1

The Complete Injection

Molding Process

Introduction As summarized in Fig. 1-2, injection mold-

ing is an important plastic processing method.
This chapter provides an introduction and The figure shows the necessary components
overview of the injection molding machine for the injection molder to be successful and
(IMM) process. It provides text with pictorial profitable. Recognize that the first to market
reviews. Details on the important informa- with a new product captures 80% of mar-
tion pertaining to IMM and reviewed in this ket share. The young tree cannot grow if it
chapter are provided in the other chapters. is in the shadow of another tree or if it does
Figure 1-1provides an overview that basi- not keep up with competition. You need to
cally summarizes what should be considered be at the top of the tree looking over the
to ensure that the molded product meets per- other trees. Factors such as good engineer-
formance requirements and provides a good ing and process control are very important
return on investment to produce all types and but only represent pieces of the pie. Without
shapes of products for all types of markets. proper marketinghales you are literally out
Injection molding is a major part of the of business. This diagram is basically a philo-
plastics industry and is a big business world- sophical approach to the overall industry in
wide, consuming approximately 32 wt% of that it provides examples of all aspects of
all plastics. It is in second place to extrusion, the technology and business that range from
which consumes approximately 36 wt% (1, local to global competition. The old adage
3, 7). 11: the United States alone there are about the better mousetrap is no longer com-
about 80,000 IMMs and about 18,000extrud- pletely true, since you need factors such as the
ers operating to process all the many differ- support services from the “tree” to achieve
ent types of plastics. In the industry an IMM commercial success and meet product design
is not regarded as an extruder; however, it requirements (Chap. 5) (1,499).
is basically a noncontinuous extruder and in There are many different types of IMMs
some operations is even operated continu- that permit molding many different prod-
ously (Chap. 15). IMMs have a screw plas- ucts, based on factors such as quantities,
ticator, also called a screw extruder, that pre- sizes, shapes, product performance, or eco-
pares the melt (3). nomics. These different types of IMMs are

1
2 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

I COMPLETE CONTROL for MANAGEMENT

I IndividualCONTROL for each aperatton, from sorimre to hardware

-m I
I

-
---
SOFTWARE Y SOFTWARE
Integrate a11 indindual operations I. OPERATION
I

Immediately afier part is in

production--next step
IMPORTANT STEP -- is to
produce part to meet same
requirements but produced
at a lower cost

Use FALLO approach.

ANALYSIS dryer,
approach MOLDED Reevaluate all parameters
to meet PART used from part design (use
psiiormanoo less plastic), use lower cost
Secandaw plastic with similiar process-
ing cost (or plastic with
higher cost, but faster
process, results in lower
total cost), check hardware
performance, & other para-
meters described in the IM
I HANDBOOK.
Set UP TESTINQ I QUALITY CONTROL ! A
Characterize properties, mechanical, physical,
chemical, thermal, etc

FALLO
Follow ALL Opportunities
I
Set up practical i useful TROUBLESHOOTING
C/ GUIDE based on causes & remedies of
potential faults.
I
-t
I I
! D.V.1

Fig. 1-1 The FALLO approach: Follow ALL Opportunities.

reviewed throughout this book, particularly
in Chap. 15. Small- and large-size IMMs both
have their advantages. For example, if sev-
eral small machines are used rather than one
large one, a machine breakdown or shutdown
for routine maintenance will have less effect
on production rates. However, the larger ma-
chine is usually much more profitable while it
is running. Because there are fewer cavities in
molds for the small machines, they may per-
mit closer control of the molding variables in
the individual cavities.
The two most popular kinds of IMM are
the single-stage and the two-stage; there
are also molding units with three or more
stages. The single-stage IMM is also known as
the reciprocating-screw IMM. The two-stage
IMM also has other names, such as the piggy-
back IMM. It is comparable in some ways to
a continuous extruder.
The IMM has three basic components: the
injection unit, the mold, and the clamping
system. The injection unit, also called the
plasticator, prepares the proper plastic melt
and via the injection unit transfers the melt
into the next component that is the mold.
The clamping system closes and opens the
mold.
These machines all perform certain essen-
tial functions: (1) plasticizing: heating and
melting of the plastic in the plasticator,
(2) injection: injecting from the plasticator
under pressure a controlled-volume shot of
melt into a closed mold, with solidification
of the plastics beginning on the mold's cavity
wall, (3) afterjiilling: maintaining the injected
material under pressure for a specified time
to prevent back flow of melt and to compen-
sate for the decrease in volume of melt during
solidification, (4) cooling: cooling the ther-
moplastic (TP) molded part in the mold until
it is sufficiently rigid to be ejected, or heat-
ing:heating the thermoset (TS) molded part
in the mold until it is sufficiently rigid to be
ejected, and (5) molded-part release: opening
the mold, ejecting the part, and closing the
mold so it is ready to start the next cycle with
a shot of melt.
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 3

t
LEADS

Selecting Compression
Material Proce Reinforced Plastics
D
Evaluate I r
Detractors-
Constraints Rheology

Cost Analysis
Alloys
,h
Compounding
Blends
Properlles

I
Etc.

First to market with a new product captures 80% of market share.The young tree
cannot grow if it is in the shadow of another tree or if it does not keep up with the
competition.You need to be at the top of the tree looking over the other trees.
DVR

Fig. 1-2 Plastic product growth compared to tree growth.

This cycle is more complex than that other
processes such as extrusion in that it involves
moving the melt into the mold and stopping
it, rather than having a continuous flow of
melt. The injection molding process is, how-
ever, extremely useful, since it permits the
manufacture of a great variety of shapes, from
simple ones to intricate three-dimensional
(3-D) ones, and from extremely small to large
ones. When required, these products can be
molded to extremely very tight tolerances,
very thin, and in weights down to fractions
of a gram. The process needs to be thor-
oughly understood in order to maximize its
4 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
performance and mold products at the least
cost, meeting performance requirements, and
with ease (see the section on Molding Toler-
ances in Chap. 5).
Machine Characteristics
IMMs are characterized by their shot ca-
pacity. A shot represents the maximum vol-
ume of melt that is injected into the mold.
It is usually about 30 to 70% of the actual
available volume in the plasticator. The dif-
ference basically relates to the plastic mate-
rial’s melt behavior, and provides a safety
factor to meet different mold packing con-
ditions. Shot size capacity may be given in
terms of the maximum weight that can be in-
jected into one or more mold cavities, usu-
ally quoted in ounces or grams of general-
purpose polystyrene (GPPS). Since plastics
have different densities, a better way to ex-
press shot size is in terms of the volume of
melt that can be injected into a mold at a spe-
cific pressure. The rate of injecting the shot
is related to the IMM’s speed and also the
process control capability for cycling the melt
into the mold cavity or cavities (fast-slow-
fast, slow-fast, etc.).
The injection pressure in the barrel can
range from 2,000 to at least 30,000 psi (14 to
205 MPa). The characteristics of the plastic
being processed determine what pressure is
required in the mold to obtain good products.
Given a required cavity pressure, the barrel
pressure has to be high enough to meet pres-
sure flow restrictions going from the plastica-
tor into the mold cavity or cavities.
The clamping force on the mold halves re-
quired in the IMM also depends on the plastic
being processed. A specified clamping force
is required to retain the pressure in the mold
cavity or cavities. It also depends on the cross-
sectional area of any melt located on the part-
ing line of the mold, including any cavities
and mold runner(s) that are located on the
parting line. (If a TP hot-melt runner is lo-
cated within the mold half, its cross-sectional
area is not included in the parting-line area.)
By multiplying the pressure required on the
melt and the melt cross-sectional area, the
clamping force required is determined. To
provide a safety factor, 10 to 20% should be
added.
Molding Plastics
Most of the literature on injection mold-
ing processing refers entirely or primarily to
TPs; very little, if any at all, refers to ther-
moset TS plastics. At least 90 wt% of all
injection-molded plastics are TPs. Injection-
molded parts can, however, include combi-
nations of TPs and TSs as well as rigid and
flexible TPs, reinforced plastics, TP and TS
elastomers, etc. (Chap. 6). During injection
molding the TPs reach maximum tempera-
ture during plastication before entering the
mold. The TS plastics reach maximum tem-
perature in the heated molds.
Molding Basics and Overview
The following information provides a com-
plete overview of the process of IM (Figs. 1-3
to 1-10).Continually required is better under-
standing and improving the relationship of
process-plastic-product and controlling the
complete process.
Injection molding is a repetitive process in
which melted (plasticized) plastic is injected
(forced) into a mold cavity or cavities, where
it is held under pressure until it is removed in
a solid state, basically duplicating the cavity
of the mold (Fig. 1-11).The mold may con-
sist of a single cavity or a number of similar
or dissimilar cavities, each connected to flow
channels, or runners, which direct the flow of
the melt to the individual cavities (Fig. 1-12).
Three basic operations take place: (1) heat-
ing the plastic in the injection or plasticizing
unit so that it will flow under pressure, (2) al-
lowing the plastic melt to solidify in the mold,
and (3) opening the mold to eject the molded
product.
These three steps are the operations in
which the mechanical and thermal inputs
of the injection equipment must be co-
ordinated with the fundamental properties
and behavior of the plastic being processed;
different plastics tend to have different
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
Fig. 1-3 View of an injection molding machine.
-Clamping cylinder Injection unit
Fig. 1-4 Basic elements of injection molding.
melting characteristics, with some being ex-
tremely different. They are also the prime de-
terminants of the productivity of the process,
since the manufacturing speed or cycle time
(Fig. 1-13) will depend on how fast the ma-
terial can be heated, injected, solidified, and
ejected. Depending on shot size and/or wall
thicknesses, cycle times range from fractions
of a second to many minutes. Other impor-
tant operations in the injection process in-
clude feeding the IMM, usually gravimetri-
cally through a hopper, and controlling the
plasticator barrel’s thermal profile to ensure
high product quality (Fig. 1-14).
An example of complete injection molding
operation is shown in Fig. 1-1.This block di-
agram basically summarizes what should be
considered to ensure a good return on in-
5
Heating Injecting Molding
Fig. 1-5 The basic cycle.
vestment to produce all types and shapes of
molded products. The block diagram meets
the objective in bringing you up to date on
today’s technology as well as what is ahead.
These important steps must come together
properly to produce products consistently
meeting performance requirements at the
lowest cost. Basically, the approach is to:
(1) design a mold around the product to be
molded, (2) put the proper auxiliary equip-
ment around the mold, and (3) set up the
necessary fabricating process such as qual-
ity controls, troubleshooting guides, preven-
tative maintenance, and operational safety
procedures. To be effective, the evaluation
of a product should proceed according to a
logical step-by-step process (Fig. 1-15). The
result is to target for zero defects.
6 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

Fig. 1-6 Schematic of plastic material flow through hopper and screw to the mold cavity.

People and Productivity delivery time and that falls within budget. It
can be said that perfection is never reached;
The recipe for productivity includes a list of there is always room for more development
ingredients such as R&D, new technologies, and/or improvement. As has been stated
updated equipment, computer automation throughout history, to live is to change, and to
systems, and adequate modern facilities. But approach perfection is to have changed often
the one ingredient that ties the recipe to- (in the right direction).
gether is people. None of the ingredients have
much use without the right people. As an
example, computer software (CAD, CAM, Plastic Materials
CIIM, etc.) have their place together with
the systems hardware. However, while the Many thousands of different plastics (also
software and hardware all provide impor- called polymers, resins, reinforced plastics,
tant resources for automating the manufac- elastomers, etc.) are processed (Chap. 6).
turing line, to have the line run efficiently re- Each of the plastics has different melt be-
quires people to use these resources properly. havior, product performance (Figs. 1-16 and
Equipment and plastic materials are not per- 1-17), and cost.
fect, so that they require the human touch to To ensure that the quality of the different
ensure their repeatability, etc. (see the sub- plastics meets requirements, tests are con-
section on Plastic Material and Equipment ducted on melts as well as molded products.
Variables in Chap. 11.). There are many different tests to provide
Achievable processing plans begin with all kinds of information. Important tests on
the recognition that smooth does not mean molded products are mechanical tests such as
perfect. Perfection basically is an unrealis- those shown in Fig. 1-18, the main one being
tic ideal, however one strives to approach it. the tensile test (Chap. 12).
The expectation of perfection can block gen- There are basically two types of plastic ma-
uine communication between workers, de- terials molded. Thermoplastics (TPs), which
partments, management, customers and ven- are predominantly used, can go through
dors (see the section on Perfection in Chap. repeated cycles of heating/melting [usu-
5 ) . A smooth run program can be defined ally at least to 260°C (500"F)I and cool-
as one that creates a product meeting fac- ing/solidification. The different TPs have dif-
tors such as performance specification and ferent practical limitations on the number
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 7

CLAMPOPEN

MOLD INJECT I O N
INJECTION

CLAMP HYDRAULIC
C Y L l NDE R

TIMERS E L E C T R I C MOTOR

ELECTRICAL c
HYDRAULI MECHANICAL

1. MOTOR
SWITCH ON P U M P PRESSURIZES S Y S T E M

2. C L O S E OPERATOR'S GATE AND OIL FLOWS TO C L A M P C Y L I N D E R C L A M P CLOSES

START C Y C L E FROM H Y D R A U L I C M A N I F O L D

3. CLOSING CLAMP TRIPS LIMIT OIL F L O W S TO INJECTION INJECTION R A M FORWARD

S W I T C H D I R E C T I N G O I L TO CYLINDER TO INJECT
INJECT

C L A M P CLOSED

4. I N J E C T I O N T I M E S OUT OIL F L O W S TO SCREW D R I V E SCREW

PUMPS ITSELF
MOTOR BACK A S P A R T S COOL I N
MOLD

5. C L A M P COOLING T I M E S OUT OIL FLOWS T O CLAMP CYLINDER SCREW

STOPS ROTATING
AND SCREW T R I P S SHOT S I Z E ROD AND C L A M P OPENS
L I M I T SWITCH

6. EJECTION
L I M I T SWITCH I S OIL F L O W S TO EJECTOR CYLINDER P A R T I S EJECTED FROM
TRIPPED MOLD

7. RECYCLET I M E R T I M E S OUT S T A R T CYCLE ETC.

Fig. 1-7 Molding-machine functions.

8 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

Products
Properties

Resin Process
Density 4 Temperature
Melt Index F Pressure
Mol. Wt. Distribution Cycle
Additives Mold & Process Design
I I I I

Fig. 1-8 Interrelation of product, resin, and process.

of heating-cooling cycles before appear- with plastics. Compounding also embraces

ance and/or properties are affected. Ther-
mosets (TSs), upon their final heating
[usually at least to 120°C (248"F)], be-
come permanently insoluble and infusible.
During heating they undergo a chemical
(cross-linking) change. Certain plastics re-
quire higher melt temperatures, some as high
as 400°C (752°F) (see section on Recycling in
Chap. 6).
Extensive compounding of different
amounts and combinations of additives
(colorants, flame retardants, heat and light
stabilizers, etc.), fillers (calcium carbonate,
etc.), and reinforcements (glass fibers, glass
flakes, graphite fibers, whiskers, etc.) are used
the mixing (alloying, blending, etc.) of two
or more plastics that may be miscible or
immiscible, with or without additives.
With TPs, the mold initially is kept at as low
a temperature as possible, below the melting
point of the plastic melt. This approach causes
the injected hot melt to initiate surface freez-
ing on the cavity wall, followed by formation
of the solid product. After a sufficient cool-
ing time, the mold opens and the part(s) are
ejected. When processing TSs [from the in-
jection unit (plasticizer)], the hot melt enter-
ing the heated mold initially remains below
the temperature that would cause premature
solidification due to its exothermic reaction.

PROCESS PRODUCT

Fig. 1-9 Simplified processing steps.

 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 9

1 Performance Requirements I Morphology and Performance

The processability and performance of

TPs, such as meeting product tolerance re-
quirements and mechanical properties, are
influenced by factors such as molecule
I Material Selection I size and weight, molecular distribution, and
shapes or structures of individual molecules.
’;=rl;........;. TPs are formed by combining into long chains
of molecules, or molecules with branches (lat-
eral connections) to form complex molecular
Ideal choiceiCompromise shapes. All these forms exist in either two or
three dimensions, Because of their geome-
Fig. 1-10 Flow diagram for setting up the selec- try (morphology), some of these molecules
tion procedure. can come closer together than others. These
are identified as crystalline (such as PE, PP,
After properly filling the cavity or cavities, and PA); the others are amorphous (such as
the mold’s higher temperature causes the PMMA, PS, SAN, and ABS). Morphology
melt to undergo its final chemical cross- pertains to TPs but not TSs. When TSs are
linking action resulting in solidification. processed, their individual chain segments

scmw
tJOzzle 2.25 in. dla.

16.000 wl
-\

Mold injector
(Plasticator)
Fig. 1-11 Pressure-loading melt into the cavity.

CUREINMOLDCAW

L
PLAmQzING
FORNEXTSHOT:
nBWMltlOWaafnmuruDI

Fig. 1-12 TQtALCYQEtlME

Mechanical load profile.
10 I The Complete Injection Molding Process

are strongly bonded together during a chem-

INJECTION
ical reaction that is irreversible.
TRAVEL
-PLASTIC COOLING IN MOLD . Plastics are either truly homogeneous,
N”
amorphous solids or heterogeneous, semi-
crystalline solids. There are no purely crys-
talline plastics; so-called crystalline materials
SHRINKAGE CCCCRS
also contain different amounts of amorphous
material. The term semicrystalline is techni-
30 sec 5 sec
cally more accurate, but seldom used. Vari-
Fig. 1-13 Example of an injection molding cycle. ous methods of characterizing and evaluating

I HIGH-QUALITY
MOLDED PARTS I
1 GOODMOLD 1 ADEQUATE MOLD
CLAMPING FORCE

MATERIAL TEMPERATURE PRESSURE

FILLING RATE TIME

I Receive and review product I

I I

Complete preliminary appraisal

Assign deaign prlorlty

I Produce product I
Fig. 1-15 Overall product approach.
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 11

TOUGH The rheology of plastics, particularly TPs,

is complex but manageable. These materials
combine the properties of an ideal viscous
liquid (pure shear deformations) with those
POLYPROPYLENE VINYL
of an ideal elastic solid (pure elastic defor-
mation). Plastics are therefore said to be vis-
coelastic. The mechanical behavior of plastics
is dominated by the viscoelastic parameters
such as tensile strength, elongation at break,
BRITTLE and rupture energy. The viscous attributes of
melt flows are very important considerations
Note: With formulation changes (via addltlver, flllen,reln-
lorcements. alloylng, etc.) porltlon 01 plastlc can moue during any processing system (see section on
practically any place in the "pie."
Molding Thin Walls in Chap. 7).
Fig. 1-16 Range of properties. Viscosity is a material's resistance to vis-
cous deformation (flow). Quantitatively it
plastics are used, such as their molecu- is expressed by the modulus of elasticity E
lar weight distribution (MWD). A narrow (Chap. 12).
MWD enhances the performance of plastic Plastics undergo non-Newtonian flow: the
products. MWD affects melt flow behavior curve of pressure vs. flow rate for the melt
(Chap. 6). is not a straight line. By contrast, the flow of
water is nearly Newtonian.
Not only are there these two classes of
Melt Flow and Rheology deformation; there are also two modes in
which deformation can be produced: simple
Rheology is the science that deals with the shear and simple tension. The actual beha-
deformation and flow of matter under various vior during melting, as in a screw plasticator
conditions. An example is plastic melt flow. (injection unit), is extremely complex,

NATURAL GAS PETROLEUM COAL AGRICULTURE

I
v
1

ETHANE PROPANE BENZENE NAPHTHA BUTENE

\I
1

ETHYLENE STYRENE FORMALDEHYDE POLYOL ADIPATE 7

77 PROPYLENE VINYL CHLORIDE
v
CUMENE ACRYLIC
1

POLYETHYLENE POLYSTYRENE ACETAL POLYCARBONATE

T?
POLYPROPYLENE POLYVINYLCHLORIDE NYLON
\I 1
r EXTRUSION INJECTION BLOW CALENDER COATING
\

77 v
n
1
r BUILDING PACKAGING TRANSPORTATION RECREATION 7
TK? ELECTRICAL CONSUMER
\I
INDUSTRIAL
1

PRODUCTS
PIPE APPLIANCE
SIDING
PACKAGING
n
LUGGAGE
COMMUNICATION ELECTRICAL
MARINE
MEDICAL AUTO
SIGN
TOOL
TOY '
-1 I

Fig. 1-17 Raw materials to products.

 12 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

Tensile loud %+4

Resistance
to
bending
Mfm ).
Deflection,
rig i di ty +ik&&,
*--\

Buckling

Fig. 1-18 Examples of mechanical tests.

displaying many types of shear-tension re-
lationships. Together with the screw design,
the deformation determines the pumping ef-
ficiency of the plasticator and controls the re-
lationship between output rate and pressure
drop through the melt flow to solidification
in the mold cavity(s).
Plasticating
Plasticating is the process that melts the
plastics. Different methods are used. The
most common are the single-stage (recip-
rocating screw) and the two-stage. In Fig.
1-19, (a) and (b) show the ram (also called
plunger) systems used in the original IMMs
since the 1870s, and now used mainly to pro-
cess plastics with very little melt flow, such
as ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene.
They use a piston, with or without a torpedo,
for plastication. Part (c) shows the single-
stage reciprocating screw plasticator, and (d)
the two-stage screw plasticator.
There are different IMM operating de-
signs in use: all-hydraulic, all-electrical,
and hybrid (combination of hydraulic and
electrical). Each design provides different
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 13

- MOLD 4E,iE,
I
SINGLE-STAGE RAM INJECTION
I

MOLD

W SINGLE-STAGE OR RECIPROCATING SCREW

MOLD

SCREW PLASTICATOR

W TWO-STAGE OR PREPLASTICKING SCREW

MOLD

Fig. 1-19 Examples of different plasticating systems.

advantages such as reducing product weight
(reducing plastic consumption), eliminat-
ing or minimizing molded-in stresses, mold-
ing extremely small to very large products,
and/or improving performance. There are
also IMMs that perform specialty molding
operations. An example is the gas-injection
molding machine (GIMM) systems. They ba-
sically involve the injection of an inert gas,
usually nitrogen, into the melt as it enters
the mold. The gas forms a series of inter-
connecting hollow channels within the melt.
The gas pressure at about 4,300 psi (30 MPa)
is maintained through the cooling cycle. In
effect the gas packs the plastic against the
cavity (Chap. 15).
Another design is injection-compression
molding, also called injection stamping or
more often coining. It uses a compression
type mold having a male plug that fits into
 I4 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
Fig. 1-20 Sections of a screw.
a female cavity. After a short shot enters
the mold (which has been previously opened
and closed so that it is unpressurized), the
stress-free melt is compressed to mold the
finished product. Other systems include coin-
jection, two-color injection molding, coun-
terflow injection molding, multi-live injec-
tion molding, oscillatory injection molding,
reaction injection molding, liquid injection
molding, foam injection molding, fusible- and
soluble-core injection molding, tandem in-
jection molding, injection blow molding, in-
jection molding with rotation, continuous
injection molding (Velcro strips, etc.), metal-
plastic injection molding, and vacuum injec-
tion molding (Chap. 15)
Screw Designs
The primary purpose for using a screw
located in the plasticator barrel is to take
advantage of its mixing action. The motion
of the screw is controlled to keep the IMM’s
process controls operating at their set points.
The usual variation in melt temperature, melt
uniformity, and melt output is kept to a mini-
mum prior to entering the mold. Heat is sup-
plied by heater bands around the barrel and
by the mixing action that occurs when the
plastic is moved by the screw. Both conduc-
tion heating and mechanical friction heating
of the plastic occur during screw rotation. The
different controls used during injection mold-
ing, such as back pressure and screw rota-
tional speed, influence the melt characteris-
tics (Chap. 3).
Most IMMs use a single constant-pitch,
metering-type screw for handling the plastics.
The screw has three sections, for feed, melt-
ing (transition), and metering (Fig. 1-20).The
feed section, which is at the back end of the
screw (where plastic first enters), can occupy
from very little to 75% of the screw length,
usually 50 to 75%. Its length essentially de-
pends upon how much heat has to be added
to the plastic that enters the hopper, where it
may be preheated.
The melting (transition) section is where
the softening of the plastic occurs; the plastic
is transformed into a continuous melt. It can
occupy from 5 to 50% of the screw length.
This section, usually called the compression
zone, has to be sufficiently long to make
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 15

sure that the plastic is melted. A straight leased to prevent melt burning and the for-
compression-type screw is one having no feed mation of voids in the product. With TPs,
or metering section. For certain plastics, par-temperature-controlled water (with ethylene
ticularly TSs, there tends to be no compres- glycol if the water has to operate below its
sion zone, since overheating and solidifica- freezing point) circulates in the mold to re-
tion of the melt could occur between the move heat; with TSs, electrical heaters are
screw and barrel. usually used within the mold to provide the
In the metering section, the plastic is additional heat required to solidify the plastic
smeared and sheared to give the melt its fi- melt in the cavity.
nal uniform composition and temperature for The mold basically consists of a sprue, a
delivery to the mold. As high shear action runner, a cavity gate, and a cavity. The sprue
will tend to increase the melt’s temperature, is the channel located in the stationary platen
the length of the metering section is depen- that transports the melt from the plastica-
dent upon the plastic’s heat sensitivity and tor nozzle to the runner. In turn, melt flows
whether any additional mixing is required. through the runner and gate and into the cav-
For certain heat-sensitive plastics very littleity. With a single-cavity mold, usually no run-
or no metering action can be tolerated. For ner is used, so melt goes from the sprue to the
other plastics it averages about 20 to 25% of gate.
the screw length. Both the feed and meter- Different runner systems are in use to meet
ing sections usually have a constant cross sec-different processing requirements. The most
tion (zero compression ratio). However, the popular are cold and hot runners. With a TP
depth of flight in the feed section is greater cold runner, the melt flowing from the sprue
than that in the metering section. The screw’s to the gate solidifies by the cooling action of
compression ratio can be determined by di- the mold as the melt in the cavity or cavities
viding the flight depth in the feed section solidifies. With a TP hot runner the sprue to
by that in the metering section. Depending the gate is insulated from the chilled cavity
on the plastic processed, ratios usually range or cavities and remains hot, so that the melt
from 0 to 4. never cools; the next shot starts from the gate,
rather than from the nozzle as in a cold run-
ner. With a TS hot runner, the melt in the
Molds runner solidifies. The TS cold runner keeps
the plastic melted by using a cooled insulated
The mold is the most important part of the manifold; its next shot starts from the gate,
IMM. It is a controllable, complex, and ex- rather than from the nozzle as in a TP hot
pensive device. If not properly designed, op- runner.
erated, handled, and maintained, its opera- Molds are provided with different means,
tion will be a costly and inefficient. such as sliders, unscrewing devices, undercuts
Under pressure, hot melt moves rapidly (Fig. 1-21), and knockout systems, to eject
through the mold. During the injection into products as well as solidified runners at the
the mold, air in the cavity or cavities is re- proper time. These basic operations in turn

Nominal thickness should be

maintained throughout part

deeper hole intersecting side walls

Fig. 1-21 Methods of molding holes or openings in side walls without undercutting mold movements.
16 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

Processing

Processing steps are summarized in Figs.

1-9, 1-10, and 1-24 to 1-27. Different ma-
chine requirements and material conditions

!-L DEPTH OF DRAW

DIMENSION
DIFFERENCE
are considered in choosing the most efficient
injection molding process. It is important to
understand and properly operate the basic
IMM as well as its auxiliary equipment. In
Fig. 1-22 Example of mold-cavity draft angle re- particular, in practically all operations the
quired to ensure removal of molded product dur- screws must not be damaged or worn and
ing its mold ejection action. the plastic must be properly dried. Special
dryers and/or vented barrels are required for
drying hygroscopic T P materials such as PC,
require control of various parameters such PMMA, PUR, and PET (Chap. 10).
as fill time and hold pressure (Chap. 4). Use of TP regrind may have little effect
To simplify molding, whenever possible on product performance (appearance, color,
one should design the product with fea- strength, etc.). However, reduction in perfor-
tures that simplify the mold-cavity melt filling mance can occur with certain TPs after even
operation. Many such features can improve one passage through the IMM. Granulated
the product’s performance and/or reduce TSs cannot be remelted but can be used as
cost. An example is choosing the mold-cavity additives or fillers in plastics.
draft angle according to the plastic being Many TPs can be recycled indefinitely by
processed, tolerance requirements, etc. (Fig. granulating scrap, defective products, and so
1-22). Figure 1-23 shows a situation where on. During these cycles, however, the plas-
it is possible to eliminate or significantly re- tic develops a “time-to-heat” history or res-
duce shrinkage, sink marks, and other defects idence time. This phenomenon can signifi-
(Chap. 8). cantly compromise processing advantages

POOR DESIGN SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVES

SINK MARKS I

CORE FROM
BOTH SIDES
IF POSSIBLE
v2 t

POOR RECTANGULAR MATCH OUTSIDE

PART WITH ROUND HOLES CONFIGURATION TO INSIDE
CORES
Fig. 1-23 Example of coring in molds to eliminate or reduce shrinkage and sink marks.
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 17

Fig. 1-24 Relationship between manufacturing process and properties of products.

Bulk density
IFeeding ease
Feeding accurcy
~~ ~

Tablet density
Tablet height
Pre-heating
I
Process: Compression molding
transfer molding
Melt flow behavior
Curing characteristic injection molding
pre-heating (temperature, time)
Water content
mold filling (time, pressure)
curing (temperature, time)

Shrinkage characteristic
Water content Dimensional stability
Stickiness (adhesion) Demoldlng behavior

Mold life
Machine wear

Fig. 1-25 Processing behavior.

PROCESS
ANALYSIS t
PRODUCT
PARAMETERS REQUIREMENTS

FILLING PHASE FOLLOW-UP

PROCESS MODEL

1 HGgtH
PROCESS COMPUTER FINAL MACHINE INTERFERENCE
MACHINE PARAMETER SEllINGS WITH MAGNITUDES
OPERATING RANGES
CLOSEDLOOP
I U I I

Fig. 1-26 Process control model.

18 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
Fig. 1-27 Processing steps via a fishbone diagram.
and properties, requiring compensation in
the product design or process setup, and/or
material modification by incorporating addi-
tives, fillers, and/or reinforcements.
For all types of plastics, injection molding
troubleshooting guides have been written to
allow fast corrective action when products
do not meet their performance requirements.
Examples of errors in the mold and product
design with possible negative consequences
during processing and/or product perfor-
mance are presented throughout this book.
Troubleshooting guides can be incorporated
in process control systems (Chap. 11).An ex-
ample is checking dryer performance as sum-
marized in Table 1.1.
Process Controls
Proper injection of plastic melt into the
mold is influenced by several process control
conditions (Chap. 7). Any one or combina-
tion of these can affect various performance
parameters, such as the rate of which the raw
Preimpregnated
Post impregnation
material is fed into the IMM (Fig. 1-28), flow
of melt, packing of mold cavity or cavities
and cycle time, which in turn affect product
performance (Chap. 8). As an example, pa-
rameters that influence product tolerances in-
volve (1) product design, (2) plastics used,
(3) mold design, (4) IMM capability, and
( 5 ) molding cycle time.
Different types of machine process con-
trols (PCs) can be used to meet different re-
quirements based on the molder’s needs. PC
systems range from simple monitors (alarm
buzzers, flashing lights, etc.) to very sophisti-
cated program controllers [personal comput-
ers (PCs) interrelate different IMM functions
and melt process variables]. (Note that PC
has two meanings; see Appendix 1,Abbrevi-
ations.)
Knowledge of the machine and plastic ca-
pabilities is needed before an intelligent PC
program can be developed (Chap. 9). The
use of PC or SPC (statistical PC) software
requires continual study of the endless new
computer technology as it applies to basically
melting plastic (Chap. 13).
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
Table 1-1 Trouble shooting dehumidifier dryer performance
Symptom
1. Cannot attain desired air
inlet temperature.
2. Dewpoint as measured at
air inlet to the hopper
is unacceptable.
3. Airflow low or
nonexistent.
Possible Cause(s)
Heater failure.
Hose leakages and excessive
length on air inlet side.
Line, hopper, or filter blockage.
Loss of regeneration heaters
in one or both beds or
line fuses.
Loss of timer or clock motor
ability to switch from one
head to the other, Le.,
continuous operation on
only one desiccant bed.
Desiccant has deteriorated or
been contaminated.
Loss of power to one or both
desiccant beds.
Fan motor burned out.
Loose fan on motor shaft.
Clogged filter(s).
Restricted or collapsed
air lines.
Blower motor is reversed.
19
Cure
Check process air or afterheaters-
regeneration heaters play no
part in this aspect of operation.
Locate and repair-if the hose is
old and brittle, replace. Shorten
all hose to minimum lengths.
Check for collapsed or pinched
lines, valves that are closed
(some makes have airflow valves
located on the air inlet side of the
hopper). Filters should be
changed or cleaned frequently-
a good trial period is every four
weeks until experience dictates
a shorter or longer period.
These can be checked with a
voltmeter at the control panel.
Check clock motor for movement
by observing either function
indicators or valve-shifting
mechanisms. Note that loss of
regeneration heaters may occur
if the clock motor or shifting
mechanism malfunctions.
Most manufacturers suggest
checking the desiccant annually
and replacing when it does not
meet test criteria. Typically two to
three years is a reasonable
interval, depending upon the
severity of service.
During regeneration cycle, exterior
of the desiccant bed should be
hot to touch. Check contacts on
relays or printed circuit board
for flaws; check line fuses if so
equipped.
Replace.
Tighten.
Change.
Correct and relieve restrictions.
Use of a pressure gauge or
flowmeter is suggested. Proper
rotation is that at which the
highest flow is indicated.
20 I The Complete Injection Molding Process

4
\

Fig. 1-28 Hopper feed control unit.

Control Guides Regardless of the type of controls available,

Adequate PC and its associated instrumen-
tation are essential for product quality con-
trol (QC). The goal in some cases is precise
adherence to a control point. In other cases,
maintaining the temperature within compar-
atively small range is all that is necessary
for effortless control (of temperature, time,
pressure, melt flow, rate, etc.) that will pro-
duce the desired results (Chaps. 7 , 9 , and 13).
the processor setting up a machine uses a sys-
tematic approach that should be outlined in
the machine and/or control operating man-
uals. Once the machine is operating, the op-
erator methodically targets one change at a
time to achieve maximum injection molding
efficiency.
With injection molding, as with all types
of plastics processing, troubleshooting guides
are established to take fast corrective action
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 21

when parts do not meet their performance re- (2) an increase in annual production vol-
quirements (Chap. 11). This problem-solving ume, (3) a reduction of demolding time, and
approach fits into the overall PC and fabri- (4) a shortening of transit time if additional
cating interface. activities can be carried out within the pro-
Control systems for units with complex grammed cycle time.
processes such as injection molding are be- The profitability of a flexibly automated
coming increasingly common. Such systems injection molding plant is influenced by
consist mostly of control chains and circuitry (1) increased capital cost, (2) reduced per-
that are often coupled in their functions, as sonnel costs due to fewer personnel required,
well as the corresponding exchange of data. and (3) changes in energy costs and the
In a broad sense, the control systems serve mold-cost structure. With automation, new
the purpose of cost reduction by monitoring goals can be met through plant flexibility,
quality and establishing high line efficiency, such as (1) improved delivery consistency,
in addition to the reduction of raw mate- (2) greatest possible preparedness for meet-
rial consumption and labor costs. A control ing delivery dates, (3) large range of products,
system contributes in different ways, partic- and (4) short job processing time. There are
ularly in controlling the flow of plastic melt. also quality-related effects that result in im-
It can function by itself and fulfill the duties proved quality assurance and a reduced num-
assigned to it, often resulting in product im- ber of rejects. Work environment changes oc-
provement. cur in (1) psychological and physical stresses
Since the 1960s, a procedure to influence on staff, (2) qualification requirements from
important properties of the final product has staff, (3) social welfare of staff employed on
been developed. The solutions, when intro- the injection molding machine, and (4) the ac-
duced into practice, served first of all to cident risk situation. An evaluation of the uti-
improve the product line in different manu- lization efficiency serves for assessing the cri-
facturing plants. However, initially these sys- teria that cannot be quantified in monetary
tems established themselves in only relatively terms. An established utilization efficiency
small niches of the commercial market. Later value can be taken as a decision aid, which in
many more came aboard. conjunction with the investment calculation
The use of flexibly automated injection will allow a better selection of alternatives
molding controls and systems definitely de- under consideration.
pends on the tasks the machine has to
perform and the production sequences re-
quired. Automation is one possibility for Art of Processing
putting in-house aims into practice and/or
meeting market-dictated demands such as Processing of plastic is an art of detail. The
(1) production-cost reduction, (2) short job more you pay attention to details, the fewer
processing time, (3) low expenditure on hassles you will get from the process. If a pro-
setup, (4) greatest possible preparedness cess has been running well, it will continue
for meeting delivery dates, (5) large product running well unless a change occurs. Correct
range, and (6) improved delivery consistency. the problem; do not compensate. That may
In order to utilize the advantages of flexi- not be an easy task, but understanding your
bly automated injection molding cells, a con- equipment, material, environment, and peo-
siderably larger capital investment is nec- ple can make it possible.
essary than with other choices of systems,
which are less automated and flexible. This
increases the investment risk, so that the Fine Tuning
question of the profitability of such systems
becomes more urgent. The following are A computer-integrated injection molding
examples of productivity-increasing effects: (CIIM) system makes it possible to target
(1) an increase in the annual utilization time, for: (1) approaching a completely automated
22 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
injection molding system, (2) simultaneously
achieving high quality (zero defects), ( 3 )
increasing productivity, and (4) minimizing
cost. It does this in several ways, basically by
enabling the molder to fine-tune all the re-
lationships that exist among the many ma-
chine settings and properties of the plastic
melt. These systems, when properly used,
readily adapt to enhanced processing capa-
bilities.
Once processing variables (machine and
plastic) are optimized through computer sim-
ulation (rather than the usual trial-and-error
method), these values are entered in com-
puter programs in the form of a rather large
number of machine settings. Establishing the
initial settings during startup can be inher-
ently complex and time-consuming. Regard-
less, the many benefits of these systems are
well recognized and accepted. However, it
is evident that self-regulation of injection
molding can be effective only when the de-
sign of the product and the mold are opti-
mized with the correct processing conditions.
Otherwise, a self-regulating IMM is confused
and can issue conflicting instructions. The re-
sults can be disastrous, including damage to
the machine and/or the mold as well as safety
hazards. Therefore, the efficient utilization
of microprocessor control systems depends
on the success of utilizing correct and opti-
mum programs with knowledgeable people
(Chap. 9). On the horizon is the potential for
fuzzy control to provide an important aid to
optimizing process control performance. As
reviewed in Chap. 7, fuzzy logic, since its in-
ception in 1981, has striven with increasing
success to mimic the control actions of a hu-
man operator.
Molding Operations
The following modes of operations typify
injection molding operations.
Automatic
A machine operating automatically will
perform a molding cycle where programmed
functions repeat. The IMM stops only in
the event of a malfunction or if it is man-
ually interrupted. Machinery and mecha-
nisms are self-controlled so that manual in-
put is not necessary during operation. The
continuing development of more sophisti-
cated processing equipment in turn allows
the development of more integrated process-
ing equipment. This action results in many
improvements, such as (1) increased operat-
ing efficiency through reducing scrap and/or
rejects, (2) improved quality through uni-
form, repeatable manufacturing procedures,
(3) decision making and record keeping by
converting data to information, (4) access
to manufacturing information by supervisors
and management, and ( 5 )process control and
process management.
Automation level The automation level is
the degree to which a process operates au-
tomatically. The choice of level must take
into account the ability of the system to di-
agnose problems in operation, the ability of
the system to recover from error or fault,
the ability of a system to start up and shut
down without human intervention, and the
like.
Automated vision Vision automation
provides a means to achieve automatic
equipment operation by adaptive part re-
moval. It provides the capability of detecting
a variety of part problems or defects by
critical part inspection.
Semiautomatic
A semiautomatic machine will perform a
complete cycle of programmed molding func-
tions automatically and then stop. It will then
require an operator to start another cycle
manually.
Manual
It is an operation in which each function
and the timing of each function is controlled
manually by an operator.
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 23

Primary There are a wide variety of tasks requir-

ing the use of auxiliary equipment that in-
Identifies the main molding operation cludes warehousing to handling materials. As
equipment to fabricate products namely the reviewed throughout this book, performance
injection molding machine (Chap. 2). requirements are important for the successful
operation of the IMM and auxiliary equip-
ment. They usually require raw materials,
Secondary additives, spare parts, molds, tools, molded
products, and so on to be stored and handled
After fabricating (primary) molded prod- safely and economically. Various systems are
ucts, secondary operations may be required available to meet different needs in ware-
to produce the final finished product. These housing. They can implement schemes for
operations can occur online or offline. They integrating the inward and outward flow of
include any one or a combination of opera- goods, order picking and transportation, fac-
tions such as the following: annealing (to re- tory administration, and process control for
lieve or remove residual stresses and strains), warehousing.
postcuring (to improve performance); plat-
ing; joining and assembling (adhesive, ultra-
sonic welding, vibration welding, heat weld- Processors
ing, etc.);drilling; cutting; finishing; polishing;
labeling; and decorating/printing. The type of There are basically three types of proces-
operation to be used depends on the type of sor: captive, custom, and proprietary.
plastic used. As an example, decorating or
bonding certain plastics is easy, while others
require special surface treatments for those
purposes (Chap. 10). Capfive

Captive processors, also called captive fab-

Purchasing and Handling Plastics
On the average, raw materials and their
handling services incur at least half of the
costs in plastic injection molding. Wages, util-
ities, overhead, and capital equipment costs
account for the rest. All costs are important to
evaluate and justify. As an example in a high-
production injection molding line, equipment
costs may represent less than 5% of the to-
tal cost of production. Nevertheless, economy
and rationality are worthy aims when pur-
chasing equipment (Chap. 14).
It is obviously important to at least pur-
chase the raw materials at favorable prices.
One must see that they are delivered punctu-
ally bust in time (JIT) or otherwise], provide
the required handling systems, use as little as
possible (design minimum wall thicknesses of
products, do not overpack in cavity, etc.), and
ensure that material conforms to the required
specification(s). Action is usually required to
check materials received.
ricators, are in-house facilities of companies
that have acquired plastics processing equip-
ment to make parts they need for the prod-
uct they manufacture. For example, a electri-
cal connector manufacturer may acquire an
IMM to produce connectors.
Generally speaking, these manufacturers
will install a captive operation when their
component requirements are large enough
to make it economical or they have a secret
product or process. Some manufacturers that
run their own plastics fabricating lines will
nevertheless place a portion of their require-
ments with outside vendors to keep their own
capital investment down, to avoid internal
single-source supply, to maintain contact with
the outside world and the pricing intelligence
it provides, and so on. The vendor may be a
custom processor or have a captive operation
for their requirements. A problem with some
captive operations is that they do not keep up
with new developments, some of which may
be critical.
24 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process
Custom
The custom processor’s facilities,like those
in the metal-working field, may be called job
shops. They process plastics into products
or components used in other industries. For
example, a manufacturer of injection-molded
bottles may retain a custom processor to mold
preforms. Custom processors typically have
a close relationship with the companies for
whom they work. They may be involved (to
varying degrees) in the design of the product
and the mold, they may have a voice in ma-
terial selection, and in general they assume
responsibility for the work they turn out.
Custom-contract There is a subgroup
of custom processors known as contract
fabricators. They have little involvement in
the business of their customers. In effect, they
just sell machine time.
Proprietary
A proprietary operation is one where the
processor makes a product for sale directly to
the public or to other companies. It usually
has its own trade name.
Training Programs
Various training programs and seminars
for processors and mold manufacturers are
available worldwide. Information concerning
processors’ training programs is reviewed in
Chaps. 2,9, and 12 as well as other chapters.
A tooling example is the apprentice training
programs of the USA Tooling & Manufactur-
ing Association (Park Ridge, IL). Their ef-
fective programs are based on well-planned
services that involve properly supervised on-
the-job training and classroom instruction.
Such programs start with the development of
a policy manual. One of TMA’s most effec-
tive trainers is Northwestern Tool and Die
Manufacturing Corp. (Skokie, IL).
Each training module includes a practical
experience checklist, material checklist, prac-
tical experience record of hours, and safety
checklist. Times on cutting tools include ba-
sics in equipment and their control opera-
tions (2000 h), lathe (800), milling (lOOO),
grinder (lOOO), chrome plating (loo), jig bore
(700), honing (loo), EDM (300), inspection
tools (loo), and so on.
The list of postsecondary schools devot-
ing a significant portion of their funds to
moldmaking and related programs is growing
rapidly. As the industry continues to review
the labor pool and come up short, and as un-
dergraduate institutions fight over a shrink-
ing market, education-and-industry partner-
ing is increasing in urgency. As an example,
the Moraine Park Technical College of
Southeastern Wisconsin, an internationally
known facility of the machine tooling indus-
try, is a well-established school with a re-
put able program that, in conjunction with
other area schools, has provided local indus-
tries a highly trained workforce for decades
(410).
Processor Certifications
National skills certification programs by
different organizations are in existence
worldwide to certify the skills and knowledge
of plastics-industry processor machine oper-
ators. Action by the different organizations
continues to provide methods of improving
these programs. As an example, the Society
of Plastics Industry’s Industries National Cer-
tification in Plastics (NCP) program has as its
purposes: (1) to identify job-related knowl-
edge, skills, and abilities, ( 2 ) to establish
a productive performance standard, (3) to
assess and recognize employees who meet
the standard, and (4) to promote careers in
the plastics industries. The examination in-
cludes basic process control; prevention and
corrective action on primary and secondary
equipment; handling, storage, packaging, and
delivery of plastic materials; quality assur-
ance; safety; tools and equipment; and gen-
eral knowledge.
The Society of Plastics Engineers’ Plas-
tics Technology Certification was for plas-
tics professionals who have the knowledge
and ability to apply mathematics, the physical
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 25

SERVICES

Consultants- Designers -Process Engineering -ISO -Education -Legal- Accounllng -Flnanclal- Marketing -Advertising -PublIshing -Training

.
t

-
"+
+

t
~
I Household I Business I GovernmentI Export I

Fig. 1-29 The plastics industry.

26 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process

Fig. 1-31 This eight-station rotary IMM from EPCO has a shot size of 36 oz using a 150-ton clamping
press.

sciences, and engineering principles and reviewed throughout this book and particu-
methods to technological problem solving. larly in Chap. 2, the basic IMMs must meet
Due to the lack of industry response and the many different performance requirements
SPE's financial constraints, this program was for molding.
closed as of May 1,1999. However, the SPE Figure 1-31 shows an example of a rotary
stated that it remains an important concern IMM.
and should eventually be reinstated.

Plastics Machinery Industry
In addition to the injection molding pro-
cess, the plastics industry is characterized by
a wide variety of processing methods for fab-
ricating many different plastic materials into
many different products. Figures 1-29 and
1-30 provide a summary of the interrela-
tions of plastics, processing, and products
(221). The different processes each have their
area of capabilities, at times competing. As
Summary
Injection molding (like other plastics fab-
ricating processes) provides the world with
useful and/or required products, consuming
about 32 wt% of all plastics. With new de-
velopments in equipment and materials, the
processor is required to keep up to date and
determine when changes are to be made,
taking advantage of the continuing new de-
velopments. Factors such as energy conser-
vation and expanding the use of reinforced
 1 The Complete Injection Molding Process 27

plastics (RPs) provide more potential pro- practices not properly updated. A technical
duct growth. cost modeling (TCM) system can be used
Already injection molding is the highest- for analyzing the economics of alternative
volume method for RPs processed using injection molding methods and other pro-
milled or short glass fibers. Long-fiber mate- cesses without the prohibitive economic bur-
rials such as bulk molding compounds have den of trial-and-error innovation and process
been used for about half a century using optimization. Cost variations are analyzed by
stuffer-ram feeders with ram and/or screw setting up differing (1)performance require-
IMM plasticators. With in-mold layups of re- ments, (2) part design, (3) plastic selection,
inforcements, RPs’ high-performance direc- (4) hardware selection, and ( 5 ) testing,
tional properties are achievable (1,18). quality control, and troubleshooting factors
Although considerable talent can be (Chap. 14).
brought to bear on processing and engi- Any design choice for injection molding
neering aspects, selecting the best process (or any other process) is a balance between
technique and plastic material also involves gains and losses. A gain in one area can com-
economic and legal concerns (Chaps. 14, promise product performance, cost, and/or
16). Cost problems are particularly acute other factors. However, with people work-
when the technology that will be employed ing smarter, using the F A L L 0 approach
is not fully understood and much of the (Fig. 1-l),analyzing failures or limitations,
cost analysis is based on historical data, and innovating, you can expand your target
past experience, and individual accounting and meet future product requirements.