Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contemporary Context
Dogan Kuban
It is clear that the symbolic importance of Plurality, Continuity and the continuity of forms if this is rejected by
the minaret was borrowed from pre- Function of Forms the very history of Islam itself. On the
Islamic cultures. The minaret is first a sign other hand, the neutrality of tradition
and only becomes a symbol on a higher The universal, all-encompassing charac- (vis-a-vis the physical forms of life)
level of appreciation. Its form is therefore teristics of Islam as a way of life have not should not lead us to reject historical
defined culturally, not religiously. I want been sufficient to create an all-embracing forms. Although they may lack deep
to emphasize here that if we cannot world of forms. The number and variety of religious meaning, traditional values
identify a specificity of form even for the forms, therefore, is not a product of an embodied in some forms and spatial rela-
minaret, we are not likely to locate such Islamic world view but the outcome of tionships continue to be cherished. It is to
specificity in other building elements. A varying regional and cultural interpreta- these cultural traditions, then, that we
practical corollary would be the obser- tions. Changing attitudes and a plurality of should look when seeking symbolism in
vation that the tower form, stripped of its traditions have found different expressions the architecture of Islamic countries.
cultural context, cannot properly be in various phases of Islamic history. There Let us consider a concrete example.
deemed of "universal" importance to an is no doubt that universal Islamic values Whether functional or symbolic or both, in
Islamic landscape. We recall that in early are incorporated into the life of every North Africa and Spain we find dark,
Islam there was no minaret, and even in Muslim society. These values, in the form shadowy mosque interiors contrasted with
later Islam there have been mosques which of social behaviour, emanate from the bright courtyards. Full, massive exterior
totally lack minarets or whose minarets Koran and Sunna. Nevertheless, as Grabar forms contrast with delicate surface tex-
are not towers. discusses, no body of writing attests to the tures; white or red monochrome exteriors
From this we can conclude that no symbolic content of any architectural contrast with exuberant interior surface
"universal" Islamic architectural forms form. In a sense this is proper, because a colours. Shadows cast by high walls onto
exist without a degree of ambiguity. Nor dependence on any implied value in forms winding paths suggest a certain relation-
can we expect to attain a modern and is inherently anti-Islamic. Forms are ship between sun and shade. Any modern
universally valid Islamic architecture transient. Only Allah, who is formless, is building which boasts a combination of
through the repetition of such forms. On eternal. Thus the perception of any these aspects expresses a certain continuity
the other hand, there are elements of continuity of form is not a religious but a of spirit with the past. Is this expression of
Islamic life and culture where continuity is cultural attitude. continuity enough to make the edifice
an important concern. The quest for To differentiate a religious attitude from a symbolic of Islam for modern men? I think
cultural continuity and cultural identity cultural attitude so thoroughly shaped by this evocation is possible, but not
requires identifying the necessary linking religion would seem difficult. But religion necessary.
elements. In architecture these links are does not condition all aspects of be- Grabar asks in what fashion and how
presumed to be the old forms. haviour; it only sets limitations. The successfully were signs and symbols-
If one wishes merely to imitate an old Tradition does not say the lJajj must be however restricted in time and space-
mosque, the problem of continuity can be made on donkey, on camel, on foot, by transformed into building forms. If we
solved in a straightforward way; no dis- car or by airplane. If the Koran and Sunna pose the question in this way, there will
cussion is required except to determine the had prescribed physical forms, nobody very likely be no answer. Symbols do not
methods of imitation. As far as purely could ever have added to Mecca and the evolve into forms, but forms, through
formal aspects are concerned, I can form of the pilgrimage would have re- certain cultural and psychological mecha-
imitate the Qayrawiyyin mosque in a new mained unaltered; neither could the route nisms, earn the status of symbols. We may
mosque at Rabat or a copy of the six- between ~afa and Marwa have been also ask whether there exist, in totally
teenth-century Siileymaniye at Ankara. covered nor tunnels built under the rocks disparate historical and geographical
Such imitative solutions are actually being to ensure that pilgrims to Mina are settings and different worlds of regional
employed. This demonstrates that al- protected. At Mecca, overwhelmingly forms, similar mechanisms for the for-
though there are no universally adopted practical considerations totally eclipsed mation of symbols. If so, what is the role
forms in Islamic architecture, regionally symbolic intent, if indeed any ever existed. of religion in this process? These are
identifiable ones do exist and are accepted It is certainly difficult to define the difficult questions, and I am unaware of
as symbolic. symbolic content of traditional Islamic the existence of a study or theory yielding
forms if so radical a change in environ- any clue to this universal mechanism.
ment can occur in the very heart of Islam Obviously, every possible influence,
and in close proximity to the symbol of whether of a material, personal, societal
symbols. or spiritual nature, may be expected to
Obviously there is no reason to insist on a playa part in the development of forms.
Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context 14
Religious regulations and prescriptions for Grabar observes that Islam lacks a rich much assistance in regard to this aspect of
everyday behaviour may have been ini- vocabulary of symbolic meanings com- Muslim life, but surely a lack of literary
tially influential, but it was their practical parable to that found in Christianity. mention does not denote total nonex-
aspect and not their spiritual content Recalling Ettinghausen's opinion about the istence. The paucity of reference may only
which was influential. Religious traditions low symbolic charge of Islamic monu- signify literary disinterest.
defined acts, not the forms and spaces in ments, Grabar opines that it was this low
Another point is important in this context.
which these acts were to be executed. The charge which made it possible for an
Muslim culture is not as object-oriented
spaces and forms are actually neutral and Indonesian pagoda or a Roman temple to
as Western culture. When the West ar-
can serve any purpose. Only their usage become a mosque. The easy transforma-
rived with all its material might, with its
invested them with meaning. Time first tion of any symbolically different building
idolatry of objects and with a great fanfare
conferred upon them the status of a sign into a mosque may result from the par-
of new symbols, the nonchalant, sym-
indicative of a function or an act and only ticular nature of the Muslim religion.
bolically low-charged Muslim architecture
secondly a symbolic implication. Allah is everywhere and in every act.
succumbed to this powerful force. If
A symbol's meaning is subject to religious Nothing is necessarily closer to Him than
Islamic architecture had been heavily
or secular adaptation. In the realm of anything else since everything emanates
invested with religious symbolism, this
mysticism and the esoteric, symbolism is from Him. A symbolic meaning may be
sudden submission to Western forms
attached to every object in space and to attached to a given form but it does not
would not have occurred. Perhaps our
space itself. A Bektashi convent is a case come from this source. The meaning is
very search for the nature of symbolic
in point. Here the form of space is not derived from human necessities that may
meaning is but another example of West-
shaped in accordance with any detailed be cultural, functional or economic.
ern influence.
symbolism; it is simply a cubic room. A shape should not have a religious
We should not conclude, as does Prof.
significance. It should not become an idol.
Grabar, that it is not forms which identify
I am even inclined to admit that any
Islamic culture and by extension the
formal symbolism in Islam is essentially
Toward a Vocabulary of Muslim's perception of his architecture,
anti-religious. But religion does not
Symbolic Meanings but sounds, history and mode of life. Only
interfere with the cultural significance of
the very early history of Islam is a
symbolic forms, nor does it dictate their
To Prof. Grabar's query about the validity common denominator for modern Mus-
existence or nonexistence. If we accept
of experience and the usefulness of past lims. In Muslim countries "mode of life"
that formal symbolism in Muslim culture
memories for the future, we may say that suggests all possible varieties of human
operates on a level below religious sig-
the symbol of the present is the sign of the experience. Except for a common creed,
nificance, our problem will be easier to
past, because it is the end product of an neither history nor lifestyle can identify a
solve.
evolved system of knowledge and beliefs. unified Islamic culture. In consideration of
According to historical consensus, the Grabar asks whether cultures operate in wide stylistic differences in the great
greatest works of art are those created in ambiguous visual systems. This is surely Muslim monuments, Grabar's argument is
the past and not the products of our the case. Ambiguity derives largely from untenable. Consequently, we must reduce
own age. the necessity for individual interpretations. the elements from the universal to the
The relationship between form and regional and from the specifically religious
Grabar remarks that in the writings of
symbolic content, especially in architec- to the cultural. We must define temporal
Nader Ardalan and others there is an
ture, is not likely to be interpreted in the and geographic boundaries, and look for
implicit assumption that certain kinds of
same way by every individual. symbolism in an existential and not a
formal transformations with their infinite
religious context.
modifications "are innate within the Can a mosque be more than a place of
psyche and often affected by certain prayer for the common man? He lacks the In his third proposition Grabar states that
physical or cultural circumstances." Even vocabulary to attach much abstract sig- very few architectural forms have been
if we accept this statement, it yields no nificance to it. But it is difficult to accept consistently indicative of the presence of
clues to the understanding of symbolism that a symbolic meaning for a form can Islam. This seems to be an incorrect
unless we define the relationship between exist without a capacity for verbal ex- approach to our problem, since it is based
specific circumstances and the human planation. Signs and symbols must have upon a faulty assumption of the uni-
psyche. Here I would reiterate a pertinent verbal synonyms or their existence cannot versality of symbols. Symbolic value is
remark by Grabar: unless we take the be proven. I believe that the discovery of present whenever a meaning, subject to
contemporary situation into account, the a concrete terminology to explain symbolic alteration, is attached to any artifact in the
use of past symbolism as the sole basis for meanings is of paramount importance. The environment. We cannot assign symbolic
our explanation can only be incorrect. Muslim written traditions do not provide meaning to the mosque, the gate, the
15 Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context
cupola, or the minbar. Symbolic values in Islamic content of decoration. I suspect In Turkey we use the Latin alphabet.
the existing environment are not assigned that when Grabar says "symbol," he Should we decorate our fa«ades with
spontaneously, but they evolve and exist in actually means something more on the Arabic script?
everyday life over a period of time. The order of a sign. There is indeed a char- Until now, no body of research has sought
common people perceive symbolic values, acteristic Islamic approach to decoration to elucidate the correspondence between
but they seldom have the desire or the but every culture within the Islamic world architectural form and its inner meaning.
ability to express them. follows its own style. An evaluation of the form of the most
The next issue is whether form itself is a Does an inscription on a Sheraton Hotel sacred of Muslim buildings, the mosque,
manifestation of the symbolic. Here the make it Islamic? In a sense it would, reveals little correspondence between
detailed study of esoteric symbolic mean- because the presence of calligraphy is an Muslim prayer ritual and the mosque
ings will prove unproductive. For practical immediate reference. By this reasoning, an form. No satisfactory answer has yet been
purposes the symbolic value of archi- Arab-owned bank in London would be offered to the question of what confers
tectural forms lies in their visual impact as Islamic. But when Grabar says that "one symbolic meaning upon a form. Is it
perceived by ordinary people. of the most striking 'un-Islamicities' of formal quality or function? I suggest that
contemporary architecture is its failure to we look in the realm of function as
make aesthetically appealing utilization of precisely defined by time and space.
calligraphy," he leans toward a dangerous
Decoration as Symbol generalization.
Admittedly, calligraphy does not play the
Grabar's fourth proposal is to seek Islamic From Past to Present Tense
same role in the modern as in the historic
symbolism in decoration. I think that apart Islamic building. But do we really want to
from calligraphy intimately connected with write the names of Allah alongside Coca- To what extent should we seek historical
architecture, it is difficult to ascertain the Cola signs on the balconies of stadiums? antecedents of modern, symbolically-
imbued form? My own inclination is that
there is no need for an historical per-
spective at all. For those who believe in
the validity of such a regeneration, I cite
the following cautionary example. The
Prophet's house in Medina served as a
mosque. There was no minaret, no
milJriib, no minbar. Since the life of the
Prophet represents the ideal life for a
Muslim, all the auxiliary forms which are
now associated with a mosque may be
taken as superfluous. Of course, no
Muslim will accept this, because in Islamic
tradition the accretion of forms and
changes in their symbolic content are
accepted. Our problem lies in our capacity
to control the rate of change of this
symbolic content. If it is too fast, a
vacuum in symbolic meaning will result. A
lack of communication between past and
future accounts for the veritable cultural
chaos of today's Islamic world. But neither
should we retard changes in symbolism by
looking longingly to the great monumental
buildings of the past or by excessively
cherishing domes, arches and courtyards.
Today we face a dilemma. How can Islam
as a potential source of symbolism be
Isfahan, Iran: Masjid-i Shah, dome exterior
reconciled with the modern international
Photo: V. Prentice architectural forms which introduce their
Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context 16