). As per Oxford
English Dictionary, diplomacy is the conduct of international relations by negotiation.
Diplomacy as a term is found to be used loosely and widely in international relations. However,
in all the aspects, the diplomacy as a tool is always directed towards the use of non- violence
means of state power, though national objectives can be achieved by nonviolent or violent both
the means of state power. Diplomacy is practiced in international affairs since ancient time to
influence other nations for the achievement of own national aims and objectives.

Diplomacy has evolved with the human civilization. It was the need of the time. Conflict alone
can’t support the society to exist. For the survival of the society and later state, the concept of
peaceful resolution of conflicts was very much important, thus the diplomacy. “For instance, the
 2

Ancient Indian treatise on statesmanship, Arthasastra, written by Kautilya in the fourth century
BC, offers observations and advice concerning the conduct of diplomacy” (McKercher, 2012,
p.14 ). Kautilya suggested four principles of statecraft, Sama, Dama, Danda and Bhed where
Danda means the punishment, which is the violent means of state power. Violent means are
quick but very expensive in resources, therefore nations always strive for nonviolent use of
power through persuasion in the form of diplomacy and go for violent means once the non-
violent means of power are exhausted. There are various form or types of diplomacy that are
practiced throughout the world the most common out of which are Cultural Diplomacy, Public
diplomacy, Soft power, Economic diplomacy, Gunboat diplomacy, Nuclear diplomacy,
Parliamentary Diplomacy, Military Diplomacy etc. (Codrean, 2017, p.15). The violent means of
state power is normally military. Traditionally military is found to be used as a violent means to
achieve national interest. The power of gun and military might be used to force or compel a
nation to comply or adhere with the interests of the coercing nation. It is found that militarily
strong nations always go for the violent means of state power to achieve the national interest
because it is direct and quick means to achieve. Diplomacy being nonviolent takes a lot of time
and required lot of compromises, skill and effort. Use of military power to achieve the national
interest can be considered as quick means but it is very expensive in terms of loss of men and
materials. Therefore, till the time military was used as violent force of power in international
relationship; the wars were easy to drag. Hence, we can say that wars in history are mostly the
products of military means used as a coercive tool of foreign policy. With the lack of balance
between the violent and nonviolent means of state powers, the world had witnessed brutal wars
in past.

Diplomacy and military have very close relationship in Nepalese context. Military as a
diplomatic tool was effectively used since the Rana regime. Jung BahadurRana had maintained
very cordial and friendly relationship with British regime by allowing Gorkha recruitments in
British Army. This diplomatic move had helped Nepal to an independent and sovereign nation in
its history. Ranas were successful to limit British expansion by exercising effective military
relationship. The use of military forces to maintain the good relationship with the powerful
nations was one of the success stories of military as diplomatic tool in Nepalese history. Nepal
still maintained very good relationship with United Kingdom (UK) and India due to Gorkha
recruitment. Due to its historical military relationships NA currently maintains its unique
 3

military relations with UK and Indian Army. The training exchange programs with both the
armies are very historical. Many of the British Cadet Academy products and Indian Military
Academy graduates became the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS) in NA.

NA maintains cordial relations with many militaries since NA is engaged in UN Peacekeeping

missions, where different nation’s militaries are participating. The training exchange programs
among many nations have been very instrumental for enhancing the military relation. NA is
participating and also conducting many bilateral military exercises and trainings. With these
kinds of military engagements and activities, the national interests are protected. Hence NA can
use its resources to promote national interests with a whole range of activities from military
education, training, military to military cooperation, high level visits and interactions, military
exchanges programs, cooperation in information sharing, UN Peacekeeping missions, confidence
building measures etc. to bring about peace and avoid conflict. Thus, with increased emphasis on
conflict prevention, military engagements have acquired greater significance in international
relations.

NA has been clearly tasked by The National security policy, 2073 with its main Security
Responsibility which states as follows.

1.1.1 To assist in developing military relationships with armies of neighboring countries.

1.1.2 To contribute in maintaining the world peace under the aegis of the United Nations and to
assist in the foreign policy of Government of Nepal.

1.1.3 To coordinate through the Ministry of Defense the activities and interactions of military
importance to be conducted by Defense Attaché of the Embassies of the countries having
diplomatic relations with Nepal;” (Government of Nepal, 2016: 49)

By analyzing these responsibilities, we can easily conclude that the responsibilities of NA to

contribute in national foreign policy are clear and important. NA’s contribution in UN
Peacekeeping Missions is very much recognizes by the international world. Nepal is one of the
major troops contributing country in UN Peacekeeping Missions. Peacekeeping missions are
joint operations. In UN missions, militaries work together, share information regarding hostile
activities and also share the military knowledge and expertise. The soldier to soldier contact and
 4

communication brings the militaries very close. The frequent and intensive meetings and
conferences held during the mission develop mutual understanding and mutual cooperation.
Forces with multi culture, linguistic, logistic and training system with different political, social,
religious and economic environment working together for the same cause of global peace and
harmony can be taken as biggest move in diplomatic efforts to conflict resolution. The military
relationship developed during these missions can’t be broken easily, they remain for longer
periods. Thanks to the social media, soldiers are connected throughout the life with each other.
The participation and contribution of NA in UN Peacekeeping Missions for noble cause of global
peace and harmony has earned very respectful and honourable position of Nepal in International
Affairs.

Nepal, by the virtue of its geographic location, is very vulnerable nation. It has got two Asian
giants surrounding it. Hence a slight lapse in diplomacy will lead to severe consequences. The
balanced relation with the two nations as well as good relation with other nation is the most for
Nepal merely to ensure its territorial integrity and sovereignty. Nepal has been adopting various
diplomatic means to ensure the balances relation and among them military diplomacy is one of
the crucial one. Military has been successful in enlightening the name of nation and maintain
good relation with other nations using various means. In this research paper, the research
endeavor to bring out the various aspects of military diplomacy of Nepal.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Military is one of the most important elements in national security whether it is internal or
external. Military is a coercive force, by virtue of its coercive power, the deterrence plays a very
effective role to maintain peace and security. Peace and security are prerequisites for the
sustainable development in any nation. Traditionally, militaries are used as last resort of state
power to force another nation to comply with the desired interest of the nation. “If diplomacy is
the first line of engagement between states, military is seen as the last and involves use of force.”
(Mohan, 2012, p.12) After the world wars, powerful nations made groups of nations and shared
military information and cooperate with each other. This phenomenon of military cooperation
opened the concept of military engagements and a tool of diplomacy. The engagements of
military leadership in terms of security interest provides basis for the effective diplomatic
 5

approach. Military to military relationship develops the conducive environment for the
diplomatic moves by the nations. The 21st century’s diplomacy has many dimensions. The
security dimension being an important one is highly regarded in the international system. The
frequent visits of military delegates, training exchange programs and joint exercises practically
help to reduce the misunderstanding among the nations.

The problems towards which this study is directed are as following.

1.2.1 What is the importance of Military's role in foreign policy?

1.2.2 How did Military Diplomacy play as a tool for foreign policy in Nepal?

1.2.3 How can the Military Diplomacy exert its importance globally to influence the Foreign
Policy of developing countries like Nepal?

1.2.4 What Initiatives have been taken by NA to enhance military Diplomacy?

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The research paper has been focused on important aspects of Military as a diplomatic tool,
Military Diplomacy in Nepal and its role to enhance Foreign Policy of Nepal with the major
objectives as:

1.3.1 To study the Military's role in foreign policy.

1.3.2 To study the Military Diplomacy in Nepal.

1.3.3 To analyze the role of military diplomacy to enhanced Nepalese foreign policy.

1.4 Significance of the Study

Diplomacy is widely used and practiced term in political science since ancient time. “The origins
of diplomacy go back to the beginnings of recorded history itself”. (Lauren, Craig and George,
2014:3). The officials are formally announced by the nations for having diplomatic relations
among the nations. Diplomacy is a tool used by nation to advance the strategic aims of a
government through cooperation with other countries. Diplomacy is used to help governments
 6

achieved their international objectives. Therefore diplomacy is the most important tools of
statecraft. Military being a violent means of statecraft is also used as a tool of foreign policy by
states since ancient time. Military in relation to diplomacy is generally considered the violent
aspects of a state’s defense apparatus to prevent conflicts and enhance the cooperation among the
nations. This tool is used as deterrence, threat, coercion and as actual force in terms of war.
Diplomacy and Military powers are most important elements of the national powers since long.
In general, diplomacy is taken as soft and military as hard power. But in recent years, military is
also used as soft power that is the nonviolent aspect of military is used to support the main
efforts of diplomatic endeavors. With the end of cold war and with the development of high tech
nuclear weapons, every major world power has in turn adopted military as a core mission of their
national policy and a primary component of their international relations. With the breakdown of
the Soviet Union, the understanding and definition of security has changed its content. The term
security is nowadays has a comprehensive approach and definition. Security is no more an only
baby of security agencies and diplomacy is no more an only baby of diplomats. Security is now
an interconnection between civilian and military means and approaches, whilst the use military
force remains a last resort. Thus in modern international system, the multi dimensional approach
is more prominent where the military is also used to achieve the political objectives.

However; the military diplomacy is newly coined term in political science. Here military is used
as a tool for diplomacy, the coercive power of military is silent and the non violence aspect of
military is utilized to achieve the national objectives. Military diplomacy and defense diplomacy
are found to be interchangeably used. “Defense diplomacy, also known as military diplomacy, is
the nonviolent use of military forces through activities like officer exchanges and ship visits to
further a country’s international agenda” (Winger,2014). However some of the scholars have
differentiated between the military diplomacy as only pertaining to the uniform people and
defense diplomacy as holistic approach related to defense which includes the civilian officials
from ministry of defense.

In recent years, especially after the end of cold war; military diplomacy has become very
important tools to prevent the conflicts between nations. World had seen the blight of two world
wars and the unprecedented loss in terms of men and materials. Powerful nations therefore
started building relations among the nations to avoid the direct conflicts. The establishment of
 7

UN was one of the important milestones to prevent wars. UN used the term preventive
diplomacy as an effective tool to pacify the conflicts. UN also provides the forum for the
militaries of old enemies to come under same umbrella and these contacts lowered the tensions
and conflicts. The regular contact among the military leadership and personnel reduces the
misunderstanding among the nations and conflicts can be avoided. There are large numbers of
researches that have been carried out on diplomacy as well as statecrafts. Since military
diplomacy is a new concept and still a subject for detailed research. In recent days, military
diplomacy has used as a very effective tool of statecraft and is widely practiced by the nations.

NA has been participating in UN peacekeeping operations since very long and same time
engaged into military training exchange programs with many countries. Especially for the small
nation like Nepal, the military diplomacy can be very effective tool to achieve the foreign
policies of nation. In this backdrop it has become important that a clear understanding of the
military and diplomacy in relation to the international relations, its interpretation by the citizens
and future prospects including needs for its effective implementation along with the national
foreign policies must be assessed and evaluated. This requires an in depth study of the issue and
conclusions drawn in order to conceptualize and consolidate the concepts and role of military in
diplomacy. At same time it will be very important to know how military diplomacy will be used
as an effective tool of foreign policy of Nepal. Hence, this research paper will give ideas to the
interested readers and policy makers including security personnel about the role of military
diplomacy to enhance Nepalese foreign policy.

1.5 Research Methodology

Qualitative analysis of secondary data is mainly used as research methodology. Books, papers
and articles related to international relationship, diplomacy and military diplomacy are to be
main reference material which helped to analyze the subject. The theoretical nature of the
research topic itself limits the research to be based on quantitative analysis.

Diplomats, professional officers of security agencies and subject matter experts such as security
experts form the foundation for the research paper. Finally, research of the author on various
articles and documents related to bi-lateral and multi-lateral defense conferences, subject matter
 8

expert exchanges, as well as the experience of the officer serving in the Military also forms the
basis for the research.

1.6 Limitations of the Study

The study was mainly focused on the military diplomacy and did not deal with similar topics like
soft, hard and smart power, geo-strategy and geo-politics. The study was limited to Nepalese
context only, however had taken the reference of other nations for supporting the research.
Dueto the limited materials published on the subject and for in depth study on the topic; guidance
from the scholars, materials over the internet, articles and related books were used as the
materials for the research.
 9

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITRATURE

Prof DrTulsiramBaidhya, Prof DrBijaya Kumar Manandhar and Brig Gen DrPrem Singh
Basnyat in their Book Military History of Nepal, Part II have focused on various historical
aspects of NA from the time of its origin. The book gives an explained view of various battles
fought by NA, the commander of NA in those battles and other various events in which NA
participated in the course of history. The use of military diplomacy in foreign policy has also
been highlighted by the authors.

The use of Military diplomacy was tested and successfully implemented in ample amount of time
in history. Talking about the period of the great king Prithvi Narayan Shah, he has used the
military diplomacy to ensure that the neighboring states do not disturb him during his unification
campaign by making alliance with the nearby states. The same was followed by the
JungaBahadurRana against the East Indian Company by sending troops to assist during Sepoy
Mutiny in India. This shows the importance of Military Diplomacy in the History of Nepal.
Moreover we can see that Nepal was badly affected when the diplomacy went wrong.

The book includes detail about all the contemporary issues but lacks to cover the issue of
military diplomacy in particular. The basic development of current organizational structure and
engagements of NA is included in this book but the role of NA has also not been discussed in
totality and the aspect of military diplomacy in relation to NA have been lacking in the book.
With the limited coverage on the topic and the indepth issues being highlighted upon in the book
encouraged the researcher to come up with the concept of conducting a research on the issue.

Muthanna K., in his book “Military Diplomacy” has highlighted on the issues of Military
Diplomacy in general. Especially focusing on the concept of Indian Military and the Efforts
therefrom has covered in detail the issues related to the same. An insightful knowledge on
various facets of military diplomacy has been carved in a convincing manner in the book. The
author includes in details about the current military diplomacy status of India, various measures
 10

taken by India to ensure good military diplomacy, weaknesses in military diplomacy and
challenges to overcome the gaps in military diplomacy of India.

The aspect of military diplomacy has been highlighted in totality in the book hence the readers
can make out the concept and the efforts of military and its status in India. The literatures lacking
with respect to NA have encouraged the reader to conduct the research on the issue.

The book of Prem R. Uprety“Nepal: a small nation in the vortex of international conflicts
1900-1950” published by PugoMi in 1984, has analyzed about NA’s involvement in various
conflicts and wars such as Anglo-Tibetan conflict, Tibet- China conflict, World Wars, Anglo-
Afghan War and Hydarabad mutiny in India. He has highlighted the importance of small nations
in the regional and global conflicts, where especially the important role played by the military.
Being a small nation, Nepal was able to survive as an independent nation during regional and
global conflicts. The involvement of NA in World Wars and in support of the British Rule in
India gave dividend to Nepal. Due to these wars, Gurkhas became famous all over the world and
the legacy of Gurkha recruitment is still on its way. He has found military as the major role
player to achieve the national objectives. The enrolment of Gurkhas in British Army was used as
a tool for the diplomacy of Nepal. The diplomacy of Gurkha recruitment in British Army was
one of the strongest prop during World Wars and due to these efforts NayaMuluk was received
from British India by the then Prime Minister Jung BahadurRana as a prize for his support. The
author had also mentioned a brief but useful discussion of the physical impact of war. He
indicated the loss of life and impact on the soldiers during World War I.

The book covers the detail about Nepal and its details during 1950. The book showed the
importance of military but do not dealt in details. The military diplomacy hence is only touched
upon and is described in conjunction with Nepali foreign policy as a whole. Hence the book
gives the insight about Nepal and its capability during the era but fails to provide the details
about military diplomacy of Nepal.

The book “Force and Statecraft: Diplomatic Challenges of our time” published by Oxford
University Press, USA in 1983,and written by Paul Gordon Lauren, Gordon A. Craig and
Alexander L. George has discussed the evolution of diplomacy since ancient time to modern
days. This book is complete analysis of historical and modern international system by two
 11

eminent scholars. They had discussed the changing nature of the international system from the
Peace of Westphalia to present system. They had also discussed about some factors such as
negotiation, deterrence, crisis management, détente-on which the maintenance of balanced power
and world peace have depended. The authors briefly analyzed the diplomacy in depth and
discussed the historical evolution of diplomacy. The book interrelates and compares history,
political science, and international law and draws the lessons learnt from the history and suggests
the ideas for the modern complex and multidimensional international system. The book primarily
focuses in history especially on the balance of power which later developed into more organized
systems such as League of Nations and the United Nations.

This book gives the clear insight about the evolution, history, importance and use of diplomacy
and role of military in diplomacy in most generalized form. The deductions are based on the
western nations, still the basic part is similar everywhere. The diplomacy in case of Nepal and
military diplomacy and its role in foreign policy is not discussed and hence this literature can be
used to deduce the relationship between diplomacy and foreign policy and understand military
diplomacy in broader aspect.

Gregory Winger, in his dissertation paper “The Velvet Gauntlet: A Theory of Defense
Diplomacy" presented to Institute for Human Sciences Vienna, Austria in December 2014mainly
discussed about the Defense Diplomacy. He tried to define Defense Diplomacy and analyzed the
theory of Defense Diplomacy. He tried to remove the ambiguities related to Defense Diplomacy.
He found that the words military and Defense Diplomacy are found to be used interchangeably.
He compared different definitions of Defense Diplomacy from different writers and he develops
his own definition of Defense Diplomacy. He has described Defense Diplomacy as a non violent
part of defense that includes military visits, training exchange programs, joint exercises and ship
visits etc. He described the Defense Diplomacy as an umbrella term for all the activities carried
out by the defense personnel as a tool of the statecraft. In his research, he found that Defense
Diplomacy has explicitly come in its existence in the 1990s following the collapse of
communism in Eastern Europe; that is only after the end of cold war. The term Defense
Diplomacy was first used by the United Kingdom's ministry of defense; though the implicit
method of Defense Diplomacy was practiced by the major powers during cold war era.
 12

The author discussed about theory of Defense Diplomacy; in which he compared hard, economic
and soft power vis a vis direct and indirect approaches of statecraft. He pointed out that all the
efforts of use of hard to soft power are directed not to develop friendly and harmonize
relationship but to achieve the national objectives and interests. He had also cited an example of
UK and Chinese Defense Diplomacy to achieve the national interests. The aid and cooperation
are the velvet gloves to show up but the iron fist inside depicts the actual interest of the nation.
Using this literature we can understand and correlate the defense diplomacy but cannot go into
details of defense diplomacy of any specific nation as it will be affected by various factors like
its geopolitical location, strength, hostilities etc.

A.K. Dixit, in his book “Security and Diplomacy: Old issues new Challenges”published in
2009 by Cyber Tech Publicationshas tried to bring out the future of diplomacy. He discussed
about the preventive diplomacy, multi- track diplomacy, mass, cyber and defense diplomacy. He
highlighted the importance of defense diplomacy in modern day’s international relations. The
author has also made a comparative study of how traditional form of diplomacy has transformed
into modern day diplomacy whereby even mighty states have embroiled in a web of
interdependence. With the diplomacy spreading its roots all over the facets like economy,
information, industry and culture to name a few, the traditional form of diplomacy have lost its
credibility and sometimes even seem to have been counterproductive. The author in the entire
book focuses on defense and multi-track diplomacy and covers almost all the facets of diplomacy
barring the portion of Defense Diplomacy in a convincing manner.

The writer has explained about the role of diplomacy in national security, not military diplomacy
only, hence military diplomacy has been discussed with lesser emphasis while political factors
are discussed more. Still this literature helps you understand the relation between military,
diplomacy and foreign policy.
 13

CHAPTER III

DIPLOMACY AND FOREIGN POLICY

Diplomacy is the meansof influencing the decisions and behavior of foreign governments and

peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence [ CITATION
Cha19 \l 1033 ]. Diplomacy is the soft power which can be more effective then bloody warfare.
The goals of diplomacy are to further the state’s interests as dictated by geography, history, and
economics, safeguarding the state’s independence, security, and integrity, and preserving the
widest possible freedom of action for the state(Muthanna, 2019). When diplomacy fails, there
will be war. Hence the importance of diplomacy can never be underestimated.

The primitive version of diplomacy started with the development of human civilization. Group of
people use to distribute the area and resources amongst themselves instead of fighting with each
other for survival. The modern days definition of diplomacy started from eighteenth century
when the word Diplomatewas used for the first time in France to refer to a person authorized to
negotiate on behalf of a state (Freeman & Marks, 2019).

People get confused with diplomacy and foreign policy. Diplomacy and foreign policy is not at
all same thing. Diplomacy is one of the important aspects of foreign policy but is not a foreign
policy as a whole. Diplomacy is one of the key tools of foreign policy while foreign policy
constitute of other options except diplomacy as well. Hence in this chapter the researcher
endeavored to find relation of diplomacy and foreign policy and understand the importance of
diplomacy in foreign policy. The list of diplomatic relation of Nepal is shown in appendix “A”.

3.1 Diplomacy and Foreign Policy

Diplomacy and foreign policy are two closely linked topics.Diplomacy and foreign policy cannot
be separated from each other. Even though the terms diplomacy and foreign policy are used
interchangeably but there is a clear distinction between them. Diplomacy basically is a method
whereby states conduct their relationships with one another. JR Childs wrote that foreign policy
of a state is the substance of foreign relationship, whereas diplomacy is a process by which
policies are carried out. Likewise, Sir Harold Nicholson wrote that foreign policy is based on a
 14

general conception of national requirement; on the other hand diplomacy is not an end but a
mean, not a purpose but a method, it is the agency through which policy seeks to attain its
purpose by agreement rather than by war.

Hence diplomacy is that method and foreign policy is the substance which is executed by the use
of diplomatic techniques. Foreign policy is what you do and diplomacy is how you do it hence
we can say that diplomacy is the tool of foreign policy.

3.2 Importance of Diplomacy in Foreign Policy

Diplomacy is one of the important tools of foreign policy. Diplomacy can never be separated
away from foreign policy. The system of leaders sending their ambassador or diplomat to
another nation or state in order to resolve the issue, confirm some deal or initiate friendly relation
amongst themselves had been practiced since very long time. Diplomacy has a great role in
preventing bloody engagement between nations. Hence from the previous experiences we can
say that where diplomacy fails war erupts. Hence the role of diplomacy is very important in
foreign policy.

Broadly speaking, diplomacy has two functions. First communication and negotiation and
second, intelligence gathering, image management, and policy implementation (Berridge 1995).
With the communication and negotiation one state can convince about its matter of interest.
Similarly with the intelligence gathering, one can be aware about the situation of both nations
hence it helps to foresee domestic predicaments and subsequent foreign policy shift.

Diplomacy plays a crucial role for the existence of smaller and weaker countries in the world
map. Various examples are there when wrong diplomatic decisions lead to wrong foreign policy
which ultimately resulted in destroying the sovereignty of nation. The annexation of Sikkim to
India, Tibet to China, and Crimea to Russia are some of its examples. Similarly the breakdown
of USSR into many smaller nations during cold war shows how even the stronger nation also
become the victim of wrong diplomacy.

Balance diplomacy is always advantageous to the nation. Diplomacy must be such that the
friendly countries and neighboring countries relation remain bonded. The diversification of
 15

diplomacy initiated by Late king Mahendra is a good example of balanced diplomacy. He

stopped the dependence of Nepal on India only by establishing the diplomatic relation with many
other countries of Asia, Europe and America. During his period, Nepal received lots of foreign
aid for the development of nation. Similarly unbalanced diplomacy will have a negative impact
in nation. The unbalanced diplomatic relation of Nepal and India created the situation of
blockade by India to Nepal due to which Nepal suffered a lot.

Hence foreign policy must be implemented based on the national interest with balanced
diplomacy.

3.3 Diplomacy and Foreign Policy in Nepal

Foreign Policy of Nepal as a state starts with the unification of small states into bigger state,
Nepal. Even though the marriage of Bhrikuti, the daughter of king Anshubermato the emperor of
china can be pointed as the first diplomatic move towards foreign policy. Till the time of King
Prithvi Narayan Shah, modern Nepal was not opened for any other nations diplomatically
including British India, as he was not confident about them. In his book DivyaUpadesh, King
Prithvi Narayan Shah stated that Nepal is sandwiched between the two giant powers and advised
not to develop any intimate relations with either of them (Lamsal, 2016). However, King Prithvi
Narayan Shah had established diplomatic relation with nearby strong states in Nepal and India
like Makawanpur, Bhaktapur and Vanarasi. The relation proved advantageous for his
unification campaign.

After the Treaty of Sugauli, Nepal was forced to establish its diplomatic relation with British
India. The relation strengthen during Prime Minister Jung BahadurRana, when he made an
official visit to the United Kingdom and France in 1850. In 1934, Nepal opened its first Embassy
in the United Kingdom and appointed General BahadurShumserRana as first foreign based
(Thapa, 2017). In this way the diplomatic relationship of modern Nepal started. The foreign
policy and diplomatic relationship with the countries flourished slowly.

During the regime of King Mahendra, Nepal implemented diversification in foreign policy in
order to decrease dependency in a single nation. As a result, Nepal was able to tear its isolation
by establishing diplomatic relation with European and American countries. Nepal established its
 16

relation with USA, Germany, France, Russia, Japan and many other countries. Similarly in
1970s, King Birendra proposed Nepal as the Zone of Peace and asked other countries to endorse
his proposal. Since then, the concept of Nepal as a zone of peace has become a main theme of
Nepal's foreign policy (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019).

By the beginning of the 1990s, Nepal had already established diplomatic relations with
approximately 100 countries (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2019). This shows the Nepal interest
in Global politics and also the effective foreign policy adopted by Nepal. Being a small nation,
Nepal's modern foreign policy was more influenced by the UN Charter and Nepal became an
active member of the United Nations (UN) and participated in a number of its specialized
agencies. Nepal also was a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) and had successfully negotiated several bilateral and multilateral
economic, cultural, and technical assistance programs.

Because of its geographical proximity to and historical links with China and India, Nepal’s
foreign policy was focused mainly on maintaining balanced relations with these two countries.
Nepal’s relations with the United States, Europe, and the Soviet Union showed new signs of
vitality in 1991.

The foreign policy of Nepal is managed by its Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA).The detail of
foreign policy of Nepal is shown in Appendix “B”.
 17

CHAPTER IV

MILITARY DIPLOMACY AND FOREIGN POLICY

Military is the symbol of national unity and integrity. The military ensures the territorial integrity
and sovereignty of the nation as a whole. Hence military is the indispensible part of any nation.
The basic task of military starts after diplomacy fails. Military do not start the war. They end the
war indeed. But with the evolution of time, the role of military expanded and military were
involved prior to war as well. Military were used as the means of diplomacy by nations. And it
proved correct. In this chapter, the researcher attempted to bring out various prospects of the
role of military in diplomacy and role of military diplomacy in foreign policy.

4.1 Diplomacy and Military

Military and diplomacy are two different aspect of nation. Militaries are traditionally associated
with aggression and use of force whereas diplomacy is defined as the art of conducting
relationships for gain without conflict (Muthanna, 2011). Military is more related to use of
physical power while diplomacy is more related to dialogue, negotiations, and communication.
Both diplomacy and military are used to achieve national interests.

Talking about the differences between diplomacy and military, the main difference is the nature
of operation. Military operations are basically violent and physical in nature while diplomatic
operations are soft and psychological in nature. Since there is a belief that militaries only bring
conflicts and thus has proved to be dangerous tools in international politics. In history, we can
find many examples where militaries are used by rulers to achieve their ambitions especially as a
coercive tool of national power. The political objectives once could not be achieved by other
means can be achieved by military might. Military forces are therefore vital organs of a state
power to achieve the political objectives. Carl Van Clausewitz in his book “On War” said “War
is ….a continuation of political activities by other means.” Thus, war becomes the final options
for the political objectives to be achieved. Fade up with the violence of World War I, during cold
wars, major powers started making military alliances and coalitions to protect their national
interests and objectives, instead of physical engagement. These military coalitions helped to
 18

bring the militaries of different nations to come together in some areas of mutual interest. During
this period, military cooperation among the coalition partners helped them to share military
intelligence among the partner nations and opened the door for military to be used as tool for
mutual cooperation and building trust and confidence to achieve the national objectives.

The modern world order is quite different than the old and traditional one. The role and use of
military started changing continuously. The stereotyping of military as a violent tool is also
changing slowly. Military are involved in non violent activities as well. The two opposite
concept, diplomacy and military are slowly coming close. The relation between diplomacy and
military started sharing their characteristics. This give rise to new concept called military
diplomacy. Military are referred to as diplomats in uniform.

4.2 Military Diplomacy

The concept of military diplomacy is related to the peaceful use of military activities such as
leadership visits, ship visits, joint exercises, training exchange programs, sending military
attaché, military cooperation or assistance, humanitarian or disaster relief operation, seminars,
attachments, technology transfer, deputations and many more. Military diplomacy is a key tool to
ensure non-violent use of military in order to secure national objectives.

There is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes military diplomacy or defense

diplomacy. By its broadest definition, almost every externally-oriented military activity can be
considered military diplomacy, as it would constitute an extension of international policy.
Military force is, as the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz famously noted, “a true
political instrument, a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means”
(Jaishankar, 2016).

The term defense diplomacy was coined after the Second World War. The term ‘defense
diplomacy’ first gained prominence in the 1990s following the collapse of communism in
Eastern Europe. Defense diplomacy and military diplomacy are two interchangeable terms used
by many scholars.. Some of the scholars have defined defense diplomacy with more scope where
all the defense apparatus including military is used. While taking about the military diplomacy, it
is more concerned about the military related activity which contributes to achieve the national
 19

objectives. Countries having Military, Naval Forces and Air Forces generally combine all and
define defense diplomacy. For the nations like Nepal where there is only military as defense
force, the military diplomacy is more appropriate to use. However; the concept of diplomatic
maneuver by the security forces for the support of national foreign policy remains the exact in all
the cases.

Erik Pajtinka defined the military diplomacy as “Military diplomacy can be defined as a set of
activities carried out mainly by the representatives of the defense department, as well as other
state institutions, aimed at pursuing the foreign policy interests of the state in the field of security
and defense policy, and whose actions are based on the use of negotiations and other diplomatic
instruments” (Pajtinka, 2016). He further stressed that this meaning differs military diplomacy
from some other related phenomena such as gunboat diplomacy or coercive diplomacy. He also
identified the various basic functions performed as Military diplomacy. He included the
following basic functions of military diplomacy:

4.2.1 Gathering and analyzing of information on the armed forces and the security situation in
the receiving state,

4.2.2 Promotion of cooperation, communication and mutual relations between the armed forces
of the sending and the receiving state,

4.2.3 Organization of working visits of representatives of the defense authorities and of

peaceful stay of the military units of the sending state in the receiving state,

4.2.4 Support of business contracts with arms and military equipment between the sending and
the receiving state, and

4.2.5 Representation of the sending state and its armed forces at official ceremonies and other
events in the receiving state.

Similarly, Michel G. Cooper defined military diplomacy as “Military diplomacy is the

employment of military power actively in the service of national interest with the intent to
influence the thoughts and actions of foreign decision makers. It can be practiced in the benign
cooperative form and in coercive forms short of war, when military forces are used to threaten,
 20

or impose violent sanctions, without engaging in a continuing contest of violence”(Cooper,

1993).

4.3 Objective of Military Diplomacy

Defense diplomacy as an organizing concept for defense-related international activity originates

during post-Cold War, reappraisals of Western defense establishments, led by the United
Kingdom Ministry of Defense, and was a principle “used to help the West come to terms with
the new international security environment (Koerner, 2010). Since then military diplomacy has
been one of the important tool of foreign policy. It is used to win the war without fighting hence
it is also considered as soft power.

The objective of military diplomacy may vary according to nation; still the main theme remains
similar. Military diplomacy aims to achieve national security as well as nation’s foreign policy
objectives.It can further country specific foreign policy objectives by managing defense foreign
relations and supporting the other diplomatic initiatives of government (Muthanna, 2018). It also
supports to fill the gaps, as required to make its parent nation responsive to challenges and
complexities of disruptive, rapidly changing, strife-torn geo-political scenarios, albeit in concert
with other instrument of the state (Davar, 2018). It must be understood that defense diplomacy is
not an exclusive instrument rather it is a part of foreign policy only. In the context of global and
regional strategic engagement, it creates sustainable cooperative relationships, thereby building
trust and facilitating conflict prevention, introducing transparency into defense relations;
building and reinforcing perceptions of common interests; changing the mind-set of partners; and
inducing cooperation in other areas (Muthanna, 2018).Similarly military diplomatic activities
provide nation with opportunities to improve its global image and support its broader diplomatic
agenda, while simultaneously enhancing its military operational capabilities as well [ CITATION
Ken18 \l 1033 ].

4.4 Modern trend in military diplomacy

Advancement in military is always in priority as it portraits the status of nation in world forum.
Same applies for the military diplomacy as well. Nations keeps on changing the foreign policy
according to time and situation. Since military diplomacy is also key part of foreign policy, as
 21

discussed earlier, there is timely updation of military diplomacy as per national interest. We can
see lots of examples of military diplomacy pattern in history. Show off of forces, making
military alliance with other states, and military aids were major examples of conventional
military diplomacy. With increase in connectivity, advancement in technology and change in
national interest of nations, the scope of military diplomacy increased to military to military
level. Countries are conducting joint exchange programs, training exchange programs, defense
seminars and high level delegation visit within country of military interest and influence.
Similarly formation of military alliance groups like NATO is also one of the forms of military
diplomacy used in modern days. Nontraditional security operation like Participation in peace
keeping operations, military aid during natural disasters and humanitarian aid are other increased
scope of military diplomacy currently in use by major strong nations like US, China, India
etc.The major military diplomacy used by major power nations are mentioned below

4.4.1 China

Based on the report from a 2017 by National Defense University’s Center for the Study of
Chinese Military Affairs entitled “Chinese Military Diplomacy, 2003-2016: Trends and
Implications.” , the major military diplomatic activities by china includes joint military exercises,
port calls providing opportunity vessel to conduct operations at foreign port, Nontraditional
security operation like Participation in peace keeping operations, military aid during natural
disasters and humanitarian aid, senior level military dialogue and functional exchange. As of
2017, China contributes more personnel to UNPKOs than any other permanent member of the
security council, which serves to help Beijing cultivate a positive image of China’s growing
international presence[ CITATION Ken18 \l 1033 ].

4.4.2 USA

Military diplomacy of USA is basically based on considerable numbers of collective defense

agreements and military alliances with other countries. Similarly is also has its presence in many
of the nations in the world which adds on its means of military diplomacy. The U.S. 7 th Fleet
maintains a continuous forward presence in the Indo-Asia Pacific to promote stability through
regional security cooperation [ CITATION Ken18 \l 1033 ].
 22

4.4.3 India

India is basically maintaining diplomacy by military to military exchanges with the countries.
The exchange of high delegation visits, joint exercises with countries like Nepal, Mongolia,
china etc, training exchange programs are the major means of military diplomacy.In 2016, the
Indian navy called at ports in six of the ten ASEAN countries; conducted joint military exercises
with Thailand, Indonesia, and Japan; and engaged in high-level visits with Vietnam, Singapore,
and China [ CITATION Ken18 \l 1033 ].

4.4.4 Russia

Russia military diplomacy basically based on military aid and military cooperation agreements.
Similarly, military to military exchange program like conducting military exercise with
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and training exchange program adds on the Military
diplomacy endeavor of Russia .
 23

CHAPTER V

MILITARY DIPLOMACY OF NEPAL AND ITS

IMPORTANCE IN FOREIGN POLICY

Nepal is a small country with small and less advanced military, located in between two most
powerful nations with largest military in the world. The geopolitical location of Nepal is very
critical hence without proper diplomatic relation, the existence is difficult, which was evidenced
by the annexation of Sikkim by India and Tibet by China. Nepal had faced a lot of diplomatic
ups and downs with its neighbors resulting in wars like Anglo-Nepal war and Nepal Tibet war.
Nepal anyhow managed to maintain the sovereignty and territorial integrity against the powerful
nations of Asia. Among many other tools of foreign policy, military diplomacy is one of the most
effective tools for Nepal to maintain its sovereignty. Hence in this chapter the researcher
attempted to bring out various prospects of military diplomacy of Nepal, its evolution,
advantages, effectiveness and its importance in foreign policy of Nepal.

5.1 Evolution of Military Diplomacy in Nepal

The evolution of military diplomacy started with KingPrithivi Narayan Shah who had identified
the importance of military to sustain a nation. During his reign, military was the main means for
state to exist. Nepal during the unification era followed military diplomacy under the vision of
king.The ‘yam and equidistance’ concept stated by the king was based on military diplomacy,
which has guided Nepalese diplomacy even today (Lamsal, 2016).

Before unification, the alliance used to be within states for the survival. Nepal's military relation
with other countries can be traced back to after the end of Anglo-Nepal war (1814-1816) with the
Treaty of Sugauli. Nepal initiated military diplomacy in its external relations since Rana regime
with the first visit of Prime Minister Jang BahadurRana to the United Kingdom and France in
1850. Later in 1934, Nepal opened its first Embassy in the United Kingdom where Major
Shobhag Jung Thapa became the first military attaché from Nepal. In 1950, Nepal conferred the
Honorary General of the NA to Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, General K.M.
Cariappa in 1950. Since then the trend of awarding the rank of Honorary Chief of Army Staff
 24

(COAS) to the respective Commander-in-Chief between Nepal and India is still in practice
(Thapa, 2017).

During World Wars, NA contributed troops to East Indian Company and fought from British
side. Prime Minister Jung BahadurRana, with the help of NA, was able to please the British
Government and received NayaMuluk (Banke, Bardia, Kailai and Kanchanpur) as prize. This
was one of the great achievements of military diplomacy at that time.

After becoming the member of UN in 1955, Nepal has continuously contributed for global peace
through the participation in various peacekeeping operations sending NA troops under UN which
started by deploying five military observers in United Nations Military Observer Group in
Lebanon (UNMOGIL) in 1958. Thereafter, PuranoGorakh Battalion was deployed in United
Nations Emergency Force II (UNEF-Egypt) in 1974 (Thapa, 2017). This is one of the great
successes of military diplomacy from Nepal. Nepal are known for their bravery, helpfulness,
loyalty and hard work all over the world.

In recent past, the NA has increased its military engagements with the friendly nations. Nepal
share training exchange program with foreign military for various courses like Army Staff
College, Military Academy, Jungle Warfare School and Mountain warfare school. Countries like
India, Pakistan, China, USA, UK, Korea, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Malaysia and Japan take part in
the training which is enhancing the name of our nation. The initiative taken by NA is accepted by
the countries having deep differences and Military diplomacy used by Nepal have been very
successful to bring the military officers of adversary together. Along with training NA is
involved in joint exercises related to crisis management, peacekeeping, jungle warfare and
human right with different nations military. This kind of sharing of knowledge has good impact
in international relation.NA’s Initiative of conducting South Asian Military Sports Meet proved
to be very fruitful for a good military diplomacy that ultimately added colors to the International
relations. Hence, military and diplomacy were and are the vital elements of national power and
will remain so in the days to come.

Although, Nepal started to practice military diplomacy in its external relations since unification
campaign, the state has not given adequate priority because of the lack of understanding about its
importance amongst the national policy makers and due to underestimation of the nature, scope
 25

and utility of military diplomacy. It is only after the democracy that the military diplomacy
flourished as people understand that military can be used in non-violent way as well to solve the
issues.

5.2 Importance of Military Diplomacy to Nepal

Diplomacy is one of the most important aspects to be address for the existence of small and
weaker countries in the world. Many of the times, the unbalanced diplomacy of smaller and
weaker countries lead to disaster, leading to lose its sovereignty as well. They are vulnerable and
open to external shocks and threats that are weak in both public and private sectors
(Gallage, 2012). Small and weaker nations basically refer to countries with small or larger areas
with low economic, political and military power compared to others. Though the nations are
small in size if they are not influenced and affected by the external powers and sustain their
political, diplomatic, economic and military power; then they cannot be said small nations.
Nepal is a small country and diplomacy is very important for Nepal.

Military power of Nepal is comparatively weaker than its neighbors. The military power is
inferior in strength, weapons, technology and even conventional war experience. If military is
used as violent force, Army of Nepal may not have significant effects on the big Armies of big
nations. However, the non-violent use of military can achieve the national objectives with less
efforts and cost. Military diplomacy is also, by its nature, low cost and high-impact (Jaishankar,
2016). A small state can utilize its military diplomacy to achieve prime objectives of building
trust, introducing transparency into defense relations, facilitating conflict prevention, building
and reinforcing perceptions of common interest, changing the mindset of partners and inducing
cooperation in other related fields.Especially for the small nations like Nepal, military diplomacy
can play a vital role to augment the diplomatic moves. Military diplomacy can act as the force
multiplier and is used as soft power.

Military diplomacy is one of the most practiced diplomatic moves which Nepal is using these
days. Even though the exercise of military diplomacy started from the unification time, the
effectiveness of military diplomacy seems to be great in this century. Being a country with
smaller size, economy and weaker military force, the military engagement with neighbor is not
good idea to resolve any issues. The issue has to be solved diplomatically. The failed diplomacy
 26

will have great impact in Nepal as a whole. To overcome this issue, military is used as non-
violent means to keep the balanced relation between the countries. From the past experiences
also we can see how military diplomacy helped to conserve the sovereignty of our country. Rana
Regime used military support to East India Company to please them due to which they returned
back some lands called NayaMuluk. Khampa Operation was carried out during Panchyat regime,
which increased the bond between Nepal and China. The recruitment of Nepalese citizen to
Indian and British army increased the diplomatic relation between Nepal and those countries.

Military diplomacy has been effective in reducing the hostility between the Nepal and
neighboring countries. It work for the development and reinforcement of good relationships with
partners, changing perceptions of each other, confidence building, encouragement through
incentives and rewards, and building domestic constituency for the armed forces under the wave
of defense diplomacy. Even the United States, France, China, and the United Kingdom being
strong nations have been adopting military diplomacy as the core mission of their military
doctrine and a primary component of their global strategy (Jaisankhar, 2016).

In national security, use of military is referred as hard power while the use of diplomacy is
referred as soft power. In today's security environment the distinction between them is not very
clear and military diplomacy has become a valuable means of pursuing national interests and an
essential tool of foreign policy. Talking about Nepal, the geopolitical location of Nepal in
between two giants of Asia, make it vulnerable. Hence military diplomacy is important to keep
balanced relation with two nations. Many of the times the military has been successful in
maintain the tension state to normal state preventing any physical engagement between nations.

Military diplomacy is often associated with conflict prevention and application of the military. It
is distinct from the concept of coercive diplomacy which is generally motivated by desire to
intimidate potential adversaries through military hard power. Therefore military diplomacy for a
small state like Nepal is important to prevent the country from the direct military intervention as
well as from the spillover effects of conflict between the neighbor states. However, Military
diplomacy requires an investment in relationships and takes time to develop.
 27

5.3 Role of Military Diplomacy in Foreign Policy of Nepal

There is always a great role of military in foreign policy of any nation. In past, it was by the
virtue of coercing power, military played major role in foreign policy of any nation. But in recent
years, the concept of coercion has been changed and militaries are more used in peaceful
activities to achieve the national objectives. When the same objectives can be achieved by non-
violence means than why to go for violence means? In physical war, there will be win-defeat
situation but diplomacy generally leads to win-win situation. If military relationship can
contribute in influencing the nation and help achieve the desired results, it is more a win-win
situation. A vibrant and healthy defense and military relationship could provide the desired
influence and access to the country and decision makers (Muthanna, 2011).

The Department of Foreign Affairs is the lead agency to ensure proper foreign policy in order to
maintain good relation, ensure security and enhance prosperity. It works together with other
departments including the Department of Defense. This is the formal aspect of military
diplomacy as military officers are accredited to overseas missions and work at the direction of
the Ambassador. They carry diplomatic passports and have the same rights and privileges as
other embassy staff. They are diplomats in uniform. In this role the Military Attaché and their
staff support the formal diplomatic mission through direct diplomacy such as meetings and
negotiations, delivering defense cooperation programs, providing advice on capability
development options, supporting humanitarian and disaster relief missions and directly
participating in evacuation and intervention operations.   Some may be surprised by the
involvement of the military in diplomatic activities. They may be wondering how ‘rough’
military types can behave in a diplomatic or tactful manner. Military officials' world‐wide share
a common culture and professional approach based on directness, precision and common
experiences. The military clearly understand the dangers of war and are keen to take every step
to foster peace and security and avoid conflict if at all possible.

Essentially the military talk to each other in both a formal and informal manner. This dialogue
strengthens established relationships with allies and friends to support alliances, aid
interoperability and build capability by exchanging technology, enhancing training, improving
doctrine and sharing lessons from military experiences. It is not only military officers who
 28

engage in military diplomacy. Defense diplomacy happens when defense civilians, rather than
military officers, work to enhance relationships (Taylor et al., 2014: 16). An important example
of this is when senior civilian officials travel to regional countries to inform them of the contents
of defense official documents including Defense White Papers.   Dialogue can also occur with
the military of countries where formal diplomacy is poorly developed or undergoing strain. In
these instances, military diplomacy can help to maintain dialogue and build confidence to avoid
confusion, misapprehension and misunderstanding. It also establishes relationships and provides
the chance for more formal discussions at later occasions (ibid, p. 16). One of the good examples
of such condition is role played by the then COAS General RajendraChhetri, NA during the time
of failure of formal diplomacy to ease the relation between Nepal and India in 2015.

The active participation of international officers at Army Command and Staff College and other
Military Schools and Academy is significant and the diplomatic impacts of such engagement are
substantial in the long term. Military activities and engagements can influence political processes
and decisions. Military engagements can shape personal and professional networks that then
serve as important channels of ideas to help to improve interoperability with friendly nations and
extend national influence through military soft power rather than through hard power. The
absolute neglect in sidelining the military by the foreign policy establishment may not be a
workable option anymore. Close cooperation to harness each other’s core competencies is the
key. Military diplomacy doesn’t just happen. But it is not as though it can be planned. It requires
a broad-based investment in relationships and takes time to develop and mature. Nepal Army has
been performing many military diplomacy tasks to support various foreign policy objectives of
Nepal at its level best. Some of the important tasks are as follows.

5.4 Military Diplomacy tools of Nepal

NA conducts various military activities to be engaged with the militaries of foreign nations to
have better understanding and also to pacify the misunderstanding and tensions among
themselves. These military activities and engagements are directed towards the foreign policy of
the nation so that the actual objectives of the nation can be achieved. There is cooperation and
synergy between the foreign ministry and the defense ministry to have effective joint efforts for
 29

foreign policy. Followings are some of the activities and programs carried out by the NA to
augment the national foreign policy.

5.4.1 United Nations Peacekeeping Operations (UNPKO).NA’s participation in UNPKO

has been the most important military diplomacy tool of Nepal. It demonstrates the country's
commitment to the objectives set out in the UN Charter. The deployed Nepalese Peacekeepers
have always served with dignity, distinction and honor. Their firm and fair conduct of operations
in different missions have largely won admiration from the international communities and made
the nation proud.

Fig 5.1: The current deployment of UN peacekeeper from NA

(Source:https://www.nepalarmy.mil.np/page/na_in_un)
 30

5.4.2 High Level Official Visits. NA conducts visit of higher official including COAS to the
friendly countries on various occasions and welcomes high level visit from friendly nation’s
defense organization. These kind of exchange of visit enhance the trust and faith among the
nations

5.4.3 Military Attaché. Military attachés are diplomats in uniform.NA has military Attachés in
six countries at present which are India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, the United States of
America and the United Kingdom. These military attaches work with the diplomats of concerned
Nepalese Embassies and work in close coordination with them. NA also maintains very healthy
and cordial relationship with the military attaches of friendly foreign countries residing in Nepal.
All these military activities have only one objective to support the foreign policy of Nepal.

5.4.4 Training Exchange Programs. NA has been conducting various courses for friendly
countries mainly Army Command and Staff course, Officer Cadet Course, Mountain and Jungle
Warfare course, Parachute Jump and Various UN staff courses in collaboration with Global
Peace Operation Initiative (GPOI) under USPACOM. Similarly NA has been sending NA
officers for various trainings in different nations.

5.4.5 Joint Exercises. NA has been conducting bilateral joint exercises with US army, Indian
army, People's Liberation Army (PLA) of China, Pacific Command (PACOM). The joint
exercise focuses on disaster rescue and relief, counter terrorism, communication, peacekeeping
operations and human rights. The joint exercises are conducted inside and outside the nation as
well.

5.4.6 Collaboration for Humanitarian Support. NA has been conducting regular exercises
with the United States Pacific Command (USPACOM) on Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster
Relief (HADR). The military assistance provided by 16 countries following the devastating
earthquake is an example of advantage of conducting such exercises on regular basis.

5.4.7 Training Visits. NA conducts training visits of students and staffs of Army Command
and Staff College to different friendly countries each year. At the same time, the visit teams from
various defense institutions like national defense university etc. from various countries visit
Nepal and NA establishments every year. The students of various friendly countries visit the
 31

military locations and other touristic places. These visits enhance diplomatic efforts along with
flourishing tourism activities.

5.4.8 Short Term Attachments and Observations. The officers of NA carry out short term
attachments and observation visits to training establishments and headquarters of friendly
countries’ military establishments. Similarly NA also receives the officers from friendly
countries in reciprocal basis. These attachments and observation visits also help the officers to
understand each other better and learn many aspects of military tactics.

5.4.9 Practice of awarding Rank of Honorary COAS. NA and Indian Army practices the
awarding Rank of Honorary COAS to the respective Commander-in-Chief by the president of
each country. This is one of the very unique and exemplary traditions between Nepal and India
which indicates the high degree of military cooperation enhancing military diplomacy aiding the
foreign policy of the Nepal. This tradition has proved its worthiness and utility to settle the
political and economic crisis during the top level political misunderstanding between two
countries.
 32

CHAPTER VI

MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Major Findings

6.1.1 Diplomacy is one of the key elements of state power and tools of foreign policy to
accomplish the national objectives. It is the peaceful means to address the inter-state issues such
as political, economic, social, cultural etc. to further harmony and peace in the country. There are
various forms and types of diplomacy that are being practiced nowadays of which military
diplomacy is one of them. Military Diplomacy refers to the peaceful use of military activities to
attain the desired national interests.Initially due to lack of knowledge and the common
perception of people regarding military being the violent means to solve the issue between two
nations, military diplomacy was not practised more. Military diplomacy being more effective,
cheap and less violent, it became one of the major choices even for the power nations of the
world to maintain relation between the countries.

6.1.2 Nepal is a small state with weak military. The military confrontation with the large and
strong neighbour is almost impossible to win; hence diplomacy is one of the main tools to ensure
the national security, sovereignty and territorial integrity. Various tools of diplomacy has been
used by Nepal to ensure good relation with neighbouring nations like high level delegation visits,
supporting proposals, neutrality etc. Along with these all, Nepal had been using military also as
it’s to ensure good international relation

6.1.3 The concept of ‘Yam and Equidistance’ initiated by King Prithvi Narayan Shah is the
major milestone for the development of military diplomacy in Nepal. The proper starting of
military diplomacy became concrete with the establishment of first ever Embassy of Nepal and
provisioning military attaché to the UK just after the visit of Prime Minister JungaBahadurRana
to the United Kingdom. Nepal was successful in maintaining historic military relationships with
UK (British Government) as result of which ‘NayaMuluk’ was returned back.
 33

6.1.4 Military diplomacy is very important for the small state like Nepal. A small state can
utilize its military diplomacy to achieve prime objectives of building trust, introducing
transparency into defense relations, facilitating conflict prevention, building and reinforcing
perceptions of common interest, changing the mindset of partners and inducing cooperation in
other related fields.Especially for the small nations like Nepal, military diplomacy can play a
vital role to augment the diplomatic moves. Military diplomacy can act as the force multiplier
and is used as soft power.

6.1.5 Nepal has been successful in effectively implementing military diplomacy. With proper
military diplomacy, Nepal has been successful in maintaining good and cordial relation with
neighboring countries, ensure its national security, sovereignty and territorial integrity, gain fame
of peaceful and brave nation of the world, receive aid whenever necessary and increase trust
among the nations. The military of Nepal is famous in world for its bravery, risk taking
capability, loyalty, hard work and helpfulness. Many countries are providing aid to NA which
includes weaponry, military equipment, training, and logistic items.

6.1.6 Military has great influence and importance in foreign policy of Nepal. Foreign policy of
Nepal is guided by the principles of the United Nations Charter, nonalignment, Panchsheel(five
principles of peaceful coexistence), international law and the value of world peace. In practice,
foreign policy has not been directed toward projecting influence internationally but toward
preserving autonomy and addressing domestic economic and security issues.The Department of
Foreign Affairs is the lead agency pursuing Nepal’s overseas efforts to strengthen its security and
enhance its prosperity. It works together with other departments including the Department of
Defense. This is the formal aspect of military diplomacy as military officers are accredited to
overseas missions and work at the direction of the Ambassador.

6.1.7 The military relation of Nepal with different nations has a clear cut role in Nepal’s
foreign policy. Many of the times, the defense diplomacy was proven more effective than other
means of diplomacy. For example there has been a trend of awarding rank of honorary COAS to
the respective commander in chief of Nepal and India. During the period of blockade, NA played
a crucial role in forcing to lift the blockade with the high level delegation visit to India. Similarly
the name and fame of NA helped Nepal to grab many opportunities in international forum.
 34

6.1.8 NAhas been implementing various tools to ensure effective military diplomacy. NA has
been organizing various multinational trainings, joint exercises, seminars, workshops etc. and
collaborating on various Humanitarian acts. Conduct of South Asian Military Sports Meet was
proved to be very fruitful in fostering military diplomacy. NA’s commitment to global peace by
participating in United Nations Peace Keeping Operations has been the best practice of military
diplomacy since decades.

6.1.9 For a small state like Nepal being landlocked and wedged between world rising powers,
it is imperative to exercise military diplomacy in a very professional manner. Any flaws in
diplomacy can take Nepal in very critical condition. The foreign policy of Nepal must be
reframed as per the modern change in the world order. Military diplomacy must be kept in high
priority and other diplomatic tools also must be in sync with military diplomacy in order to
ensure perfect blend in foreign policy implementation.

7.2 Conclusion

War and peace are has very thin boundary. War is violent in nature and hence is disastrous to
both wining and defeating side. Hence in order to ensure the win-win situation, diplomacy plays
a vital role. Diplomacy is the key tool of foreign policy. Looking at the current world order,
among many, military diplomacy seems to be the most effective diplomatic tool of foreign policy
foe the world. Many strong countries of the world also follow military diplomacy and has kept it
as a first priority to solve any misunderstanding with other nations.

Nepal's geopolitical location sandwiched between two giants demands a well thought foreign and
defense policy by developing a balanced approach. Keeping equidistance or equi-proximity with
the emerging global power demands effective and smart diplomacy. Nepal must use all the state
apparatus to achieve the national objectives including military diplomacy. Military diplomacy
provides Nepal with an opportunity to present itself as a responsible stakeholder in pursuing its
national interests. NA has very historical and friendly relationship with both Indian Army and
People’s Liberation Army of China. The frequent bilateral visits of military leadership, training
exchange programs, joint exercises, military assistance from both the nations are some of the
examples of cordial and professional relationship with Indian Army and People’s Liberation
Army of China.
 35

The training, hardship, disciple, loyalty and professional discharge are the main characteristics of
military people. There is global standard for the organisational structure, ranks and training of
the all ranks of the military. These global standard and professionalism brought the militaries
close. Nations may be characterised small or big but militaries are never characterized in that
sense but characterized in terms of professionalism and modernisation. Therefore, military
diplomacy can be more important and effective tools for small nations.

Last but not the least, our leaders and policy makers must understand the importance of military
and military diplomacy; hence efforts must be made to improve coordination between the
civilian and military components of the government, and between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
and Ministry of Defence. The mentality of role of military has to be expanded. They must
understand that military are not always violent means, they can also be non violent yet very
effective way to solve diplomatic problems.

7.3 Recommendations

7.3.1 Military diplomacy is one of the most important aspects of foreign policy these days. The
practise of military diplomacy will create a win-win situation between nations; hence focus must
be given to enhance the effectiveness of military diplomacy of nation. Military diplomacy does
not include military only. It includes the civilian working in defence sector. Hence exchange of
information, cooperation between military and civilian sector is must.

7.3.2 Budget for maintaining defence diplomacy must be allocatedadequetly. Nations like
India, US, China include defence diplomacy in their budget. The allocation of budget will help in
effective execution of military activities to enhance good relation with the foreign nations
defence diplomats.

7.3.3 Military Attaches are the ambassador for military diplomacy. They play crucial role in
creating a suitable environment to enhance diplomatic relation. Hence, military attaches needs to
be expanded especially in those countries where we have more national interest.

NA must enhance the capability and quality of the military attaches byimplementing correct
selection procedure for selection of candidate, allocating additional resources, trainings and
 36

exposures. Military attaches must know his task and credibility based on national interest and act
accordingly.Similarly continuous communication of military attaché with the civilian diplomats
and NA headquarters along with the feedback can enhance the execution of proper military
diplomacy.

7.3.4 Nepal is prone to natural disasters, and in most of the cases military aids are the first to
come from friendly nations.Military engagements in terms of interoperability and exercises can
produce better results in the time of crisis; hence military diplomacy must be exercised to ensure
proper execution of rescue and relief operations. Annual joint Military exercises with friendly
countries must be planned as per the national interest.This requires better standard operating
procedures; pre-arranged Memorandum of Understandings (MOU's) and advanced preparedness.

7.3.5 All concerned authorities of Nepal must be aware about the importance of military
diplomacy in furthering foreign policy objectives. This can be achieved by conducting joint
seminars, workshops and training packages on the effective use of military diplomacy by
involving all the stakeholders. NA needs to convince ministry of Defense to take lead role to
conduct short term and interaction.

7.3.7 Peacekeeping is one of the major means of military diplomacy of Nepal. Nepal has
increased its credibility and credentials through its commitment and participation in UNPKO.
Nepal's credibility has risen since its deployment of peacekeepers in most risky missions like
Syria, Central African Republic (CAR), Mali and Libya. NA should not let the name of Nepal go
down by doing any kind of illegitimate actions in peacekeeping. Similarly, NA's capabilities
must be enhanced in terms of training, logistics and management. NA should organise maximum
number of UN courses with diverse participation by the students of friendly foreign countries.

7.3.8 NA needs to enhance the quality of military training institutions and increase the quantity
of international students in the Military Training Institutions. Military educational exchange
programs with friendly nation's military needs to be planned in accordance with the national
interest. NA should send maximum number of officers to friendly foreign country for different
level of military training.
 37

7.3.9 NA should establishment of National Defence College where high-ranking officers of all
the security agencies of Nepal, bureaucrats, participants from other stake holders of security and
high-ranking officers from friendly foreign countries train together for a year. This will create
conducive environment to understand each other at high level and thus the effective diplomacy.

7.3.10 Regular communication among the officials of foreign and defence ministry along with
military officials needs to be carried out to develop common understanding on the diplomacy to
fulfil national interest.

7.3.11 Military diplomacy needs to be on the syllabus from the very early stages of officers’
training. Military officers must be provided ample opportunities to enhance their educational
qualifications and diplomatic trainings.

7.3.12 Nepal should best use the professionalism and personal relationship of the retired military
high ranking leadership by nominating them as ambassadors, since they can be instrumental for
military diplomacy. Most of the high ranking generals of the many friendly foreign militaries are
good friends of the NA generals since they had training together for long time such as Command
and Staff College and National Defence College for a year or so.

7.3.13 NA should expand the military exercises with other friendly nation's Army along with
neighbouring countries on regular basis. This helps Nepal to increase trust and faith between the
nations which will enhance diplomatic relation.

7.3.14 Nepal should hosts and participates in different military sport events and expeditions.
Being a Himalayan country Nepal must host and welcome the friendly foreign militaries for
Himalayan expeditions. This will also contribute in effective military diplomacy.
 38

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 40

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 41

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 42

Appendix-“A”

Foreign Policy of Nepal

The fundamental objective of Nepal’s foreign policy is to enhance the dignity of the nation by
safeguarding sovereignty, territorial integrity, independence, and promoting economic wellbeing
and prosperity of Nepal. It is also aimed at contributing to global peace, harmony and security.

Nepal’s foreign policy is guided by the following basic principles:

1. Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty;

2. Non-interference in each other’s internal affairs;

3. Respect for mutual equality;

4. Non-aggression and the peaceful settlement of disputes;

5. Cooperation for mutual benefit;

6. Abiding faith in the Charter of the United Nations;

7. Value of world peace.

Provisions of the Constitution

National Interest (Article 5.1)

Safeguarding of the freedom, sovereignty, territorial integrity, nationality, independence and

dignity of Nepal, the rights of the Nepalese people, border security, economic wellbeing and
prosperity shall be the basic elements of the national interest of Nepal.

Directive Principles (Article 50.4)

The State shall direct its international relations towards enhancing the dignity of the nation in the
world community by maintaining international relations on the basis of sovereign equality, while
 43

safeguarding the freedom, sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence and national
interest of Nepal.

State Policy (Article 51)

1. To conduct an independent foreign policy based on the Charter of the United Nations,
non-alignment, principles of Panchasheel, international law and the norms of world peace,
taking into consideration of the overall interest of the nation, while remaining active in
safeguarding the sovereignty, territorial integrity, independence and national interest of
Nepal,

2. To review treaties concluded in the past, and make treaties, agreements based on equality
and mutual interest.
 44

Appendix-“B”

LIST OF FOREIGN RELATION ESTABLISHMENT

S.NO. NAME OF COUNTRIES DATE SINCE

1 Nepal – United Kingdom 1816
2 Nepal – USA April 25, 1947
3 Nepal – India June 13, 1947
4 Nepal – France April 20, 1949
5 Nepal – PR of China August 1, 1955
6 Nepal – Russian Federation July 20, 1956
7 Nepal – Japan September 1, 1956
8 Nepal – Switzerland November 10, 1956
9 Nepal – Sri Lanka July 1, 1957
10 Nepal – Egypt July 16, 1957
11 Nepal – FR of Germany April 4, 1958
12 Nepal – Austria August 15, 1959
13 Nepal – Italy August 31, 1959
14 Nepal – Serbia October 7, 1959
15 Nepal – Poland November 25, 1959
16 Nepal – Malaysia January 1, 1960
17 Nepal – Philippines February 12, 1960
18 Nepal – Australia February 15, 1960
19 Nepal – Myanmar (Burma) March 19, 1960
20 Nepal – Pakistan March 20, 1960
21 Nepal – Netherlands April 2, 1960
22 Nepal – Laos May 20, 1960
23 Nepal – Israel June 1, 1960
24 Nepal – Sweden June 10, 1960
25 Nepal – Thailand November 30, 1959
26 Nepal – Indonesia December 25, 1960
27 Nepal – Mongolia January 5, 1961
28 Nepal – Hungary January 15, 1961
29 Nepal – New Zealand May 1, 1961
30 Nepal – Afghanistan July 1, 1961
31 Nepal – Argentina January 1, 1962
32 Nepal – Chile 1962
33 Nepal – Greece February 2, 1962
34 Nepal – Turkey November 15, 1962
35 Nepal – Lebanon August 18, 1963
36 Nepal – Belgium August 19, 1963
37 Nepal – Iran December 14, 1964
 45

38 Nepal – Canada January 18, 1965

39 Nepal – Jordan August 20, 1965
40 Nepal – Denmark December 15, 1967
41 Nepal – Bulgaria April 15, 1968
42 Nepal – Romania April 20, 1968
43 Nepal – Algeria April 29, 1968
44 Nepal – Spain May 13, 1968
45 Nepal – Iraq October 30, 1968
46 Nepal – Singapore March 25, 1969
47 Nepal – Sudan July 11, 1969
48 Nepal – Syria February 26, 1970
49 Nepal – Ethiopia April 15, 1971
50 Nepal – Kuwait February 25, 1972
51 Nepal – Bangladesh April 8, 1972
52 Nepal – Albania May 23, 1972
53 Nepal – Norway January 26, 1973
54 Nepal – DPR of Korea May 15, 1974
55 Nepal – Republic of Korea May 15, 1974
56 Nepal – Finland September 21, 1974
57 Nepal – Tanzania January 10, 1975
58 Nepal – Morocco February 18, 1975
59 Nepal – Cuba March 25, 1975
60 Nepal – Cambodia (Kampuchea) April 18, 1975
61 Nepal – Vietnam May 15, 1975
62 Nepal – Kenya June 3, 1975
63 Nepal – Mexico November 25, 1975
64 Nepal – Luxembourg November 25, 1975
65 Nepal – Nigeria December 20, 1975
66 Nepal – Libya December 30, 1975
67 Nepal – Peru January 28, 1976
68 Nepal – Brazil February 7, 1976
69 Nepal – Portugal September 1, 1976
70 Nepal – Bahrain January 13, 1977
71 Nepal – Oman January 21, 1977
72 Nepal – Qatar January 21, 1977
73 Nepal – United Arab Emirates January 22, 1977
74 Nepal – Saudi Arabia March 15, 1977
75 Nepal – Costa Rica August 16, 1977
76 Nepal – Maldives August 1, 1980
77 Nepal – Cyprus August 18, 1980
78 Nepal – Mauritius February 12, 1981
79 Nepal – Iceland May 25, 1981
80 Nepal – Bhutan June 3, 1983
81 Nepal – Holy See September 10, 1983
82 Nepal – Malta September 25, 1983
 46

83 Nepal – Brunei February 3, 1984

84 Nepal – Panama February 15, 1984
85 Nepal – Tunisia April 14, 1984
86 Nepal – Somalia October 24, 1984
87 Nepal – Zimbabwe November 27, 1984
88 Nepal – Gabon Republic June 17, 1985
89 Nepal – Yemen December 25, 1985
90 Nepal – Fiji June 12, 1986
91 Nepal – Zambia September 10, 1986
92 Nepal – Mozambique September 30, 1986
93 Nepal – Nicaragua October 5, 1986
94 Nepal – Venezuela April 28, 1987
95 Nepal – Colombia May 7, 1987
96 Nepal – Bolivia May 21, 1987
97 Nepal – Estonia April 20, 1992
98 Nepal – Latvia April 20, 1992
99 Nepal – Ukraine January 15, 1993
100 Nepal – Armenia March 26, 1993
101 Nepal – Kyrgyzstan March 26, 1993
102 Nepal – Belarus July 19, 1993
103 Nepal – Moldova July 20, 1993
104 Nepal – Czech Republic March 2, 1994
105 Nepal – Slovak Republic March 4, 1994
106 Nepal – Guyana June 2, 1994
107 Nepal – South Africa July 28, 1994
108 Nepal – Azerbaijan February 28, 1995
109 Nepal – Seychelles October 10, 1996
110 Nepal – Slovenia December 2, 1997
111 Nepal – Macedonia January 6, 1998
112 Nepal – Croatia February 6, 1998
113 Nepal – Ireland August 19, 1999
114 Nepal – Bosnia Herzegovina January 12, 2000
115 Nepal – Lithuania February 8, 2005
116 Nepal – San Marino August 10, 2005
117 Nepal – Republic of Tajikistan September 13, 2005
118 Nepal – Georgia September 22, 2005
119 Nepal – Turkmenistan October 17, 2005
120 Nepal – Ecuador June 21, 2006
121 Nepal – Paraguay August 2, 2006
122 Nepal – Guatemala August 8, 2006
123 Nepal – Honduras August 18, 2006
124 Nepal – Vanuatu September 19, 2006
125 Nepal – Andorra September 22, 2006
126 Nepal – Congo September 22, 2006
127 Nepal – Haiti May 23, 2007
 47

128 Nepal – Saint Vincent September 27, 2007

129 Nepal – Dominican Republic September 28, 2007
130 Nepal – Botswana January 8, 2009
131 Nepal – Mali November 19, 2009
132 Nepal – Lesotho May 18, 2010
133 Nepal – Montenegro July 18, 2011
134 Nepal – Solomon Island December 15, 2011
135 Nepal – Uruguay April 18, 2012
136 Nepal – Monaco May 15, 2012
137 Nepal – Islamic Republic of Mauritania December 4, 2012
138 Nepal – Tuvalu December 11, 2012
139 Nepal – Independent State of Samoa March 28, 2013
140 Nepal – Papua New Guinea April 12, 2013
141 Nepal – Kazakhstan June 30, 2015
142 Nepal – Jamaica October 1, 2015
143 Nepal – Republic of Guinea May 12, 2016
144 Nepal – El Salvador September 21, 2016
145 Nepal – Uganda June 12, 2017
146 Nepal – Côte d’Ivoire June 16, 2017
147 Nepal – Republic of Djibouti July 14, 2017
148 Nepal – Antigua and Barbuda July 25, 2017
149 Nepal – Cabo Verde August 3, 2017
150 Nepal – Liberia August 17, 2017
151 Nepal – Niger September 20, 2017
152 Nepal – Eritrea October 31, 2017
153 Nepal – Bahamas November 7, 2017
154 Nepal – Liechtenstein November 24, 2017
155 Nepal – Angola December 9, 2017
156 Nepal – Burkina Faso December 29, 2017
157 Nepal – Benin January 23, 2018
158 Nepal – Uzbekistan January 26, 2018
159 Nepal – Saint Kitts and Nevis May 30, 2018
160 Nepal – Burundi June 6, 2018
161 Nepal – Rwanda July 20, 2018
162 Nepal - Madagascar September 26, 2018
163 Nepal-Suriname October 11, 2018
164 Nepal - Togo March 22, 2019
165 Nepal - Equatorial Guinea April 30, 2019
166 Nepal - Eswatini May 9, 2019
167 Nepal - Saint Lucia August 27, 2019
48