- ISHITA KUMAR

PRESSURE
static pressure
static pressure is pressure exerted by still air

Static pressure ports are placed in positions where there is

no direct impact of air .

Static pressure is caused disturbed airflow around

error
by
the static and due to the TAS & of attack of
port , angle
the aircraft .

if the static is blocked , instruments

primary port use

information from the static port

secondary .

the alternate static port is placed :

OUTSIDE pressurised Alc

in a

INSIDE in an un pressurised AIC

in an un pressurised aircraft the alternate ,

static port will read
a value lower than outside conditions
when the aircraft is in
ground effect ,
static pressure
increases .

Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressure is pressure exerted when
moving air is
brought to

a rest .

Dynamic pressure is measured from a pitot tube ,

which measures
total pressure : static + dynamic
the tube is located little far from the
a
boundary layer so no disrupted
airflow enters the tube
 2

the pitot tube is

always located parallel to the
longitudinal axis ,

where direct impact of airflow occurs .

Is v2
Dynamic pressure =
9 : density , v :
velocity

static Air Temperature (SATI is the temperature of undisturbed

air
Total Air Temperature (TAT) is the temperature achieved when air
is compressed & brought to rest
adiabatically
2

(
of air
SAT = TAT -
V:
velocity
SAT the KR : factor M : Mach number
recovery
=
,
I t 0.2 KR M2

RAM rise is the difference between SATI TAT

TAT

|
⇐ SATI "" " ""
 3

AIRSPEED INDICATOR
of the ASI
working
works on
dynamic pressure
-

there is an
airtight casing with a
capsule in it
.

-
inside the capsule , pitot pressure (static +
dynamic) is fed

directly through the pitot tube .

static is fed to the casing

only pressure
.

static & static cancel each other &

out
dynamic pressure remains
-

-
the capsule expands & contracts as
per dynamic
pressure .
 4

ASI Errors

1. Density error
-

as the Alc climbs , density decreases

.
because the Alc is calibrated to MSL ,
dynamic pressure
decreases with
height
in order to maintain the same CAS the AIC has to
go
-

faster when it climbs to higher attitudes

CAS ±
density error TAS
'
=

2.
Compressibility error
Occurs in aircrafts that in which ,
fly at speeds > 300 knots
-

the air when it impacts the airframe with

compresses a

speed > 300 knots .

.
this speed is called Equivalent Airspeed ( EAS)

3. Instrument error
.
due to
manufacturing imperfections
.
IAS ± instrument error = Rectified Airspeed ( RAS)

4. Position error
-

due to incorrect positioning of the pitot tube & static port

-
RAS ± position error = calibrated Airspeed (CAS )

5.
Blockage error
.

Pitot Under read Descent ,

Static Over read Descent ( PUD SOD )
 5

6 .

Leakages
-
Pitot leak : ASI underreads (capsule contracts)
-
Static leak : ASI over reads (capsule expands )

7. Side slipping
-
sideslipping towards the blocked port : overreacts
-
sideslipping towards the open port : under reads

speed arcs

WHITE :
flap operating speed : V so to VEE

GREELY : normal operating speed :

Vsa to Vmo

YELLOW : caution range : Vno to Vm e .

RED-RADIALLINEi.VN E
PL2ADlALL1NE : VYSE
 6

V speeds
Vso :
stall speed in
landing configuration
-

.
Vsa : stallspeed in a clean
configuration
-
Vee : maximum flap extended speed
-

Veo :
flap operating speed
Vmo maximum normal
operating speed
-

-
Vine : never -
exceed speed
Vie :
landing gear extending speed
-

Vio :
landing gear operating speed
-

Vy :
best rate of climb speed
Vx best of climb speed
angle
:
-

Vyse : best single engine rate of climb speed

Airspeeds
IAS ( Indicated airspeed )
I ± instrument error

RAS (Rectified airspeed )

t ±
position error

CAS (calibrated airspeed ) > EAS ( Equivalent airspeed )

I
compressibility error
+ I
density error

TAS (true airspeed )

 7

ALTIMETER
indicates attitude of the aircraft above a reference datum .

Working of the altimeter

-
works on static pressure
there is an
airtight casing with a capsule in it
.

.
inside the capsule ,
a reference datum pressure is fed through the

kob Mann window

-

static pressure decreases as the aircraft climbs ,

and that

pressure is fed to the casing through the static port

from
pressure moves
high to low causing the capsule to
-

expand , indicating a climb

sta¥
 8

Altimeter Errors

1 .
Instrument error

due to
manufacturing imperfections
-

2. Position error

due to incorrect of the static port

positioning
-

3. Time
lag error

-
as the aircraft climbs or descends ,
static pressure decreases &
the capsule takes time to expand and contract ,
causing
a
lag .

time assisted altimeter

lag is reduced via a servo
-
-
.

4 Pressure error
.

H to L H

-
L to H L

5 .
Temperature error
-

H to L H

-
L to H L

G . Barometric error

due to incorrect subscale human

settings generally error
-

, .
 9

7 .

Blockage error

Static : as static pressure is trapped inside the casing ,

the altimeter

will freeze at a constant value

underreads during a climb

over reads
during a descent
Pitot no
change
. :

8 .

Hysteresis error

the of the capsule

elasticity changes due to
prolonged flight at a
-

certain temperature .

9. Side slipping
-
sideslipping towards the blocked port : overreads
-
sideslipping towards the open port : under reads

a small vibrating device is fixed friction

at
linkages to reduce

Height vertical distance above measured from the

: a point ,
generally
OF E .

Attitude :
vertical distance measured from the ONH .

Density attitude : attitude corrected for nonstandard temperature

Transition attitude :
attitude below which AIC flies at a NH .
expressed
as FL

Transition level :
attitude above which AIC flies at ONE .

Transition the between transition level and transition altitude

layer layer
:
 10

Servo assisted altimeters

-

used to reduce time

lag
-
-

there is direct mechanical

a
linkage between the capsule
-

and pointers replaced

,
by electromagnetic pickup devices
-

there is an E bar & I bar

the E bar is connected to an amplifier

magnet
-

the I bar is connected to the aneroid

capsules
magnet
-

-
as the aircraft climbs the capsules expand
,

.
I part of the I bar is fixed , and the other moves as
per expansion
of the capsule

movement of the bar the flux into the

I
changes magnetic E bar
'

and an electric current is induced into the E bar

'

the current is then amplified ,

and drives the servo -
motor , which in

turn rotates the needles

the of the
electromagnetic device can detect minute movements
-

capsule ,
thus
reducing the time
lag .
 11

ALTIMETRY
Temperature deviation = actual -
ISA

Density attitude =
pressure altitude + (deviation x lls o )
-

Pressure altitude =
elevation + [30 ( 1013 -
Q NH ) ]

Pressure altitude = 30 x ( 2023 -

OF E )

true attitude = indicated attitude +

(zofosaxindeaicattieodnau.it#de)
of
Q ON H : 2025
Flying Over an airfield
'
.
.
at 3500 .
OF E : as 5 .

Height
Alc above the airfield = ?
A
# ÷
:
3500
'

I
.

T OF E

I 40×30 = 1200
ON H
-

3500
'
-
1200 = 2300
 12

VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR

indicates the rate of climb 1 descent of the aircraft .

Working of the vertical speed indicator

it works on the
change of static pressure
rate of
-

.
there's an
airtight casing with a capsule in it
the capsule has a
metering I choke unit that creates a
delay
-

-
the current static pressure is fed into the capsule and the ,
same

pressure enters the casing via the choke unit ( minimum delay
of 4 seconds)
a
pressure difference is created which causes the capsule to
-

expand or contract .

if an aircraft is climbing from 6000 -

7000
'

,
the current static

pressure is fed into the capsule first ,

and then into the
casing
via a choke unit .

capsule expands : rate of descent

-

capsule contracts : rate of climb

DELAYED

METERING
UNIT
 13

VSI Errors

2 . Instrument error
due to
manufacturing imperfections
-

2 .
Positioning error

due to incorrect of the static port

positioning
-

3. Time lag error

-
since the capsule takes time to contract & expand ,
when the AIC

levels off it will continue climb 1 descent for few

,
showing a a

seconds due to the choke unit .

4 .

Blockage error

Static VSI to zero

:
goes
-

climb & descent

choke : overheads
during
-

Instantaneous VS I CI VSI )
time
lag is reduced
by incorporating a dash port accelerometer
-
-

which is piston in mounted with 2 sensitive

a small a
cylinder
-

springs on either side , which detect even the smallest

changes
in pressure .

time is reduced not eliminated

lag
-

flies into turbulent

due to
sensitivity of the
springs when the AIC
-

weather , the IVs I fluctuates frequently & is unreliable .

 14

MACHMETER
indicates speed of the aircraft relative to the speed of sound

( when an aircraft approaches the speed of sound ,

shock

produced due to which and less

waves are more
drag
lift act the it to
on
wing ,
causing stall

critical Mach number is the speed at which the speed of sound

is reached

Local speed of sound = 38 95-

a-
temperature ( Kelvin)
Kelvin =
temperature C.C) +273

Mach number is the ratio of TAS to LSS .

It also
gives us the ratio of static to
dynamic pressure .

Mach number =
TAI
LSS

working of the Machmeter

-
the Machmeter has 2
capsules in it : attitude and airspeed which ,

provide dynamic and static pressure information

the airspeed capsule expands and contracts as per
dynamic pressure
-

.
the altimeter capsule expands and contracts as per static pressure .

-
these capsules are attached with a shaft 4 a ratio arm that moves
as per expansion & contraction of the capsules .
(CONTD ) .
 15

'

when a
capsule expands ,
it moves the shaft which rotates the
ratio and indicates increased Mach number
arm an
reading

Machmeter Errors

2 . Instrument error
due to
manufacturing imperfections
-

2 .
Positioning error

due to incorrect of the static port

positioning
-

3. Blockage error
.

Pitot Under read Descent ,

static Over read Descent ( PUD SOD )
 16

Climbing at a constant CAS in standard ISA conditions .

Cfs IAS
MACH NO .

ay , ,u ,
.

gpee ,

climbing at a constant Mach number

through an inversion .

CAS MA NO . TAS

ay , ,u ,
.

gpee ,

climbing through isothermal

q-acagonµgt.nsanqa/ .mnoa.ch
number an
layer .

ay , type
.

-g peep
 17

AIR DATA COMPUTER

An ADC is a in which pitot pressure static pressure
system , , temperature
and of attack information is fed
angle through sensors , and the
system
calculates the data and provides information to the ASI ,
VSI ,
altimeter,

Machmeter , TAT 4 SAT

displays .

Advantages of the A. DC :

it has an advanced design which is electrically operated

-

reduced instrument reduced

and
lag error ( Lag error is drastically
.
.

mechanical
as
linkages are removed ) .

-
error correction ( computation of the high airspeed and other variables

within 1 computer permits for the

error correction ,
specifically AIC

it is in .

it is the central source for other

.

systems (and for

display on the

instrument panel ) .

(due to introduction of the driven

design mechanical
design electrically
-

.
,

and pneumatic designs were reduced ) .

-
failure warning (a comparison monitor can be incorporated within the

ADC to compare the output of the ADC ) .

-
BITE ( Built in Test Equipment) : there's no
provision made for the manual

input of data into the ADC ,

in the event of
any failure .

However , BITE indicates malfunctions

any .
 18

Types of BITE processes

Power up
.
when the ADC is powered up ,
a check is made on the microprocessor
and of the ADC
memory .

Continuous BITE
an automatic check of all of input and output 1 second
stages every
-

Maintenance BITE

the maintenance to check for failures

done
by engineer on the
ground
-

.
 19

GYROSCOPES
concentrated around its
a
gyroscope is a rotating body with its mass

periphery having properties of rigidity

,
and precession .

is the
Rigidity property of a
rotating gyro with which a
gyro will maintain

its
rotating axis with respect to a fixed point in
infinity .

r:
Rigidity IN = I: moment of inertia , angular velocity

methods to increase
rigidity :

increase RPM
.
increase rotor mass

-
increase effective radius

Precession is the in which if a force is applied it will 90

property , ,
act

to the direction of rotation .

Precession = I T: applied force

IN

rigidity and precession are

inversely proportional to each other .

a Gimbal is a device used to hold the but allows it to move

gyro ,

freely .
 20

Wander is the shifting of the

gyro axis
Drift in the horizontal plane
shifting
:

Topple :
shifting in the vertical plane

Types of wander :

Real wander
due to
manufacturing imperfections
-

Apparent wander
-
Earth rate

shifting of the
gyro axis due to rotation of the Earth
-

.
if a
gyro is aligned with the North Pole and is rigid ,
it will not
for
be
aligned very long due to rotation of the Earth .

-
Earth rate = 15 sin O O : Latitude

Transport wander

when the is transported inside the AIC Earth rate increases

gyro
"

or decreases based on direction of the Alc .

M
Transport wander
to × tan
O component of groundspeed
:
easterly
-
=
.
 21

DIRECTIONAL GYRO
INDICATOR
-

provides heading reference

.
horizontal axis gyro
-

12000 RPM
.

principles :

rigidity heading
:

precession : to control the

gyro
2 of freedom I is tied
degrees :
plane
-

the axis is maintained

horizontally and
aligned with the
magnetic
-

compass
the compass card is attached to the
-
outer
gimbal .

Uses of the
caging device
to
synchronise the directional gyro with the
magnetic compass
.

-
to prevent and correct topple .

Limitations of the directional

gyro
550 PITCH and ROLL Air driven
:
gyro
-

850 PITCH and ROLL modern

:
gyro
-
 22

D GI Errors

1. Gimbal error

-
when the
gimbals aren'tperpendicular to each other C when the Alc

is pitched and rolled simultaneously ) .

2 .
Real wander
due to
manufacturing imperfections
-

3 . Earth Rate

4 .
Transport wander

5 . RPM

density decreases as the aircraft climbs due to which the RPM

-

decreases ,
decreasing rigidity and
increasing precession
cover -

correcting)

Latitude nut

compensates for drift

-

provides correction for the latitude it 's set to .

.
can
only be done on
ground ( in the workshop)
.
uses precession
 23

ARTIFICIAL HORIZON
.
it is the attitude indicator of the AIC C indicates pitch I bank
angles ) .

.
vertical axis gyro C Earth Gyro)
.
25000 RPM for air driven -

principles :

to indicate
rigidity :

precession to control the

gyro
:

2 of freedom in 3 planes 2 plane is tied

degrees :
.

2 gimbals

Limitations of the AH
650 PITCH and 85
'
ROLL Air driven
gyro
:
'

Electric Artificial Horizon

due to caused the air exhaust in air driven AH 's electrical
errors
by
-
-

AH 's were introduced

2 torque motors with their installed the

own
levelling switches are on
-

outer
gimbal
When the Alc rolls 1 pitches , the axis shifts & a
mercury ball in the
gyro
.

switch starts its

levelling torque motor ,
re -

energi sing the

gyro .

is eliminated
turning error and acceleration error
.

-
22000 RPM
.
the electric gyro is more
rigid and precise
cutout switch will at 0.28 G or a 20 bank
a
secondary operate angle
-
 24

TURN 4 SLIP INDICATOR

Turn coordinator
-
indicates rate of turn of the aircraft
rate
gyro
.

-
4500 RPM
-

property :
precession
2
gimbal
-

-
I degree of freedom

aircraft indicates the rate of turn (

angular velocity) about its
yaw
-

axis
.
the turn coordinator also indicates the direction of turn

rate of turn = rate of

change of
heading
-

Ship Indicator
.
there's a metal pendulum suspended in a case with a liquid in it .

the ball in the

-
case is acted upon by its
weight and
centrifugal
force during a turn

if the is balanced ( ball centered )

weight : AIC is in a level turn

if the Alc turns and bank

angle increases , gravitational force
increases the Alc slips inside the
.
turn and loses
height .

if the Alc turns and bank

angle decreases centrifugal force
,

increases the . AIC skids out of the turn and

gains height
 25

SLIP :
needle and ball move to the same side

SKID :
needle and ball move in opposite directions

ON GROUND :
needle moves to the side of the turn & ball to the opposite
side .

Rate 1 turn
-
duration : 2 minutes
.
diameter =
TAI
200

of bank
angle TZAOI
=
7
-

+
 26

MAGNETIC COMPASS
Angle of dip an angle made : from the Earth horizontal to the

magnetic compass assembly

Direct
reading magnetic compass
in the Alc which is self sufficient and doesn't
an
assembly
-

depend on the electric or pneumatic system .

Requirements of a
compass
:

1 .

Horizontality
-
since the compass
aligns itself with
magnetic lines ,
the
angle of dip
increases with latitude and
ultimately becomes 90 at the poles
-
to measure direction in the horizontal plane the , assembly should
be horizontal in
also
straight and level
flight .

to achieve
horizontality the assembly is
pendulously suspended
-

with the
Cg below the pivot .

dip isn't eliminated .

2. Sensitivity
since magnetic lines are not even , the
magnetic assembly should
.

be sensitive lines
enough to
align itself with the .

.
to achieve this , theassembly is made of Iridium
instead of using 1
.

big magnet multiple small magnets are arranged

,

in a circular
layout to achieve a higher degree of magnetism .
 27

3 A
.

periodicity
-

aperiodic ty means the compass should settle down

quickly with
indication after
a
steady a turn .

to achieve this a
damping liquid is used which reduces
-

, ,

oscillations
.
the
assembly of small
magnets also helps with a
periodicity .

Compass Liquid
-

Ww coefficient of expansion
low
viscosity
.

transparent
Low
freezing point
.

high boiling point

.
non -
corrosive

Acceleration and deceleration error

acceleration error O at the

magnetic equator
-
-
-
.

°
is maximum when AIC is
error
heading 090 or 270
-

-
acceleration error :
apparent turn towards the pole .

magnetic assembly displaced clockwise

reading decreases and
-
:

compass underreads
displaced anticlockwise reading increases and
magnetic assembly
-
:

compass over reads

-
amount of error depends on
heading magnitude
,
of acceleration

and latitude .
 28

AND S

Accelerate -
North , Decelerate -
South

Turning error
-
maximum when
turning through North and South .

.
Zero when
turning through East or west
-
when the Alc and compass rotate in the same direction ,
the

compass becomes sluggish and

liquid swirl increases
turning
Pilot should
error . roll out
early
-
when the Alc and compass rotate in the opposite direction, the

compass becomes lively and liquid swirl reduces

turning
error .
Pilot should roll out late .

limit 20
accuracy : I
.
 29

IN S1 IRS SYSTEMS
Inertial
Navigation system
.
indicates present position heading track drift groundspeed
, , , , ,

waypoint steering desired track distance to go time to go

, , , ,
cross

track displacement track error

angle ,
.

Basic principles of the INS

-
works on the Newton's laws of motion .

When remains in state of rest 1 uniform motion it will

a
body a
.

maintain its position until acted upon an external force

by .

of the INS
Working
acceleration is the rate of of
change velocity
.
.

-
the INS has accelerometers which are mounted on a platform
-
accelerometers are freely suspended , pendular devices that

measure acceleration and deceleration

When the AIC decelerates , due to inertia the pendulum off

swings
.

its null Then , the

position .

electromagnetic device senses the new

position of the
pendulum which is given the electric signal
, ,

and acceleration is measured

-
the acceleration signal is sent to an
integrator ,
which is a time

multiplication device
-

f tf × 8
=

rye
= v : the
integrator integrates acceleration with respect
&
to time
gives us
velocity .

( CONTD) .
 30

the is further sent to another

signal integrator
-

f. my × $
= m : the 2nd
integrator integrates velocity with respect
-

to time & displacement

gives us .

-
the accelerometers are mounted on 2 platforms : North / South and

East l West
-
there's a computer associated with the INS ,
which knows the initial

position ,
and calculates present position through integration .

Platforms
Used to keep accelerometers levelled ( mounted on a
gimbal assembly )
-

.
consists of 3 rate
integrating space gyros and their respective torque
motors , which is it's called a mechanical
why platform
.
When the Alc turns ,
gimbals are tipped from their initial positions and
from their axis their respective torque
gyros wander ,
starting motors

that re -
erect the platform .

platform must be oriented to the True North for position .

when the INS is started as the rate

integrated space gyro is
-

mounted in an
assembly filled with a liquid in it , alignment
takes time .

-
warm up
.
course
alignment
.
course
levelling
fine
-

levelling
gyro compassing
-

purpose of alignment
:
accelerometers must be levelled ( velocity =
O)
 31

INS Errors

1 . Bounded error

errors that build up with time

be because of platform tilt
May
-
.

2. inaccurate measurement of acceleration

1st
3 .

stage integration error

4 .
Unbounded error
-
cumulative track and distance error

due to initial azimuth

misalignment
.

5 wander
.

gyro

2nd
6 .

stage integration error

7. inherent error

due to the
irregular shape of the Earth
"

Schuler period :
S4 4 minutes
.

(OXFORD PG 240 .
-
244)
 32

Inertial Reference system

we use a mathematical platform instead of a mechanical platform
-

laser
-

ring gyro
consists of mirrors which
-
the
ring laser
gyro help in
achieving
a rotational path for the light beam in the opposite direction

the laser beam

-
created is set at a particular frequency and the

mirrors will absorb

any unwanted frequencies .

when the Alc turns ,

if the path length of the laser is decreased ,
the

frequency will also decrease

-
when the Alc turns ,
if the path length of the laser is increased ,
the

frequency will decrease

the difference in frequencies which
is measured
by microprocessor chips
-

mathematically correct the platform

if the indicate
light beam scatters , the beams
synchronise and no
longer
.

rotation this is called Laser lock and is corrected by

correctly .
a

dither motor .