THE COMPASS

The compass is an instrument for determining the horizontal direction of a line with reference to the magnetic
meridian. It is so constructed to allow a magnetized needle to swing freely on a pivot at the center of a graduated circle
and point toward magnetic north. This instrument has remained to be a valuable instrument for engineers and surveyors.
The essential components of a compass are as follows:

 Compass Box
 Line of Sight
 Magnetic Needle

MAGNETIC DECLINATION
The earth’s magnetic poles are not at the same True North
location as the true geographic poles, they are separated by a Magnetic North
significant distance. In addition, the field slowly changes in
Magnetic North

general direction over time and is slightly affected by the

position of the sun and changes in radiation from the sun.
Consequently, the magnetic meridian is not necessarily parallel WEST Declination, W East Declination, E to the
true meridian.
At any given time, at any point on the earth’s surface, the
horizontal angle and direction by which the magnetic needle of a
compass deflects from the true meridian, is called the
magnetic declination. It is either an angle east or west of the
true meridian.
The magnetic declination varies with location on the
Magnetic Meridian
earth’s surface. At a given location, the magnetic declination Magnetic Meridian

changes with time.

Changes in the earth’s magnetic field cause four types of

True Meridian

variations in declination, including:

 Secular Variation – The magnetic meridian swings like a pendulum. It swings in one direction for about 100-150
years, gradually comes to rest and then swings in another direction. Its cause is not well understood, and there is
no precise law or formula to predict it exactly. Its nature, behavior and magnitude can be described only by means
of tables and charts derived from observations at various places worldwide which were made in the past. Because
of its large magnitude, secular variation is of particular significance to the surveyor.
 Annual Variation – It is the change in the declination at a place over a period of one year. It is caused because of
the rotation of the earth around the sun. It is found that the annual variation is about 1-2 minutes.
 Diurnal Variation – It is the change in the declination at a place in 24 hours. It is due to the rotation of the earth
about its own axis. The amount of variation is from a fraction of a minute to over 12 and is due to the following:
 geographical position of the place (lesser near equator and increases towards the poles)
 the time of the day (more in day)
 season of the year (more in summers)
 the year of the cycle of secular variation.
 Irregular Variation – The variation caused due to the magnetic disturbances or storms are listed under
irregular variation. In general, the value may be of the order of 1º.

Purpose of Magnetic Declination

Most of the original survey has been in terms of magnetic bearings. During re-running the survey lines, in a
future time to check the accuracy of the work or to locate the direction, the observed bearings may be corrected if the
magnetic declination at the time of original survey and at the time of re-survey are known.

ELEMENTARY SURVEYING anj©revadelo

Measurement of Angles and Directions
Sample Problems:

1. The magnetic bearing of line PQ is S 33º35’ E. Find its true bearing, if the magnetic declination is 10º10’ W.

2. The magnetic bearing of a line in MNNIT, Allahabad was found to be N 60 º30’ W in 1992, when the declination
was 5º10’ E. Find its present magnetic bearing if its declination is 3º W.

TRAVERSING

 Traverse –series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and directions have been determined from
field measurements.
 Traversing - the process of measuring the lengths and directions of the line for the purpose of locating the
position of certain points.
 Traverse Station – any temporary or permanent point of reference over which the instrument is set-up.
 Traverse Lines – lines connecting traverse stations and whose lengths and directions are determined.

 Two basic types of traverse: Open traverse and Closed traverse.

 Methods of running a traverse

 Interior Angle traverse
 Deflection angle traverse
 Azimuth/Bearing traverse

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Measurement of Angles and Directions
TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS

 Latitudes and Departures

The latitude of a line is its projection onto the reference meridian or a north-south line. The departure of
a line is its projection of a line is its projection onto the reference parallel or an east-west line.

 Error of Closure

 Angular Error of Closure - It is the result of both accidental and systematic error which is distributed
among the angles and computed bearings of a traverse before computing for the latitudes and departures.

 Linear Error of Closure – is usually a short line of unknown length and direction connecting the initial
and final stations of the traverse.
This quantity reflects the algebraic sum of all the accumulated errors of measurement both in
angles and distances when running the traverse.
The linear error of closure does not indicate the precision of the measurements until it is
compared with the total length of the traverse.

 Bearing of the Side of Error - The angle that the LEC makes with the meridian.

Sample Problem:

Given the following data of a closed traverse, determine the latitude and departure of each line of the
traverse, linear error of closure and bearing of the side of error.

Line Distance, m AzimuthN Latitude Departure

AB 452.25 206°17’
BC 280.05 141°10’
CD 421.39 278°43’
DE 482.21 227°31’
EF 392.09 08°32’
FA 885.94 56°32’

ELEMENTARY SURVEYING anj©revadelo

Measurement of Angles and Directions
Traverse Adjustment

Traverse adjustment is necessary for providing a mathematically closed figure. It is important that the traverse is
geometrically consistent before coordinates or areas are determined. There are different methods of traverse adjustment.
The simplest are the “approximate” procedures called the compass rule and transit rule. . The least square method is
most accurate and precise.

 COMPASS RULE (Bowditch Rule)

In this method, corrections are applied to the latitudes and departures in proportion to the lengths of
each course. It is assumed that angles and distances have been measured with equal precision. Application of the
Compass rule changes both the latitudes and departures in such a way that both directions and lengths of the
courses are slightly changed.

d d
C l= ∙C C d= ∙C
D L D D

Where:
C l= correction to be applied to
the latitude of a particular course.
C d = correction to be applied to
the departure of a particular course.
d = length of a particular course.
D = total length or perimeter of the
traverse.
C L= Closure in latitude or the algebraic
sum of the latitudes
C D = Closure in departure or the
algebraic sum of the departure

 TRANSIT RULE
In this method, corrections are applied to the latitudes in proportion to the lengths of the latitudes, and
to the departures in proportion to the lengths of the departure. This rule is best use for traverse surveys in which
the angles have been measured with greater precision than the distances. It changes the latitudes and
departures in such a way that the lengths of the courses are changed slightly, but the directions remain almost
the same.

Lat Dep
C l= ∙C C d= ∙C
∑ Lat L ∑ Dep D
Where:
C l= correction to be applied to
the latitude of a particular course.
C d = correction to be applied to
the departure of a particular course.
Lat = the length of the particular course latitude.
Lat = the sum of the absolute values of
Latitudes
Dep = the length of the particular course
departure.
Dep = the sum of the absolute values of
Departures

C L= Closure in latitude or the algebraic

sum of the latitudes
C D = Closure in departure or the
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING anj©revadelo
Measurement of Angles and Directions