CPL Navigation Notes

KENYA SCHOOL OF FLYING
CPL NAVIGATION
STUDENT NOTES
1
INDEX
Chapter Subject Pages
1. The Earth 3 – 20
2. Chart Projection Theory 21 – 42
3. Relative Velocity 43 – 46
4. Solar System Time 47 – 68
5. Navigation Computer 69 – 80
6. Lambert Plotting Chart 81 - 97
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CHAPTER 1
THE EARTH
1.1 Shape of the Earth
The earth is not a perfect sphere, there is a slight bulge at the Equator and
a flattening at the Poles. The earth's shape is described as an oblate
spheroid. The polar diameter is 6860.5 nm which is 23.2 nm shorter than
the average equatorial diameter of 6883.7 nm. This gives a compression
ratio of 1/2967 which for all practical purposes can be ignored.
Cartographers and Inertial Navigation systems will take the true shape of
the earth into account.
1.2 Parallels of Latitude
Parallels of Latitude are small circles that are parallel to the Equator. They lie
in a 090 and 270 Rhumb Line direction as they cut all Meridians at 90.
The Latitude of a point is the arc of a Meridian from the Equator to the
point. It is expressed in degrees and minutes North or South of the Equator.
It can be presented in the following forms.
3
N 27:30 or 27:30 N or 2730'N or 3525'45"S or 35:25:45S
4
1.3 Longitude
The Longitude of a point is the shorter arc of the Equator measured East or
West from the Greenwich Meridian. It can be presented in the following
forms.
E032:15 or 3215' E or 32:15 E or 6524'W or 6524'38"W or 65:24:38 W
1.4 Great Circle (GC)
5
1.4.1 A Great Circle is a circle drawn on the surface of a sphere whose centre and
radius are those of the sphere itself. A Great Circle divides the sphere into
two halves. The Equator is a Great Circle dividing the earth into the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres. On a flat surface the shortest distance between
TWO points is a straight line. On a sphere the shortest distance between
two points is the shorter arc of a Great Circle drawn through the two points.
To fly from Europe to the West Coast of America the shortest distance is of
course a Great Circle which usually takes the least time and fuel used. A
Great Circle cuts all Meridians at different angles.
1.4.2 Meridians
Meridians are Great semi-circles that join the North and South Poles. Every
Great Circle passing through the poles forms a Meridian and its Anti-
Meridian. All Meridians indicate True North or 000(T) and 180(T). As
Meridians have a constant direction they are Rhumb Lines as well as Great
Circles.
1.4.3 Equator
The Equator cuts all Meridians at 90 providing a True East-West or 090(T)
and 270(T) erection. As the Equator cuts all Meridians at 90 it is a Rhumb
Line as well as a Great Circle.
1.5 Small Circle
A Small Circle is a circle drawn on a sphere whose centre and radius are not
those of the sphere itself.
1.6 Rhumb Line (RL)
A Rhumb Line is a curved line drawn on the surface of the earth which cuts
all Meridians at the same angle. An aircraft steering a constant heading of
065(T) with zero wind will be flying a Rhumb Line.
1.7 Direction
1.7.1 True North
True North is the direction of the Meridian passing through a position.
1.7.2 True Direction
6
Aircraft Heading or Track is measured clockwise from True North. It is

usually expressed in degrees and decimals of a degree, e.g. 092(T)
107.25GC 265.37 RL
1.7.3 Magnetic North
Magnetic North is the direction in the horizontal plane indicated by a freely

suspended magnet influenced by the earth's magnetic field only.
1.8 Variation
Variation is the angular difference between True North and Magnetic North
1.9 Magnetic Direction (M)
Aircraft Magnetic Heading or Magnetic Track is measured clockwise from

Magnetic North, which is sometimes referred to as the Magnetic Meridian,
e.g. 100(M)
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1.10 Compass North (C)
Compass North is the direction indicated by the compass needle in an

aircraft. Magnetic Fields in the aircraft will attract the compass needle away
from Magnetic North causing Compass Deviation.
1.11 Deviation
The angular difference between Compass North and Magnetic North.
Deviation is Westerly when Compass North is to the West of Magnetic North

Deviation is Easterly when Compass North is to the East of Magnetic North
DEVIATION EAST COMPASS LEAST

DEVIATION WEST COMPASS BEST
Heading l00(C) Dev+4e 104(M) Heading 100(C) Dev-3w 096(M)
Deviation West is Negative (-); while Deviation East is Positive (+)

Deviation is a correction to Compass Heading to give Magnetic Heading
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CONVERGENCE AND CONVERSION ANGLE
CONVERGENCE
Meridians are Semi Great Circles joining the North and South Poles. They are parallel
at the Equator. As the meridians leave the Equator either Northwards or Southwards
they converge and meet at the Poles.
Convergence is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians

measured at a given Latitude.
Considering the two meridians shown above, one at 20W and the other at 20E.
The Change of Longitude (Ch. Long) or Difference in Longitude (D Long) between
the two meridians is 40.
At the Equator (Latitude 0) they are parallel, the angle of convergence is 0. At the
Poles (Latitude 90) they meet, and the angle of convergence is the Difference of
Longitude, 40.
At any intermediate Latitude the angle of inclination between the same two
meridians will between 0 and 40 depending on the Latitude.
This is a sine relationship, convergence varies as Sine of the Mean Latitude.

Convergence also varies as the Change of Longitude between the two meridians.
The greater the Ch. Long, the greater the convergence.
9
Convergence = Ch. Long x Sine Mean Latitude
Example 1. Calculate the value of Convergence between A (N 45:25 E 025:36)

and
B (N 37:53 E042:17).
A N 45:25 E 025:36
B N 37:53 E 042:17
N 41:39 Mean Latitude 16:41 Change of Longitude
Convergence = Ch. Long x Sin Mean Latitude

= 1641' x Sin 41 39'
= 16.6833 x Sin 41.65
= 11.0874
NOTE Both Mean Latitude and Change of Longitude must be changed into decimal
notation.
THE MERIDIANS CONVERGE TOWARDS THE NEARER POLE
10
CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

CONVERGENCE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GC TRACKS
11
Example 1 A and B are in the same hemisphere

The Great Circle Track from A to B is 062
The Great Circle Track from B to A is 278
(a) In which hemisphere are A and B?

(b) What is the value of Convergence between A and B?
Example 2 C and D are in the same hemisphere

The Great Circle bearing of D from C is 136 (brg of D measured at C)
The Great Circle bearing of C from D is 262 (brg of C measured at D)
(a) In which hemisphere are C and D?

(b) What is the value of Convergence between C and D?
12
CONVERSION ANGLE (CA)
CONVERSION ANGLE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE
Conversion Angle (CA) is used to change Great Circle bearings and tracks into
Rhumb Line bearings and tracks or vice versa.
THE GREAT CIRCLE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE POLE

THE RHUMB LINE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE EQUATOR
CONVERSION ANGLE = ½ CONVERGENCE
CONVERGENCE = TWICE CONVERSION ANGLE
CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE
CONVERSION ANGLE = ½ CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE
CONVERSION ANGLE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE
CONVERGENCE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GREAT

CIRCLES
13
The Rhumb Line is a constant direction. If the Rhumb Line track from A to B is 100º,
then the Rhumb Line track from B to A is 280º. You can always take the reciprocal
of a Rhumb Line, NEVER A GC.
Initial GC track A to B is 080° GC, initial GC track B to A is 300° GC (Conv. angle

20°)
Example 3 The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 255 GC

The Rhumb Line bearing of B from A is 084 RL
Example 4 The Great Circle bearing of X from Y is 072 GC

The Rhumb Line bearing of Y from X is 259 RL
What is the great circle bearing of Y from X?
14
Example 5
DISTANCE
Kilometre (KM.)
A Kilometre is 1/10 000th part of the average distance from the Equator to either
Pole. It is generally accepted to equal 3280 feet.
Statute Mile (SM)
15
Defined in British law as 5280 feet.
Nautical Mile (NM)
A Nautical Mile is defined as the distance on the surface of the earth of one minute
of arc at the centre of the earth. As the earth is not a perfect sphere the distance is
variable.
At the Equator I NM is 6046.4 feet At the pole 1 NM -Is 6078 feet
For navigation purposes the Standard Nautical Mile is 6080 feet (South Africa and
UK)
ICAO 1 NM = 1852 metres or 6076.1 feet
Most navigational electronic calculators use I NM = 6076.1 feet. To answer

questions in the CAA examinations any of the following may be used :-
1 NM = 6080 feet or 1852 metres
Conversion Factors 1 Foot = 12 inches

1 Inch = 2.54 Centimetres
As one minute of arc is 1 NM, then Great Circle distance along a Meridian can be
calculated. One minute of Latitude is 1 NM and 1Degree of Latitude is 60 NM.
The Great Circle distance from N75:30 E065:45 to N82:15 W114:15 is:-
As W114:15 is the anti-meridian of E065:45 the Great Circle distance is along a

Meridian over the Pole where 1 of Latitude equals 1 nm.
N 75:30 to the Pole = 1430' change of Latitude (14=x 60 = 840 nm+30 nm)
= 870nm
Pole to N 82:15 = 745' change of Latitude (7 x 60 = 420nm + 45nm)
= 465nm + 870nm
= 1335 nm
CHANGE OF LONGITUDE (CH. LONG) or DEPARTURE DISTANCE
Departure is the distance in Nautical Miles along a parallel of Latitude in an East-

West direction. At the Equator, two meridians (5W and 5E) have a change of
Longitude of 10 of arc. As the Equator is a Great Circle, 10 of arc equals 600
nautical miles. As Latitude increases, either to the North or to the South, the
meridians converge, and the distance between them decreases, until they meet at
the Poles where the distance between them is zero.
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Departure (nm) = ch long (mins) x cos mean lat:

The departure between any 2 points is thus a function of their latitudes and the
change of longitude, and the relationship is given by
Where mean lat = lat A + lat B

2
E 032:45 W 067:25 Both East or West SUBTRACT

E 021:15 E 027:30 One East & One West ADD
11:30Ch.Long 94:55 Ch. Long
DEPARTURE = CHANGE of LONGITUDE (in minutes) x COSINE LATITUDE
Example 1 The distance from A (N 20:10 E 005:00) to B (N 20:10 W 005:00) is :-
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Lat

= 10 x 60 x cos2010'
= 600 x cos 20.1667
= 563.2163 nm
Example 2 An aircraft leaves A (E 012:30) and flies along the parallel of S 29:30 in
an Easterly direction. After flying 1050 nm its Longitude is :-
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Lat
1050nm = Ch. Long xcos2930'
Ch Long = 1050 nm
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cos 29.5
= 1206.4
60
= 20 06' 24" Easterly
+12 30'
= E 032 36' 24"
Example 3 An aircraft in the Northern Hemisphere flies around the world in an

Easterly direction at an average groundspeed of 515 Kts in 14 hours.
The Latitude at which the aircraft flew was :-
Departure = Ch. Long cos Latitude

GS 515 x 14 Hrs. = 360 x 60 x cos Lat
7210
21600 = cos Lat = 70 30’ N
DISTANCE ALONG A PARALLEL OF LATITUDE IS DEPARTURE

DISTANCE ALONG A MERIDIAN IS CHANGE OF LATITUDE
As a Meridian is a Great Circle, then the arc of Change of Latitude can be converted
into nautical miles.
Example 4 The shortest distance from A (N 78:15 W 027:13) in B (N82:30 E

152:47) is :-
As E 152:47 is the anti-meridian of W 027:13, A to B is the arc of a

Great Circle.
N 78:15 to the North Pole = 11:45 Change of Latitude

North Pole to N 82:30 = 7:30 Change of Latitude
_____
19:15 Change of Latitude
19° x 60 = 1140nm + 15 minutes = 1155nm shortest (GC) distance A to B
Example 5 An aircraft departs A (N 25:13 W017:25) and flies a track of 090°(T) at

GS 360 for 1 hour 35 minutes. Then the aircraft flies a track of l80° (T)
for I hour 55 minutes and arrives at position;
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude
N 25:13
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W017:25; Track 180°

Change of Latitude
Departure = Ch. Long x cos Latitude Departure

cos Lat = Ch. Long
GS360 x 1:35
cos 25:13 = 630 minutes of Longitude = 10°30-East of W 017:25 =
W006:55
GS360 x 1:55 = 690nm =11°30 t= N 13:43

Track 180° = S Change of Latitude Old Latitude N 25:13 - 11:30 = N13:43
Position = N 1343’ W 00655’
RADIO BEARINGS
VHF D/F VERY HIGH FREQUENCY - DIRECTION FINDING VDF
Major airports in South Africa have a VDF service, it is usually on the Approach
frequency and will provide radio bearings to aircraft on request. The aircraft
transmits on the appropriate frequency and direction finding equipment at the airport
will sense the direction of the incoming radio wave. The bearing will be passed to
the aircraft in Q-code form.
Q CODE QTE TRUE bearing FROM the VDF station

QDR MAGNETIC bearing FROM the VDF
QUJ station
QDM TRUE track TO the VDF station
MAGNETIC track TO the VDF station
Take the shortest route to change one bearing to another
QTE ± 180 = QUJ
QDR ± 180 = QDM
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QDM ± Variation = QUJ
QDR ± Variation = QTE
VOR VOR Radials are Magnetic bearings from the VOR = QDR
RMI Readings are Magnetic tracks to the VOR = QDM
RMI BEARINGS (VOR & ADF)
Usually termed RMI READING which is QDM
ADF BEARINGS
ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.
ADF Relative bearings must be converted into True Bearings (QTE) before they can
be plotted on a chart.
RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = QUJ  180 = QTE
MAGNETIC VARIATION AT THE AIRCRAFT IS ALWAYS USED WITH ADF

BEARINGS
Lets demonstrate it to you..
ADF bearing 095 Relative ADF bearing 200 Relative

Heading (T) + 057 Heading (T) 318
QUJ 152 (T) TO NDB QUJ 518
 180 Subtract 360
QTE 332 (T) FROM QUJ 158 (T) TO NDB
20
NDB  180
QTE 338 (T) FROM
NDB
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CHAPTER 2
CHART PROJECTION THEORY
The original problem of map making is still with us even in the 21 st century, how can
you represent the curved surface of the earth on a flat piece of paper without
distortion???
The answer is IT CANNOT BE DONE!! It’s the same as trying to flatten out a Orange
peel, it too cannot be done.
Charts which are produced by conic projections are used widely in aviation – mainly
because conic projections “
1. preserve true shapes

2. preserve angular relationships (called conformal or orthomorphic)
3. have a reasonably constant scale over the whole chart
4. show great circle as straight lines..
Lets now look at the chart projections and properties that we as pilots are interested
in:
ORTHOMORPHISM
Orthomorphism means true shape. In theory a cartographer starts with a 'reduced

earth' which is the earth reduced by the required scale. The 'reduced earth' is a true
undistorted representation of the earth. Details, such as Parallels of Latitude,
Meridians and topographical features are 'projected' from the reduced earth onto a
cylinder (Mercator's Projection), a cone (Lambert's Projection) or a flat sheet of
paper (Polar Stereographic Projection). The ideal chart would possess the following
features.
 Scale, both correct and constant

 Bearings correct
 Shapes correctly shown
 Areas correctly shown
 Parallels of Latitude and Meridians will intersect at 90
Unfortunately to reproduce a spherical surface on a flat sheet of paper is impossible.

Distortions will occur. Only one of the above features can be shown correctly.
If shapes and areas are approximately correct to enable map reading, then slight
distortions can be tolerated.
Bearings and scale must be correct, but we cannot have both.
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The 1 nm square on the reduced earth is correct, the diagonal of a square is 45 and
bearings are correct.
The 1 nm square of the reduced earth projected onto a cylinder becomes a

rectangle. Bearings are no longer correct. The scale has been expanded in the
North/South direction to a greater degree than the East/West case. To overcome
this problem the scale expansion North/South is reduced mathematically to equal the
scale expansion East/West. The rectangle becomes a square and the diagonal is 45
Bearings are now correct. Meridians and Parallels of Latitude intersect at 90 Scale is
expanded, but by the same amount in all directions over short distances. Shapes
and areas are approximately correct and the chart is orthomorphic. On the
Mercator, Lambert and Polar Stereographic charts the Parallels of Latitude are
adjusted in the above manner. Bearings are correct but the scale is variable.
SCALE
Scale is the ratio of a line drawn on a chart to the corresponding distance on the
surface of the earth.
Statement In Words 1 inch equals 40 nm
Usually found on radio facility charts. 1 inch on the chart equals 40 nm.
Graduated Scale Line
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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1_____1_____1_____1_____!_____1_____1_____1_____1______1
Representative Fraction
1
1000 000 or 1/1 000 000 or 1:1 000 000
 1 Unit on the chart equals 1 000 000 units on the earth

 1 Centimetre on the chart equals 1 000 000 centimetres on the earth .
 1 Inch on the chart equals 1 000 000 inches on the earth
SCALE FACTOR
Due to the inherent difficulty of presenting a spherical object (the earth) on a flat
sheet of paper. there is no such thing as a constant scale chart. Scale expansion or
contraction will occur. Usually scale will be correct at a certain Latitude but expands
else where. For example :-
Mercator Chart Scale 1:1 000 000 at the Equator

What is the scale at 40N with a Scale factor of 1.3054
1
_______ x Scale factor 1.3054
1 000 000
Scale at 40N = 1: 766 049
Example 1 A chart has a scale of 1:2 500 000. How many nautical miles are
represented by 4 cm on the chart?
Chart Length (CL) 1 4 cm

Scale = ________________ ________ ______
Earth Distance (ED) 2 500 000 ED
ED = 2 500 000 x 4 cms
2 500 000 x 4 cms Divide by 2.54 = Inches

______________ = 53.96nm Divide by 12 = Feet
2.54 x 12 x 6080 Divide by 6080 = Nautical
Mile;
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Example 2 32 centimetres on a chart represents 468 nm. The scale of the chart
is :
CL 32 cms 1
Scale = _________________________ = _______
ED 468 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54 2 710 282
Example 3 The scale of a chart is 1: 3 500 000. The length of a line that
represents 105 nm is :-
CL 1 CL
Scale = ___ = ________ = __________________________
ED 3 500 000 105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
= 3 500 000 x CL = 105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
105 nm x 6080 x 12 x 2.54

CL = _____________________ = 5.56 cms
3 500 000
Example 4 Chart A has a scale of 1:2 500 000

Chart B has a scale of 1:1 750 000
Which chart has the larger scale?

1 1
Chart B has the larger scale ___  ___
2 4
The smaller denominator is the larger scale (half a cake is larger than quarter of a
cake)
LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC CHART
The Lambert's chart was developed from the Simple Conic chart.
Simple Conic
A cone is placed over a reduced earth so it is tangential to a selected parallel of

latitude. The apex of the cone is above the pole. A light source at the centre of the
reduced earth projects details onto the cone. The cone is opened to give a simple
conic projection.
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The scale is correct at the parallel of tangency (45N) and expands north and south
of 45N. Due to the scale expansion the chart is not suitable for navigation.
26
The Meridians are straight lines converging on the nearer pole and the value of
convergence is constant throughout the chart.
Parallels of Latitude are arcs of circles radius the Pole.
SIMPLE CONIC CONVERGENCE
When the cone is opened, 360 of Longitude is represented by the angular extent of
the chart which is 254.5584. The angular extent of the chart is controlled by the
latitude chosen to be the parallel of tangency.
Angular extent of the chart 254.5584

______________________________ = 0.7071 Constant of the Cone or 'n'
factor
Change of Longitude 360
Two Meridians 1 apart have a convergence 0.7071

and this is called the: CHART CONVERGENCE FACTOR (CCF)
Parallel of Tangency 45 Sine 45 = 0.7071 = CCF = Constant of the Cone = 'n'
factor
LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC CHART
The Lambert's chart is based on the simple conic and is produced mathematically
from it. Firstly, the scale is reduced throughout the chart. Since scale on the simple
conic is correct only on the parallel of tangency and expands either side, the
reduction will give two Standard Parallels (SP) on which scale is correct, one on
either side of the simple conic parallel of tangency which is renamed the Parallel of
Origin (// 0). Further mathematical modification is applied by adjusting the radius
of the parallels of latitude to produce an orthomorphic projection.
The above can be shown be lowering the simple conic cone so that it cuts the earth
at the two Standard Parallels instead of the original parallel of tangency of the simple
conic.
Lambert's Chart Properties
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE Arcs of circles, radius the Pole, unequally spaced.
MERIDIANS Straight lines converging towards the nearer Pole
SCALE Correct at the two Standard Parallels

Expands outside the Standard Parallels
27
Contracts between the Standard Parallels
Scale variation throughout 1:1 000 000 and 1:500 000 charts is
negligible and can be considered constant if the band of Latitude
projected is small and the Standard Parallels are positioned according
to the one sixth rule. That is one sixth of that Latitude band from the
top and bottom of the chart. Charts of the North Atlantic with a scale
of 1:5 600 000 have a marked scale variation and care must be taken
when measuring distances.
RHUMB LINES Curves concave to the Pole and convex to the

Equator.
GREAT CIRCLES A straight line joining two positions on the Parallel

of Origin curves slightly concave to the Parallel of
Origin.
CONVERGENCE Constant throughout the chart

Correct at the Parallel of Origin
Chart Convergence Ch. Long x sin Parallel of Origin

Chart Convergence Ch. Long x CCF (Chart Convergence Factor)
Chart Convergence Ch. Long x 'n'
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Chart Convergence Ch. Long x Constant of the Cone
SHAPES and AREAS Slight distortion
CHART FIT Charts of the same scale and Standard Parallels will
fit N/S and E/W. Charts with different SP will not
fit.
Lambert's Chart - Tracks
For all practical purposes the Great Circle is a straight line.
The Rhumb Line track is parallel to the mean Great Circle track at the Mid Meridian
between two positions
The difference between the Great Circle and the Rhumb Line is:
Chart Conversion Angle (CCA)
The difference between the Initial Great Circle track and the Final Great Circle track
is
Chart Convergence (CC)
NB: For examination purposes
Unless otherwise stated in a question, the Great Circle is taken to be the straight line
and Chart Convergence (CC) is used.
 Where a question asks for 'the most accurate value of the Great Circle' or 'the
true Great Circle' then Earth Convergence (EC) is used.
 The Parallel of Origin of a Lamberts chart is mid way between the two
Standard Parallels
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 If the Standard Parallels (SP) are 20S and 40S, then the Parallel of Origin (//
0) is 30S
 If one SP is 20S and the // 0 is 30S - Then the other SP is 40S
 Chart Convergence (CC) = Change of Longitude x sine Parallel of Origin
 Chart Convergence (CC) = Change of Longitude x Chart Convergence Factor
 Sine Parallel of Origin = Chart Convergence Factor (CCF)
 If a statement regarding convergence is given :-
e.g. a Lamberts chart has a chart convergence of 5 between the meridians of 10E
and 20E) then the Parallel of Origin can be calculated (CC 5 = ch. long 10 x sin
30) and the CCF = 0.5 As convergence is proportional to the CCF, convergence
between any two meridians is easily found.
Lets look at some problems that can arise in the examination..
Q1. On a North Hemisphere Lamberts chart (SP 20N & 40 N) the initial GC track
from A (10E) to B (42E) is 065. The GC track at B is:
CC
16
A
65 65
42E
10E
CC = Ch Long X sin // O
= 32 X sin 30
= 16
65 + 16  = 81 GC at B
Q2. The Chart Convergency factor of a Lamberts chart is .5. The Great Circle
track from C D(20N 10E) to D (45N 30 W) measures 316 at C. The Rhumb
Line Track from C to D is:
GC
C
30
RL
CC = CH Long X CCF Track C to D 316 GC

CC = 40 X 0.5 CCA 10
CC = 20 Track C TO D 306
CCA = 10
Q3 The CCF of a Lambert's chart is 0.5

If one Standard Parallel (SP) is 25S then the Latitude of the other Standard
Parallel is :-
The Parallel of Origin (// 0) is midway between the two Standard Parallels
CCF 0.5 = sin//0 = 30S
SP25S Parallel of Origin 30S Other SP35S
Lambert's Chart Plotting Radio Bearings
Radio bearings are Great Circles. Straight Lines on a Lambert's chart are Great
Circles and plotting radio bearings is simple.
VOR & VDF
VOR and VDF bearings are determined at the station, that is measured from the
Meridian of the station.
VOR Radial (QDR) Correct for VOR station Variation only and plot from VOR
Meridian
VOR RMI reading RMI reading is a QDM VOR Variation 180 = QTE
Plot QTE from VOR Meridian (do not apply compass deviation)
VDF QDM = Station Variation 180 = QTE

QDR Station Variation = QTE
QUJ ± 180 = QTE
Plot QTE from VDF station Meridian
Plotting ADF Bearings
31
A problem arises with the plotting of ADF bearings due to the bearing being
measured at the aircraft's Meridian and plotted from the NDB's Meridian which differ
by the amount of Convergence between the two positions.
ADF QUJ ± 180 = Bearing to plot from Aircraft Meridian paralleled

through NDB
ADF QUJ ± 180 ± CC = Bearing to plot from NDB Meridian
32
Scale Problems
Lambert's scale 1:2 500 000, SP20 S and 40S.

The scale is correct at the two Standard Parallels
Scale 20S = Scale at 40S
Some problems that may arise..
Example 1 A Lambert's chart has Standard Parallels of 30N and 50 N

The Rhumb Line distance from A (50N 30E)to B (50N 10E) is 13.75
inches.
The scale at 30N is :-
CL 13.75 inches 1
Scale = __ = ________________________________ =
________
ED 20 Ch. Long x 60 x cos 50 x 6080 x 12 4 092
898
(Departure in nm)
Example 2 On a Lambert's chart the Standard Parallel of 35S measures 58.4 cms.
The other Standard Parallel measures 43.9 cms.
33
The Latitude of the second Standard Parallel is :-
CL 58.4 cms CL 43.9 cms

Scale at 35S = _________________ Scale at 2nd SP = _______________
ED Ch. Long x cos 35 ED Ch.Long x
cos Lat
The scales are equal.
As CH. Long is the same in both equations it disappears
58.4 cms 43.9 cms

___________ = ____________
cos 35 cos Lat
cos lat = 0.6158
lat = (.6158)COS-1
lat = 52S
34
MERCATOR CHART
Before the advent of Inertial Navigation, and GPS computers aircraft flew constant
headings. They flew Rhumb Lines. The Mercator chart was constructed so that
Rhumb Lines are straight lines and the headings flown were easily plotted.
A cylinder is positioned over the reduced earth tangential to the Equator. A light
source at the centre of the reduced earth projects details of the reduced earth onto
the cylinder and we have a Geometric Cylindrical Projection. After adjusting the
Parallels of Latitude so that the scale expansion North/South equals the scale
expansion East/West it
becomes a Mercator chart.
35
MERCATOR CHART PROPERTIES
POINT OF PROJECTION Centre of the reduced earth
POINT OF TANGENCY Equator
PARALLELS OF LATITUDE Parallel straight lines, unequally spaced
MERIDIANS Parallel straight lines, equally spaced
CONVERGENCY Constant
Value Zero
Correct at the Equator
SCALE Correct at the Equator

Expands as the secant of the Latitude
RHUMB LINES Straight Lines
GREAT CIRCLES Complex curves towards the nearer Pole Convex to

the Pole, Concave to the Equator
36
SHAPES & AREAS Approximately correct, excellent between 12N and 12S
becoming distorted with increasing Latitude. The chart
has a limit of 70N and 70S.
CHART FIT Charts of the same equatorial scale will fit N/S. E/W and
diagonally.
USES Plotting and Met charts

Topographical maps between 12N and 12S
ADVANTAGES Rhumb Lines are straight lines - plotting easy
DISADVANTAGES Great Circles (radio bearings) are complex curves.

Great care must be taken measuring distances due to
rapidly changing scale.
37
SCALE
Scale is correct at the Equator and expands North and South as the secant of the
Latitude. Every Parallel of Latitude has its own scale. (SF x cos LAT)
Equator 1:2 000 000

5S 1:1 992 389
10S 1:1 969 615
30S 1:1 732 051
60S 1:1 000 000
Great care must be taken when measuring distances on a Mercator chart due to the
variable scale. Use the Latitude scale at the mid point between the two positions.
SCALE PROBLEMS
Scale problems are easily solved by use of ABBA
SCALE DENOMINATOR A x COS B = SCALE DENOMINATOR B x COS A
Example 1 The scale of a Mercator chart is l:2500000 at 15S. 15S = A

What is the scale at 45N? 45N = B
2 500 000 x cos 45 = Scale B x cos 15
2 500 000 x cos 45

cos 15 = 1 830 127
Scale at 45N 1:1 830 127
Example 2 The scale of a Mercator chart is 1:3 500 000 at 10N 10N = A
At what Latitude is the scale 1:2 500 000? Lat X =
B
3 500 000 x cos X = 2 500 000 x cos 10
cos X = 2 500 000 x cos 10

3 500 00
= 0:7034
X = (0.7034)cos -1
38
= 45 17'49" N/S
Example 3 The Meridian spacing on a Mercator chart is 2.7 cms. The scale at 30S
is
If ABBA cannot solve the problem, then revert to:-
CL 2.7 cms
Scale = __ = _______________________________
ED 1 Long x 60 x cos 30 x 6080 x 12 x 2.54
= 2.7 (scale is 1/xxxxxx)

9 629 426
= 1:3 566 454
PLOTTING RADIO BEARINGS VDF & VOR
Radio bearings are Great Circle bearings. They have to be converted into Rhumb
Line bearings by applying Conversion Angle before they can be plotted.
Both VDF and VOR bearings are measured at the station, thus station variation must
be applied. Conversion angle is also applied where the bearing was measured, that is
the VDF or VOR station.
VDF & VOR APPLY STATION VARIATION APPLY CA TO QTE
39
BEARING VARIATION HEMISPHERE CA PLOT RL

QDM 100 10 W NORTHERN 2
QDR 258 16 W SOUTHERN 3
RMI Reading 113 15E NORTHERN 4
RMI Reading 088 11 W SOUTHERN 2
QDR 129 20 E NORTHERN 3
QDM 285 14 W SOUTHERN 4
QUJ 131 24 E NORTHERN 1
Answers on next page
NOTE
VOR RMI readings are QDM's. Apply VOR station variation, but not compass
deviation.
Answers to VOR/VDF bearings
QDM 100 VAR 10 QUJ 090 180 GC QTE 270 N CA -2 RL QTE 268
W
QDR 258 VAR 16 GC QTE 242 S CA +3 RL QTE 245
W
QDM 113 VAR 15 E QUJ 128 180 GC QTE 308 N CA -4 RL QTE 304
QDM 088 VAR 11 QUJ 077 180 GC QTE 257 S CA +2 RL QTE 259
W
QDR 129 VAR 20 E GC QTE 149 N CA +3 RL QTE 152
QDM 285 VAR 14 QUJ 271 180 GC QTE 091 S CA -4 RL QTE 087
W
QUJ 131 180 GC QTE 311 N CA -1 RL QTE 310
PLOTTING ADF/NDB BEARINGS
40
ADF bearings are presented to the pilot by either a RELATIVE BEARING

INDICATOR (RBI) or by a RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI).
RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI)
ADF bearings are measured clockwise from the fore and aft axis of the aircraft and
are termed RELATIVE BEARINGS, that is relative to the aircraft's fore and aft axis.
be plotted on a chart,
RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = GC QUJ ± CA = RL QUJ ± 180 =

RL QTE
NB The GC QUJ must be converted into a RL QUJ before the reciprocal is taken.
The reciprocal of a Rhumb Line can always be taken, never the reciprocal of a
Great Circle
MAGNETIC VARIATION AT THE AIRCRAFT IS ALWAYS USED WITH ADF BEARINGS
RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI)
The RMI is a remote gyro compass on which radio bearings (both ADF and VOR) are
shown. As it is a compass, the heading index is heading compass and it may suffer
from deviation, for which a correction must be made to ADF bearings but not VOR
bearings. The sharp end of the pointers are referred to as RMI readings or QDM.
The opposite or blunt end of the needle will be a QDR.
ADF QDM ± Deviation ± Aircraft Variation = GC QUJ ± CA RL QUJ ±

180= RL QTE
41
ADF BEARINGS
HEADING DEVIATIO VARIATIO BEARIN HEMISPHERE CA

N N G
016 (C) 2W 13 E 071 REL NORTHERN 4
065 (C) 3E 18 W 214 REL SOUTHERN 5
225 (C) 4W 21 W 069 REL NORTHERN 3
345 (C) 2E 19 W 123 RMI SOUTHERN 2
Hdg 016 ( C ) Hdg 065 ( C ) Hdg 225 ( C ) RMI 123

Dev 2W Dev 3E Dev 4W Dev 2E
Hdg 014 (M) Hdg 068 (M) Hdg 221 (M) QDM 125
Var 13 E Var 18 W Var 21 W Var 19 W
Hdg 027 (T) Hdg 050 (T) Hdg 200 (T) QUJ 106 GC
ADF 071 Rel ADF 214 Rel ADF 069 Rel CA -2 S
QUJ 098 GC QUJ 264 GC QUJ 269 GC QUJ 104 RL
CA + 4 N CA +5 S CA -3 N ± 180
QUJ 102 RL QUJ 269 RL QUJ 266 RL QTE 284 RL
 180 180 180
QTE 282 RL QTE 089 RL QTE 086 RL
42
Station West of ACFT Station East of ACFT

NB
VOR & VDF APPLY STATION VARIATION

DO NOT APPLY DEVIATION
APPLY CA TO QTE
RMI READING = QDM
ADF NDB APPLY AIRCRAFT DEVIATION & VARIATION

GC QUJ  CA = RL QUJ  180 = RL QTE
43
CHAPTER 3
RELATIVE VELOCITY
Relative Velocity is the comparison of aircraft speeds or the speed of one aircraft
relative to another.
The calculations can be broken down into 3 main areas:
Aircraft meeting
Aircraft overtaking
Speed adjustment
Meeting
Aircraft A GS 240 Kts Aircraft B

GS 300 Kts
SPEED OF CLOSING 540 Kts
Overtaking
 
Aircraft A GS 340 Kts Aircraft B GS 250 Kts

Aircraft A being faster will overtake Aircraft B SPEED OF CLOSING 90 Kts
 
Aircraft A GS 220 Kts Aircraft B GS 290 Kts
Aircraft B being faster than Aircraft A will fly further ahead of B

SPEED OF OPENING 70 Kts
POSITION BOTH AIRCRAFT AT THE SAME

TIME
44
Example 1. Aircraft A is overhead NDB PY at 0900 Z enroute to VOR CN. GS 240

Kts Aircraft B is overhead VOR CN at 0920 Z enroute to NDB PY. GS 300 Kts
Distance PY to CN is 1150 nm
PY 1150 nm CN
556nm
595nm
Note: Times have been rounded off to the nearest minute
Example 2 Aircraft A. GS 180 Kts, passes overhead X at 1200 Z bound for Y

Aircraft B, GS 270 Kts, passes overhead X at 1225 Z bound for Y
At what time will aircraft B overtake aircraft A?
X Y
45
Example 3 Two aircraft at the same Flight Level following the same route are
approaching a VOR.
Aircraft A, GS 350 Kts, is 260 nm from the VOR at 0800 Z.
Aircraft B, GS 450 Kts, is 390 nm from the VOR at 0750 Z.
At what time must aircraft B reduce to GS 350 in order to :-
(a) ensure a 50 nm separation at the VOR?

(b) ensure a 5 minute separation at the VOR?
As aircraft B reduces speed to the same speed as aircraft A it is a 'speed of

closing' problem. If aircraft B reduces speed to a different speed than aircraft
A it is a 'delay' problem.
390 nms 315nms 260 nms
B B A
0750 0800 0800
5 mins @ 350 kts =29 nms
(a) Speed of closing 100 kts (b) Speed of closing 100 kts
Distance to close (55- 5 nm Distance to close (55- 26 nms
50) 29)
Time to close 3 mins Time to close 16 mins
Reduce speed at 0803Z Reduce speed at 0816
Example 4 An aircraft, GS 450 Kts, estimates overhead 'Delta' at 0915 Z.

ATC requests the aircraft to cross 'Delta' at 0920 Z.
To accomplish this the aircraft reduces speed to 390 Kts at time :-
Delay x Old GS x New GS 5 x 450 x 390

Distance = ______________________ = ___________ = 243.75 nm
Difference in GS x 60 60 x 60
GS 450 Dist 243.75 nm Time 32½ mins ETA 0915 - 32½ mins = 0842½
GS 390 Dist 243.75 nm Time 37½ mins ETA 0920 - 37½ mins = 0842½'
Alternative solution DISTANCE = SPEED x TIME
At the point where speed is reduced, the aircraft is 'D nm' from Delta.
At GS 450 D = 450 x T At GS 390 D = 390 x (T+5)
46
As D is common, then 450 T = 390 (T + 5)

450 T = 390 T + 1950
450 T-390T = 1950
60 T = 1950
T = 32½ mins
At GS 450 ETA 0915 - T 32½ mins = 0842½

At GS 390 ETA 0920 - (T+5) 37½ mins = 0842½
Example 5 A/c A, GS 180 Kts passes over NDB PB 5 minutes ahead of a/c B
A/c B. GS 260 Kts. passes over VOR CPL 8 minutes ahead of a/c A.
The distance from NDB PB to VOR CPL is :-
As aircraft B overtakes aircraft A. the times are added.

Distance = ______________________ = ______________ = 126.75
nm
Difference in GS x 60 80x60
Example 6 Aircraft A. GS 250 Kts, passes NDB DN 14 minutes ahead of aircraft B.

GS 315 Kts.
Aircraft A then passes VOR PON 5 minutes ahead of aircraft B
The distance from NDB DN to VOR PON is :-
As aircraft B does not overtake aircraft A the times are subtracted

Distance = _____________________ = _______________ =
181.73 nm
Difference in GS x 60 65 x 60
47
CHAPTER 4
THE SOLAR SYSTEM & TIME
The measurement of the passage of time is based upon observations of events

occurring at regular intervals. The two repetitive events which most influence life on
Earth are the rotation of the Earth on its axis. Causing day and night, and the
movement of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun, causing the seasons.
THE EARTH’S ORBIT
The orbit of a planet around the Sun conforms with Kepler’s Laws of Planetary
Motion which state :-
1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the foci.
2. The line joining the planet to the Sun, known as the radius vector, sweeps out
equal areas in equal in equal intervals of time.
SAX SYC
In the above sketch the planet (P) moves anticlockwise in its orbit and is at its
closest position to the Sun at position A which is called PERIHELION. At Perihelion
the Earth is about 91½ million miles from the Sun and occurs on January 4.
At position C the planet is furthest from the Sun and is known as APHELION. At
Aphelion the Earth is about 94½ million miles from the Sun and occurs on July 4.
The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is about 93 million miles.
According to Kepler’s Law the radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time. If the area SAX equals the area SYC then as the distance AX is greater than
48
the distance CY and the orbital speed of the planet is faster at Perihelion than at
Aphelion. The orbital speed of the Earth is variable.
The Earth completes one orbit around the Sun in about 365.25 days. The plane of
the orbit is called the plane of the Ecliptic, and the N/S axis of the Earth is inclined to
this plane at an angle of 66½. The plane of The Ecliptic is at an angle of 23½ º to
the Earth’s Equator and this angle is known as the obliquity of the ecliptic.
THE SEASONS
One effect of the tilt of the Earth’s axis is the annual cycle of seasons. As the Earth
moves around the Sun, on or near 23 rd of December the North Pole is inclined away
from the Sun, which is vertically above Latitude 23½°N. This is known as winter
solstice and is midwinter in the Northern Hemisphere and midsummer in the
Southern Hemisphere.
As the Earth travels around its orbit, being a gyro. Its axis will always point in the
same direction relative to space and will reach a point at the summer solstice, on or
about 22nd June, when the Sun is vertically overhead Latitude 23½°N. It is then
midsummer in the Northern Hemisphere and midwinter in the Southern Hemisphere.
Between these dates the Sun. will be overhead the Equator. These events occur on
21st March which is the spring or vernal equinox, and 23 rd September which is the
autumn equinox.
Jan 4 Perihelion Sun 91½ million miles

Mar 21 Vernal or Spring Sun overhead Equator Declination 00:N/S
Jun 22 Equinox Sun overhead Tropic of Cancer Declination
July Summer Solstice 23½°N
4 Aphelion Sun 94½ million miles
Sep 23 Autumn Equinox Sun overhead Equator Declination 00:N/S
Dec 23 Winter Solstice Sun overhead Topic of Capricorn 23½°S
49
The seasons apply to the Northern Hemisphere and reversed in the Southern
Hemisphere.
MEASUREMENT OF TIME – THE DAY
The rotation of the Earth on its axis is used as a basis for the measurement of the
length of a day. The length of time taken for the Earth to complete one revolution on
its axis can be found by taking the time between two successive transits of a fixed
point in space over a particular meridian.
Sidereal Day (23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds)
As stars are at immense distances from the Earth, they can be considered to be at
infinity and rays of light from stars can be considered parallel regardless of the
position of the Earth in its orbit round the Sun. The time interval between two
successive transits of a star or a fixed point in space over a meridian is called a
SIDEREAL DAY and is constant at 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds.
Apparent Solar Day
The time interval between two successive transits of the True Sun over a meridian is
an Apparent Solar Day.
The Sun and a star are in transit overhead a meridian. After 23 hours 56 minutes
and 4 seconds the star is in transit for a second time (a Sidereal Day), rays of light
from a star being parallel. Due to the Earth’s orbital speed (approximately 58 000
Kts) it has moved some 1 400 000 nm along its orbit and the Earth has to rotate ‘X’
degrees before the Sun is in transit for a second time. This of course takes time thus
an Apparent Solar Day is always longer than a Sidereal Day.
An average of 365 Apparent Solar Days is taken and termed a Mean Solar Day which
is 24 hours.
Mean Solar Day
50
The 24 hour day is based on the Mean Sun. When the Mean Sun is overhead a
meridian it is 12:00 Local Mean Time (LMT). Each and every meridian has its own
LMT.
THE EQUATION OF TIME (E)
The equation of time is the time difference between the apparent solar day and the
mean solar day and is of varying duration.
The Siderial Day
Because of the relative proximity of the earth to the sun, attempts to measure the
length of the day (one revolution of the earth) are contaminated by the movement of
the earth in its orbit relative to the sun.
To solve this problem, a fixed point in space is chosen which is so enormously distant
that the movement of the earth in its orbit relative to this point is basically zero.
This point in space is called the Siderial point or the first point of Aries.
The Siderial day then, is defined as two successive transits of the Siderial point at the
same meridian. The Siderial day is of constant duration : 23 hours 56 mins 4
seconds.
The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East. It is more convenient to imagine the
Earth stationary with the Sun rising in the East and setting in the West.
At the Greenwich Meridian the sun is rising at 06:00 LMT.

At 90ºE the sun is overhead at 12:00 LMT.
At 180ºE/W the sun is setting at 18:00 LMT.
At 90ºW it is midnight 24:00 LMT on the 5 th LD Local Date or 00:00 LMT on the 6 th
LD.
The Local Date changes at midnight and also at the International Date Line.
ARC TO TIME
The Earth rotates through 360 in 24 hours. 90 in 6 hours, or 15° per hour, there is a
direct relationship between Longitude and LMT. The Conversion of Arc to Time table
is available in the Navigation Tables booklet provided in the examination.
The first six columns are degrees of Longitude on the left with the corresponding
time in hours and minutes on the right.
51
10º 0:40 15º 1:00 134º 8:56 314º 20:56
The right hand column gives the time equivalent for minutes of Longitude.
10' Long 40 seconds 16' Long 1 minute 04 seconds
131º 16'E Arc to Time 131º = 8:44 16’ long = 1 minute 04 seconds 131 º16’
= 08:45:04
UNIVERSAL CO-ORDINATED TIME (UTC)
UTC is the LMT at the Greenwich Meridian and is used as the standard reference
from time keeping for aviation. UTC is the same as GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).
CONVERSION OF LONGITUDE EAST UTC LEAST

LMT TO UTC
LONGITUDE WEST UTC BEST
(Tables used for these following questions start on page 65)
Example 1. At position A (N 45:05 E 065:30) it is 13:15 LMT on 23 rd March.

The UTC at this position is :-
A 13:15 LMT 23 March

E 065:30 Arc to Time 4:22
A 08:53 UTC 23 March
Longitude East - UTC Least UTC must be an earlier time than LMT
Example 2. The time is 06:45 UTC on 21st May GD (Greenwich Date).
52
At position B (S 28:37 W 092:20) the LMT is :-
B 06:45:00 UTC 21°May GD°

W 092:20 Arc to Time 6:09:20
B 00:35:40 LMT 21" May LD
Longitude West - UTC Best UTC must be a later time than LMT
Example 3. If the UTC is 15:30 on the 22nd June GD and the LMT at position X is
09:45 on 22nd June, LD the Longitude of X is :-
15:30 UTC 22nd June
09:45 LMT 22nd June
Time difference 5:45 Time to Arc = W 086° 15' Longitude
Example 4. An aircraft departs C (N 45:35 E 010:15) at 15:30 LMT on 15 th May

LD.
Flight time to D (42:37 E 135:45) is 11 hours 18 minutes.
The ETA in LMT is :-
C ETD 15:30 LMT 15th May LD

C ETD 14:49 UTC 15th May GD
Flight Time 11:18
D ETA 26:07 UTC 15 th May GD
ETA 02:07 UTC 16 th May GD
D ETA 11:10 LMT 16 th May LD
NOTE: In flight the time standard is UTC. always work in UTC.
LOCAL STANDARD TIME
As every Meridian has a different LMT, LMT is not suitable for civil time keeping.
Durban has a different LMT to Johannesburg. Each country has its own standard
time factor which is applied to UTC to give local standard time. Standard Time
tables appear on page 67 onwards. For GMT (Greenwich Mean Time) read UTC.
List 1 Mainly countries with Easterly Longitude (including Spain & Portugal which are
Westerly Long.)
List 2 Countries normally keeping GMT or UTC.
List 3 Countries with Westerly Longitude
53
Apply Standard Times in the same manner as LMT (Long East - UTC Least & Long
West - UTC Best) or apply as given at the top of each list. Ignore summer time.
INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
The International Date Line roughly follows the 180 E/W meridian, with some
divergences to accommodate certain groups of South Sea Islands and regions of
Eastern Siberia.
GOING EAST 1 DAY LEAST (lose a day)

GOING WEST 1 DAY BEST (gain a day)
54
55
56
57
58
59
Example 1.
The Standard Time of Sunrise at Amsterdam. Holland (N 52:18 E 005:15) on 27

January is:
January 26 27 28 29
54N 0757 (1) 0756 (2) 0754 (1) 0753
52N 0749 (1) 0748 (2) 0746 (1) 0745
NOTE Making the time difference between dates symmetrical (1 - 2 – 1, 1 - 0 - 1

etc.) will give a maximum error of 20 seconds which can be ignored.
Interpolation for Latitude, 8 minutes time difference for 2 of Latitude
8 minutes ÷ 2 x 0018’ (5218’N – 52N) = 1 min (to nearest minute) = Sunrise

0749 LMT
Sunrise Amsterdam 07:49 LMT

E 005:15 Arc to Time 00:21
Sunrise 07:28 UTC
Standard Time Factor Holland +1:00
Sunrise 08:28 LST
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
CHAPTER 5
Navigational computer
VECTOR TRIANGLE (TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES)
Navigation plotting is based around the Vector Triangle which comprises of three
vectors.
NOTE
All directions are TRUE DIRECTIONS (measured from TRUE NORTH)
The length of each Vector is the value for ONE HOUR. (TAS 240 = 240 nm)(W/V
340/30 = 30 nm)
The AIR VECTOR (TAS & True Heading) has one arrow and is called the AIR PLOT.
The GROUND VECTOR (True Track & Groundspeed) has two arrows and is called the
TRACK PLOT.
The W/V has three arrows. W/V 340/30 is the direction from which the wind blows at
30 Kts. In the above sketch the Drift angle is 7 Right. The Wind blows from the Air
Vector to the Ground Vector.
70
The units cannot be interchanged. The Air Vector is TAS and True Heading only
(never TAS & Track)
If four of the six values are known, the other two can be calculated.
NAVIGATIONAL COMPUTER
Prior to flight the Heading and GS must be known as well as the fuel required for the
flight and the time intervals between enroute points. This can all be found by using
simple calculations from the flight computer or Whiz Wheel.
There are many wide and varied versions of the Whiz Wheel, but basically they can
all do the same thing in the same way. There are two methods of working with the
wind side:
TAS under the grommet (center) wind down.

or
GS under the grommet (center) wind up – Jeppesen method.
The first method can solve all 3 common triangle of velocity problems, method 2 can
only solve 2. Therefore method one will be used in this chapter. In this method the
wind is plotted down from the grommet.
WIND EXAMPLES
Example 1
HDG 330º
TAS 150kts
W/V 040/25
Find:
Track made good
The groundspeed
Solution:
Step1
Plot wind down, then set HDG 330º under index on top.
Step2
Read off the drift 10º left, the TRK is therefore 320º
Step3
71
Read off the GS 144 kts
Example 2
Required Track 150

TAS 100kt
W/V 360/30
Find the Hdg and GS
Step 1
Place the W/V on the plotting disk:

Step 2
Move the circular scale to have the Track

under the Index mark.
Step 3
The drift is noted to be 7ºR, adjust the disk so

that 143º (150º-7) is under the index.
Observe that the drift has changed and is now
8ºR. Futher adjust the disk until the
difference between the required track and the
HDG under the index equals the drift. Note
that if this is done correctly HDG 141 is
under the index and the drift will be 9ºR. The
TRK
will equal 150º which is what we require.
Now read off the GS at the end of the wind vector 125 kts.
Example 3
If TAS is 174kt, Track is 290, the wind velocity is 240/40. Find the Heading and GS.
ANSWER: Approx 280, 145kt
Example 4
The in-flight type of problem…finding wind
You know the following figures, find out the Wind Velocity.
72
HDG 138
TAS 120kts
TRK 146
GS 144kts
Step 1
Place the HDG under index and TAS in

the middle on the whiz wheel:
Step 2 (diagram to the right)
Now in your head work out the drift, and

its found to be 8 right, so now draw in a
straight line along the 8 right drift. The
GS is 144kt, draw a line along the 144
line so as to intersect the 8º drift line.
Draw a line from the grommet to the
intersection of 144kt and 8 drift and you
have drawn in the wind vector.
73
Step 3 (diagram below)
Rotate the grid until the wind

vector blows straight down.
Under the Index mark you can

read the direction, in this case
its 360, and from the 120kts
under the grommet at the
beginning of the wind vector
to its tail is the strength of the
wind, in this case its 30kt.
So the answer is 360/30
THE CALCULATOR SIDE OF

THE COMPUTER
This side of the computer can do many weird and wonderful calculations, but we are
only concerned with the GS/Dist/Time and the Fuel Qty/Fuel Flow/Time problems.
In order to make things simple we shall use the whiz wheel in the same manner as
you would a electronic calculator, in that we use the following methods for the
equations:
DISTANCE
TIME
GS
Fuel
Qtty TIME
Fuel
flow
Example 1
74
If the aircraft has a GS of 154kts, and the Distance for the leg it 77nm, what is the
EET for the leg?
Answer = 30minutes
(found under the Arrow head)
Example 2
At a GS of 147kt, how far will you travel in 11minutes?
ANSWER 27nm
Example 3
A leg is 25 minutes long, and the fuel flow is 32 lph, what is the fuel burn for this leg
of the flight?
ANSWER = 13.3 litres, say 14 litres..
Example 4
If you burn 24 litres per hour, and the duration of the leg is 88minutes, what will be
the fuel burn?
ANSWER = 35 litres
75
MULTIPLE DRIFT W/V USING THE WHIZ WHEEL
Given:- TAS 190Kts Heading 040° + Drift 8° Right

Heading 085° + Drift 8½° Right
Heading 355° + Drift 1° Right
Method:
1. Set TAS 190 Kts at the CENTRE.

2. Set HEADING 040° against TRUE INDEX, draw 8° RIGHT DRIFT LINE.
3. Set HEADING 085° against TRUE INDEX, draw 8½° RIGHT DRIFT LINE.
4. Set HEADING 355° against TRUE INDEX, draw 1° RIGHT DRIFT LINE.
5. Place the intersection of the THREE DRIFT LINES on the CENTRE LINE below
the CENTRE CIRCLE.
6. Read off WIND DIRECTION 348° against the TRUE INDEX.
7. Read off WIND SPEED 30 Kts along the CENTRE LINE
2 3
4 5
1
76
TRACK & GROUNDSPEED W/V DOPPLER W/V
Given Heading 126°(T) TAS 156Kts

Doppler Drift 10° Right or Track 136° Doppler GS 142 Kts
Method:
1. Set HEADING 126° against TRUE INDEX

2. Set TAS 155 Kts at the centre circle
3. Draw 10° Right DRIFT LINE.
4. Draw arc of GROUNDSPEED 142 Kts.
5. Position the intersection of the DRIFT and GROUNDSPEED lines BELOW the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
7. Read off WIND SPEED 30 Kts along the CENTRE LINE
MULTIPLE DRIFT W/V PRACTICE PROBLEMS
TAS 230 Kts TAS 200 Kts

Heading 195° Drift 7° Right Heading 045° Drift 10° Right
Heading 257° Drift 6° Right Heading 090° Drift 6° Right
Heading 332° Drift 2° Left Heading 340° Drift 5° Right
W/V 135/30 W/V 313/32
DOPPLER W/V PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Heading TAS Drift Groundspeed W/V

045° 240 10 Right 275 282/57
225° 300 7° Left 285 289/39
352° 420 12° Right 465 242/103
The DOPPLER DRIFT may be given on one heading and the DOPPLER
GROUNDSPEED on another.
In this case the W/V can only be solved by the manual nav computer.
Given: 1000 z Heading 055° (T) TAS 250 Kts Doppler

Drift 10° Right
1012 Z Heading 010° (T) Doppler GS 235 Kts
Method
1. Set TAS 250 Kts at CENTRE
2. Set HEADING 055° at TRUE INDEX
77
3. Draw 10 Right DRIFT LINE

4. Set HEADING 010° at TRUE INDEX
5. Draw arc of GROUNDSPEED 235 Kts
6. Position the intersection of the DRIFT and GROUNDSPEED lines BELOW the
CENTRE CIRCLE.
8. Read off WIND SPEED 50 Kts along the CENTRE LINE.
Given: 1800 Z Heading 120° (T) TAS 200 Kts Doppler Drift 12 Left
1812 Z Heading 055° (T) Doppler GS 250 Kts
1825 Z The Groundspeed on Heading 335° is :-
Method:
1. Calculate W/V 232/50 as above

2. Set Heading 335° at TRUE INDEX and TAS 200 Kts at CENTRE
3. Read off DRIFT 13° Right and GROUNDSPEED 218 Kts
MEAN W/V
The following winds are forecast for a climb to cruising altitude:-

045/25 080/45 120/55
The mean W/V for the climb is :-
Method:
Select a vacant area on the chart and start from the intersection of a Meridian and
Parallel of Latitude. This can best be done on normal ruled paper using the lines as
reference and a suitable scale.
Draw the three wind vectors to scale, from head to tail.
Join the end (tail) of the third wind vector to the starting point (head) and measure
the wind direction.
Measure the length of the vector and divide by the number of W/V’s to give the wind
speed.
The above method is used to calculate the mean W/V at cruising altitude when
several W/V are given for a route.
091º/36.7
78
ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION COMPUTERS
TO CALCULATE TRACK & GROUNDSPEED (GS) ON THE PATHFINDER
Given Heading 090° TAS240Kts W/V 010/60
Method:
1. Select WIND function
2. Enter HEADING 090°
3. Enter WIND SPEED 60 Kts as GROUNDSPEED
4. Enter TAS 240Kts
5. Enter WIND DIRECTION 010° as CRS (TRACK)
6. Computed W/V 104/237
7. WIND DIRECTION 104° is the TRACK
8. WIND SPEED 237 Kts is the GROUNDSPEED
TO CALCULATE MEAN W/V ON PATHFINDER/SPORTY:
Method:
USE Req TAS function
1. Enter 1st W/V in W Dir

W Spd
2. Enter 2nd W/V in Crs

GS
Answer
Hdg = Wind Direction ] remember this

TAS = Wind Spd ]
3. Enter 3st W/V in W Dir

W Spd
Enter Hdg (from 2) in Crs
79
Enter TAS (from 2) in GS
ANSWER Mean W/V
Hdg = Mean Wind Direction

TAS = Mean Wind Speed (÷ by number of winds)
Mean wind can also be computed on the back of the Flight Computer using the
square grid. Each wind is plotted separately and the resultant wind speed must be
divided by the number of winds.
TAS CALCULATION
Given: RAS 140 Kts. Pressure Altitude 8000 feet. OAT +20°C
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set pressure Altitude 8000 feet against OAT +20°C
Against RAS 140 on the INSIDE SCALE, read off TAS 164 Kts on the OUTSIDE
SCALE.
AIRSPEED COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION
ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS
Electronic calculators correct for the compressibility error at high speeds.
Given OAT or Corrected OAT use PLANNED TAS
80
Given Indicated OAT use ACTUAL TAS
MANUAL FLIGHT COMPUTER
Given: Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet OAT -23C RAS 320kts
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23C
Against RAS 320 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 440 kts on the OUTSIDE SCALE.
RAS 320 and TAS 440 kts are too high due to compressibility, use the correction
factor from the table below.
ALTERNATIVE METHOD (EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED EAS)
RAS 320 x 0.97 = EAS 310.4
Using the AIRSPEED WINDOW set Pressure Altitude 20 000 feet against OAT -23°C
Against EAS 310.4 on the INSIDE SCALE Read off TAS 427 kts on the OUTSIDE
SCALE.
ELECTRONIC CALCULATORS
If given OAT or COAT use PLAN TAS or PLAN MACH
If given IOAT use ACT TAS or ACT MACH
81
CHAPTER 6
LAMBERT'S PLOTTING CHART
The chart used for the South African Commercial Pilot's plotting examination is the
Lambert's Conformal Conic of Southern Africa. Scale 1:5 000 000 with Standard
Parallels of S 20:20 and S 33:40.
The Chart Convergency Factor is 0.45 which is the sine of the Parallel of Origin S
27:00.
Straight lines drawn on the chart are considered to be GREAT CIRCLES for all
practical purposes, which is the prime advantage of the chart, especially when
plotting radio bearings.
The other main advantage of the chart is that Great Circle tracks can be flown which
are shorter than Rhumb Line tracks. This is useful when using Great Circle navigation
systems such as INS, and GPS .
The main disadvantage of the chart is when Rhumb Line navigation is used (flying
constant headings or tracks). This is overcome by splitting the Great Circle track into
short segments of 200 to 300 nautical miles or perhaps 5º of Longitude and using
the MID MERIDIAN technique.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES
USE THE VERTICAL LATITUDE SCALE ONLY TO MEASURE DISTANCES IN NAUTICAL

MILES
1° OF LATITUDE = 60 NM 1° OF LATITUDE HAS 12 INCREMENTS OF 5 NM EACH
Errors in distance measurement can easily occur. It is suggested that every distance
is measured twice as a check.
Each VOR has a feather indicating Magnetic North. There is a warning on the chart
that these feathers should not be used for plotting purposes due to possible
inaccuracies.
MID MERIDIAN TECHNIQUE - GREAT CIRCLE NAVIGATION
Draw the straight line GREAT CIRCLE TRACK from A to B. Select the nearest Meridian
to the mid point along the track, this is the MID MERIDIAN WHERE THE MEAN
GREAT CIRCLE TRACK IS MEASURED.
82
The usual exam question is -the MEAN MAGNETIC HEADING from A to B is:
 Measure the MEAN TRUE TRACK: at the MID MERIDIAN.

 Using the TAS and W/V calculate the mean TRUE HEADING.
 Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION at the MID MERIDIAN.
Other exam questions are :- the INITIAL or FINAL MAGNETIC TRACK or HEADING
from A to B is:
 Measure the INITIAL TRUE TRACK: at the nearest MERIDIAN to A.

 Using the TAS and W/V calculate the INITIAL TRUE HEADING.
 Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION of the first ISOGONAL along TRACK.
 Measure the FINAL TRUE TRACK at the last MERIDIAN before B.
 Using the TAS and W/V calculate the FINAL TRUE HEADING.
 Apply MAGNETIC VARIATION of the last ISOGONAL along TRACK.
NAVIGATION LOG
A Navigation Log is supplied for the exam. Its use is optional and it is not inspected
by the examiner. Use of the log does help in answering questions.
83
BASIC PLOTTING
SYMBOLS
Several lines drawn on a chart become meaningless after a short while. A

Navigation Plot shows the history of a flight. It is a legal document, even if it is in
pencil. Every line must have ARROWS denoting what the line represents. Every
symbol must have a time.
ONLY TRUE VALUES MAY BE PLOTTED - NEVER MAGNETIC
AIR VECTOR or TRUE HEADING

The direction that the aircraft: is steering
GROUND VECTOR or TRUE TRACK

The track or path of the aircraft over the ground
WIND VELOCITY W/V

The direction FROM WHICH THE WIND BLOWS (270°)
FIX A POSITIVE GROUND POSITION

The aircraft was over the position shown at 1015 Z  1015
AIR POSITION
The Air Position of the Aircraft at 1320 Z + 1320
DR POSITION
The calculated or assumed position of the aircraft at 1550 Z  1550
RADIO POSITION LINE

A bearing from a VOR. VDF or NDB at 1608 Z 1608
The aircraft is somewhere along the position line
TRANSFERRED POSITION LINE

The 1608 Z Position Line transferred to a 1622
Position Line at 1622 Z to give a fix
- AIR PLOT - THE PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT RELATIVE TO THE AIR
- TRACK PLOT - THE PATH OF THE AIRCRAFT OVER THE GROUND
84
ZERO WIND CONDITIONS
If an aircraft is flying in zero wind conditions navigation would be easy because
HEADING = TRACK & TAS = GROUNDSPEED (GS)
Unfortunately most of the time there is wind (occasionally 200 Kts or more).
FLIGHT PLAN
Plotting starts from a known point of departure and the initial flight conditions are
taken from a flight plan. Navigation from the point of departure to destination will
consist of fixing the aircraft's position, and if off track, calculating a new heading and
ETA for the destination.
TRACK PLOT
An aircraft is to fly from A to B as per flight plan. Some time later, after maintaining
a constant heading a fix is obtained at C.
This is the simple I in 60 rule application that was covered in Navigation General
Track Error  Distance Off 9 run Track Error 5

__________ = _______________ Alter Heading 5 Right to
parallel Track
60 Distance Run 108 nm
Track Error  Distance Off 9 nm  = 4

___________ = ________________ Alter Heading a further 4
Right to B
60 Distance To Go 135 nm
The procedure is effective and accurate for short range navigation if the angles are
small and no alteration of heading has been made between A and C.
85
To make life easier and no calculation required try the following :-
TMG
The Track Error is actually Drift Error when the forecast W/V is in error which is of
course usual. The alteration of heading is made without knowledge of the actual
W/V. If the angles are large then the actual W/V must be found and used to alter
heading for B.
TRACK AND GROUNDSPEED W/V
The Vector Triangle or Triangle of Velocities consists of three vectors, namely

Drift
True Heading & TAS
Angle
W/V
True TRK & GS
knowing any four of the six values, the other two can be calculated.
Example 1.
TAS 240 Kts Heading 035(T) Track 042(T) GS 275 Kt
The W/V is
By computer WV 260/47 Kts
Example 2.
Sector Track Distance TAS Drift Time
A to B 105124nm 215 8Rt 31 mins
B to C 157 102nm 215
Assuming the W/V remains constant the heading to steer and the elapsed time from
B to C is?
Firstly calculate the W V
TAS 215 Kts Heading 097(T) Track 105 GS 240 Kt W/V 333/40
Then B to C Heading 158(T) GS 255 Kt Time 24 min
86
Example 3.
An aircraft passes overhead VOR PON at 0915 Z maintaining Radial 123 Heading
132(M) TAS 220 Kt, Variation 18W. At 0935 Z PON DME indicates 85 nm. The W/V
is?
Heading 114(T) TAS 220 Kts Track 105(T) GS 255 Kts W/V 243/51 kts
TRACK & GROUNDSPEED W/V
An aircraft is overhead A at 0900 Z. Heading 082(T), TAS 200 Kts.

A fix is obtained at 0945 Z. Calculate the mean W/V affecting the aircraft.
Heading 082(T) TAS 200 Kts

Measure Track Made Good 090 (at Mid-Meridian)
Measure Distance A to fix 180 nm in 45 minutes. Calculate GS 240
Using the Pathfinder or Nav. Computer enter Heading, TAS. Track & GS
Calculate W/V 304/50
TRACK PLOT
Calculate the Track & GS W/V from 0900 to 0945.
Draw a line from A to the fix (this is the TMG, Track Made Good) and extend for 12
minutes at GS 240, that is 48 nm to give a DR position at 0957. From the 0957 DR
87
position draw the new track to B and calculate the new heading and ETA using the
W/V found.
AIR PLOT
With the knowledge of the aircraft's TRUE HEADING, TAS and W/V, an AIR PLOT
starting from the point of departure enables a pilot to calculate the position of the
aircraft at any time regardless of the number of alterations of heading made.
+ AIR POSITION (The position of the aircraft in zero wind conditions)
DR POSITION (The ground position of the aircraft)
1000 Overhead A. Heading 090(T), TAS240kts, W/V 360/40 kts.

1030 Alter Heading for B
1. From A plot Heading 090 (T)

2. Plot the 1030 Air Position 120 nm along the Air Vector (30 minutes of TAS
240).
This is the position of the aircraft in ZERO W/V conditions, but the W/V is
360/40.
3. From the Air Position, plot the Wind Vector DOWNWIND. The Wind is blowing
FROM 360
The length of the vector is proportional to time, 30 minutes of 40 kts = 20
nm.
4. This is the DR DEAD RECKONING (GROUND) position of the aircraft at 1030.
5. Join the DR position to B, measure the track and distance.
6. Compute with TAS and W/V. Determine new Heading and ETA for B.
0900 Overhead X. Heading 090(T), TAS I80 kts, W/V 360/40

0930 Alter Heading 135(T)
0950 Alter heading for Y
88
NOTE
The AIR PLOT has been running from 2100 to 2224 (I hour 24 minutes). If the W/V
is 330/30 the length of the WIND VECTOR will be 42 nm (30 kts for 1 hour 24
minutes).
AIR PLOT W/V
The information required for an Air Plot is readily available; that is TRUE HEADING
and TAS.
1000 Overhead A, Heading 080(T). TAS 240 kts.

1030 Overhead B.
1030 AIR
POSITION
89
Plot the Heading 080(T) from A using the nearest meridian. This is the AIR
VECTOR.
Along the AIR VECTOR plot the AIR DISTANCE flown 120 nm (TAS 240 kts for 30
minutes).
This is the AIR POSITION at 1030, and would be the position of the aircraft in zero
wind conditions.
But the aircraft is overhead B. the reason being the WIND VELOCITY.
Join the AIR POSITION to the FIX. This is the W/V.
Measure the WIND DIRECTION 330 from the nearest meridian. The wind is blowing
from 330.
Measure the WIND VECTOR 25 nm. the Wind has affected the aircraft for 30 minutes
which gives a WIND SPEED of 50 kts. W/V 330/50.
Further example of AIR PLOT W/V
1315 Overhead C, Heading 080(T), TAS 180 kts.

1355 Alter Heading 120(T)
1430 Overhead D, the W/V is:-
1355 AIR POSITION
From C plot Heading 080(T)
90
Plot the 1355 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 40 minutes = 120 nm)
From the 1355 AIR POSITION plot the new heading 120(T) using the nearest
meridian.
Plot the 1430 AIR POSITION (TAS 180 kts for 35 minutes = 105 nm)
Join the 1430 AIR POSITION to the FIX.
Measure the WIND DIRECTION 090
Measure the WIND VECTOR 56 nm in 75 minutes = Wind SPEED 45 kts. W/V

090/45
RADIO BEARINGS
Q CODE QTE TRUE bearing FROM the station

QDR MAGNETIC bearing FROM the station
QUJ TRUE track TO the station
QDM MAGNETIC track TO the station
QDM  Variation
QUJ
180
180
QDR Variation
QTE
VDF Apply station Variation, calculate QTE and plot
VOR VOR Radials are Magnetic bearings QDR

RMI Readings are Magnetic tracks to the VOR QDM
Apply station Variation, calculate QTE and plot
91
RMI BEARINGS (VOR & ADF)
Usually termed RMI READING which is QDM
ADF BEARINGS
ADF Relative bearings are measured from the Fore and Aft axis of the aircraft.
be plotted on a chart.
RELATIVE BEARING + TRUE HEADING = QUJ  180 = QTE
MAGNETIC VARIATION AT THE AIRCRAFT IS ALWAYS USED WITH ADF

BEARINGS
CHART CONVERGENCE IS NOT APPLIED TO ADF BEARINGS ON THE SA

CHART
ADF bearing 095 Relative ADF bearing 200 Relative

Heading (T)+ 057 Heading (T) 318
QUJ 152 (T) TO NDB QUJ 518
 180 Subtract 360
QTE 332 (T) FROM NDB QUJ 158 (T) TO
NDB
 180
QTE 338 (T) FROM NDB
USE OF SINGLE POSITION LINES
GROUNDSPEED CHECK & REVISED ETA
A Position Line at right angles (80) to track may be used as a Groundspeed check
0800 Overhead A en-route to B, Distance 166 nm,

0824 QTEC180
92
Measure the distance from A to the position line.
Calculate Groundspeed
Measure the distance from the position line to B and calculate time and ETA.
THIS PROCEDURE IS VERY IMPORTANT AT ALL TIMES
TRACK CHECK
A bearing from a radio facility that the aircraft has over flown or departed from (Back
bearing) is an indication of the aircraft's track or TMG (Track Made Good)
1205 Overhead ABC, Heading 090(T)

1220 NDB ABC bears 172 Relative
172 Relative + Heading 090 = QUJ 262 - 180 = QTE 082
DRIFT
During the 1939 - 1945 war and for some years thereafter most aircraft were
equipped with drift sights. They were optical devices that protruded through the side
93
of the aircraft and had a grid that could be aligned with objects on the ground
tracking below the aircraft. An accurate drift angle could be measured.
Although drifts sights are obsolete, drift may be given in an exam question.
1315 Overhead X, Heading 090(T)

1330 Drift 8 Right
1335 QTE CP360
CP
The drift is applied to the Heading to give a Track Made Good and is used as a
position line to give a Fix at 1335. Note that the drift position line at 1330 is not
transferred but extended.
MULTI - POSITION LINE FIX
Two or more position lines may be used to construct a fix. The ideal situation is that
two position lines are obtained at the same time, preferably at 90 to each other.
0956 JSVVOR/DME Radial l06 D105nm
TRANSFER OF POSITION LINES
A position line is usually a bearing of the aircraft from a radio facility. If the radio
station
JSV were moved along a track parallel to the aircraft's track and at the same
groundspeed. the bearing of the aircraft from the radio station would remain
constant
94
QTE 340. Track 090. Groundspeed 240 kts.
The aircraft at position A at 0900 Z obtains a QTE of 340 from VDF station X. At
0912 the aircraft will have flown 48 nm along track to position B. If the VDF station
is imagined to travel from X to Y at the same speed as the aircraft, then XY is equal
and parallel to AB and the line joining Y to B will be an imaginary position line
parallel to AX. The distance AB or XY is known as the run. The line BY drawn
through the aircraft's position at 0912 is known as a transferred position line and has
two arrows and no time.
In practice 48 nm is measured forward from where the 0900 position line cuts the
track and the position line redrawn through this point.
THREE POSITION LINE FIX (RUNNING FIX)
From 1200 to 1230, 120 nm in 30 minutes - GS 240 Kts.

Transfer the 1223 position line 17 minutes at GS 240 Kts = 68 nm along track
Transfer the 1230 position line 10 minutes at GS 240 kts = 40 nm along track
95
NOTE: If a GS check cannot be made the DR groundspeed may be used.
TRANSFER OF CIRCULAR (DME) POSITION LINES
0810 Overhead A, Track 090(T), Groundspeed 180 kts
0830 JSV DME Range 58 nm
0842 JSV DME Range 125 nm
The transfer of DME circular position lines is achieved by the track & GS method of
moving the DME station along a line parallel to the aircraft's track at the aircraft's GS
and re-plotting the original range from the transferred DME position.
THREE POSITION LINE FIX (RUNNING FIX) NO POINT OF ORIGIN
The following radials are obtained from TIMBUKTU VOR TIM

Aircraft track 045(T), Groundspeed I50kts.
0815 VOR TIM 288

0824 VOR TIM 321
0835 VOR TIM 348
96
TIM
As there is no fix from which to start the plot, the 045 track is drawn to cut the three
position lines. It is parallel to the actual track of the aircraft. A groundspeed check
cannot be carried out so the DR groundspeed is used.
Transfer the 0815 P/L 20 mins of GS 180 = 60 nm along track

Transfer the 0824 P/L 11 mins of GS 180 = 33 nm along track
CONSTANT SPEED (RAS) CLIMB
This is the normal climb technique used by commercial aircraft. Navigation wise the
most important parameter required for a climb to cruising altitude is the mean climb
TAS. This will occur at the mid-point of the climb in TIME and not ALTITUDE. The
mid-point of the climb occurs at approximately two-thirds of the climb for both
piston and turbine aircraft.
Example 1.
Climbing from Sea Level to FL 240 at RAS 175 kts and a mean rate of climb of 800
feet per minute. Temperature is ISA + 10C
24 000 feet x 2/3 = 16 000 feet

ISA at Sea Level +15C
16000ft x 2C/1000 -32
ISA at FL 160 -17C
ISA + 10 +10
OAT - 7C
By computer FL160 OAT-7C RAS 175 kts TAS 227 kts
Example 2.
Climbing from 6000 feet to FL 270 at RAS 225 and a mean rate of climb of 1250
feet/minute. Temperature Deviation ISA +13C
97
27 000 feet
6 000 feet
21 000 feet x 2/3 = 14 000 feet
+ 6 000 feet (Initial climb altitude)
20 000 feet Mean Climb Altitude
ISA at Sea Level + 15C

20000ft x 2C/1000 - 40
ISA at FL 200 - 25C
ISA + 13 + 13
OAT - 12C
By computer FL200 OAT-12C RAS 225kts TAS 311 kts
The above calculations were made with an electronic calculator which corrects for
compressibility. If a manual navigation computer is used the compressibility
correction must be made According to the table below.
THE DESCENT
A CONSTANT RATE OF DESCENT is normally used. The temperature and W/V at

the mid altitude of the descent are used to calculate TAS and Groundspeed.
Example:
An aircraft cruising at FL 370 at GS 495 obtains a fix at 1000 Z which gives a

distance of 230 nm to go to destination.
Descent details: Rate of Descent 2000 feet per minute

Mean Descent GS 360 kts
Plan a descent to arrive overhead the destination at FL 90.

The Navigation Log is useful for descent calculations.
98
AVERAGE WIND COMPONENTS
 The average WC is the difference between the average TAS and the average
GS.
 The average TAS is calculated by the Total Air Nautical Miles flown divided by
the Total Time.
 The average GS is calculated by the Total Ground Nautical Miles flown divided
by the Total Time.
GNM ANM
Sector TAS WC GS DIST TIME DIST Average TAS
A to B 150 -10 140 280 2:00 300 780 ANM4:50 = 161 Kts
B to C 160 -20 140 210 1:30 240
C to D 180 -30 150 200 1:20 240 Average GS
690 GNM4:50=143 Kts
690 4:50 780
Average WC 18 Kt HW
ANM can also be written NAM nautical air miles
99

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KENYA SCHOOL OF FLYING

KENYA SCHOOL OF FLYING

Chapter Subject Pages

1.1 Shape of the Earth

1.2 Parallels of Latitude

N 27:30 or 27:30 N or 2730'N or 3525'45"S or 35:25:45S

E032:15 or 3215' E or 32:15 E or 6524'W or 6524'38"W or 65:24:38 W

1.4 Great Circle (GC)

1.5 Small Circle

1.6 Rhumb Line (RL)

1.7.1 True North

True North is the direction of the Meridian passing through a position.

1.7.2 True Direction

Aircraft Heading or Track is measured clockwise from True North. It is

1.7.3 Magnetic North

Magnetic North is the direction in the horizontal plane indicated by a freely

1.9 Magnetic Direction (M)

Aircraft Magnetic Heading or Magnetic Track is measured clockwise from

1.10 Compass North (C)

Compass North is the direction indicated by the compass needle in an

The angular difference between Compass North and Magnetic North.

Deviation is Westerly when Compass North is to the West of Magnetic North

DEVIATION EAST COMPASS LEAST

Heading l00(C) Dev+4e 104(M) Heading 100(C) Dev-3w 096(M)

Deviation West is Negative (-); while Deviation East is Positive (+)

CONVERGENCE AND CONVERSION ANGLE

Convergence is defined as the angle of inclination between two selected meridians

This is a sine relationship, convergence varies as Sine of the Mean Latitude.

Convergence = Ch. Long x Sine Mean Latitude

Example 1. Calculate the value of Convergence between A (N 45:25 E 025:36)

Convergence = Ch. Long x Sin Mean Latitude

THE MERIDIANS CONVERGE TOWARDS THE NEARER POLE

CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

Example 1 A and B are in the same hemisphere

(a) In which hemisphere are A and B?

Example 2 C and D are in the same hemisphere

(a) In which hemisphere are C and D?

CONVERSION ANGLE (CA)

CONVERSION ANGLE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE

THE GREAT CIRCLE IS ALWAYS NEARER THE POLE

CONVERSION ANGLE = ½ CONVERGENCE

CONVERGENCE = TWICE CONVERSION ANGLE

CONVERGENCE = CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

CONVERSION ANGLE = ½ CHANGE OF LONGITUDE x SIN MEAN LATITUDE

CONVERSION ANGLE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GREAT CIRCLE AND RHUMB LINE

CONVERGENCE = DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INITIAL AND FINAL GREAT

Initial GC track A to B is 080° GC, initial GC track B to A is 300° GC (Conv. angle

Example 3 The Great Circle bearing of A from B is 255 GC

Example 4 The Great Circle bearing of X from Y is 072 GC

Statute Mile (SM)

Defined in British law as 5280 feet.

Nautical Mile (NM)

At the Equator I NM is 6046.4 feet At the pole 1 NM -Is 6078 feet

ICAO 1 NM = 1852 metres or 6076.1 feet

Most navigational electronic calculators use I NM = 6076.1 feet. To answer

1 NM = 6080 feet or 1852 metres

Conversion Factors 1 Foot = 12 inches

As W114:15 is the anti-meridian of E065:45 the Great Circle distance is along a

CHANGE OF LONGITUDE (CH. LONG) or DEPARTURE DISTANCE

Departure is the distance in Nautical Miles along a parallel of Latitude in an East-

Departure (nm) = ch long (mins) x cos mean lat:

Where mean lat = lat A + lat B

E 032:45 W 067:25 Both East or West SUBTRACT