FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
groups).
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
➢ is an atom or a group of atoms with characteristic
chemical and physical properties.
➢ Most organic molecules contain a carbon backbone
consisting of C-C and C-H bonds to which functional
groups are attached.
➢ Structural features of a functional group include:
o Heteroatoms—atoms other than carbon or
hydrogen.
o π Bonds most commonly occur in C-C and C-
O double bonds.
➢ Functional groups distinguish one organic molecule
from another.
➢ They determine a molecule’s:
o Geometry
o physical properties
o reactivity
REACTIVITY OF FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• Heteroatoms and π bonds confer reactivity on a
particular molecule.
o Heteroatoms have lone pairs and create
electron-deficient sites on carbon.
o A π bond makes a molecule, a base and a
nucleophile, and is easily broken in chemical
reactions.
PARTS OF A FUNCTIONAL GROUP
1. ETHANE
➢ a Molecule with No Functional Group
➢ This molecule has only C—C and C—H σ bonds.
➢ It contains no polar bonds, lone pairs, or π bonds.
➢ Therefore, ethane has no reactive sites (functional
➢ Consequently, ethane and molecules like it (alkanes)
are very unreactive.
2. ETHANOL
➢ This molecule has an OH (called a hydroxy group)
attached to its backbone.
➢ Compounds containing an OH group are called
alcohols.
➢ The hydroxy group makes the properties of ethanol
very different from the properties of ethane.
➢ Ethanol has lone pairs and polar bonds that make it
reactive.
➢ Other molecules with hydroxy groups will have
similar properties to ethanol.
3. HYDROCARBONS
➢ Hydrocarbons are compounds made up of only the
elements carbon and hydrogen.
➢ They may be aliphatic (ex. alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)
or aromatic.
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
➢ have three subgroups:
o Alkanes have only C—C σ bonds and no
functional group.
o Alkenes have a C—C double bond.
o Alkynes have a C—C triple bond.
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
➢ are so named because many of the earliest known
aromatic compounds had strong, characteristic
odors.
➢ The simplest aromatic hydrocarbon is benzene.
➢ The six-membered ring and three π bonds of
benzene comprise a single functional group, found in
most aromatic compounds.
Functional Groups with Carbon-Heteroatom (C-Z) σ Importance of Functional Groups
bonds A functional group determines all of the following properties
• Several types of functional groups contain C-Z σ of a molecule:
bonds. o bonding and shape
• The electronegative heteroatom Z creates a polar o type and strength of intermolecular forces
bond, making carbon electron deficient. o physical properties
o nomenclature
o chemical reactivity

Molecules can Contain Several Functional Groups

• Each of these molecules have several different

functional groups
• These molecules would also have several different
types of reactivity

Functional Groups with C=O Group

• This group is called a “carbonyl group”.
• The polar C-O bond makes the carbonyl carbon an
electrophile, while the lone pairs on O allow it to
react as a nucleophile and base.
• The carbonyl group also contains a π bond that is
more easily broken than a C-O σ bond.

M.E. STA. MARIA

ALCOHOL
PROPERTIES:
• Colorless at room temperature.
• Alcohols containing 4-10 carbon atoms are oily and
have heavier fruity odor.
• Alcohols containing more than 12 carbon atoms are
solid at room temperature.
• As their molecular weight increase (increase of
carbon chain), they become less soluble in water,
and the boiling point increases
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-OH
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Naming System: change the –e from the
hydrocarbon name and add the suffix –ol
Common Name: use the alkyl name and add the
word alcohol
EXAMPLES:
• Methanol is used as solvent, raw material for the
manufacture of formaldehyde and special resins,
special fuels and cleaning materials.
• Ethanol is used in toiletries, pharmaceuticals, fuels
and to sterilize hospital instruments. It is found more
on alcoholic beverages.
• Isopropyl alcohol (2-Propanol) is commonly used as
rubbing alcohol antiseptic, also used in aftershave
lotions, hand lotions, and other cosmetics. Reactions
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
PROPERTIES:
• They are considered weak acids.
• The solubility of carboxylic acids in water is similar to
that of alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones. Acids with
fewer than about five carbons dissolve in water;
those with a higher molecular weight are insoluble
owing to the larger hydrocarbon portion, which is
hydrophobic.
• They have much higher boiling points than
hydrocarbons, alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, or
ketones of similar molecular weight.
• Unbranched-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids) that
are liquids at room temperature, especially those
from propanoic to decanoic acid, have very foul,
disagreeable odors. Most common are acetic acid
(vinegar) and butyric acid (human vomit). Conversely
esters of carboxylic acids tend to have pleasant
odors and many are used in perfume.
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-COOH
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Naming System: add the suffix –oic plus the
word ‘acid’
Common Name: use the appropriate prefix of the
common names and add the suffix –ic plus the word
‘acid’
EXAMPLES:
• Formic Acid – (systemically called mathanoic acid) is
the simplest carboxylic acid. It is an important
intermediate in chemical synthesis and occurs
naturally, most famously in the venom of bee and
ant stings.
• Aetic acid – also called ethanoc acid, the most
important of the carboxylic acids. A dilute
(approximately 5% by volume) solution of aetic acid
produced by fermentation and oxidation of natural
carbohydrates is called vinegar
ETHERS
PROPERTIES:
• At room temp, ethers are pleasant-smelling colorless
liquids. Relative to alcohols, ethers are generally less
dense, are less soluble in water, and have lower
boiling points
• The solubility decreases with increase in the number
of carbon atoms. Thers are appreciably souluble in
organic solvents like alcohol, benzene, acetone, etc.
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-O-R
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: add the suffix –oxy to the shortest
carbon chain and name longest parent chain based
on the hydrocarbon prefixes
Common Name: identify the alkyl group attached to
the oxygen atom and arranged them alphabetically
and add the word ether
EXAMPLES:
• Diethyl ether, which is extremely flammable and
was one of the first anesthetics used in surgery. deu
to its anesthetic effetcs, ether is also used as an illicit
drug to induce sedation and euphoria.
• Dimethyl ether (DME) a low boiling solvent, a
refrigerant and an environmentally propellant for
spray cans
M.E. STA. MARIA
ESTERS
PROPERTIES:
• Boiling point is lower than alcohols and carboxylic
acid
• Cannot form hydrogen bonds because they do not
have a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom
• Solubility: it rapidily decreases with increasing
carbon chain length
• Most have pleasant odors (fruity scents) such as
raspberry, banana, pear, apple, and pineapple
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-COOR
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: use the alkyl name of the alcohol chain
and change the suffix –oic of the carboxylic acid
chain to –oate
Common Name: use the alkyl name of the alcohol
chain and use the common suffix for carboxylic acid
and add the suffix –oate or -ate
EXAMPLES:
ALDEHYDE
PROPERTIES:
• The lower members (up to 4 carbons) of aldehydes
and ketones are soluble in water due to H-bonding.
The higher members do not dissolve in water
because the hydrocarbon part is larger and resists
the formation of hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
• The boiling point of aldehydes and ketones is higher
than that of non-polar compounds (hydrocarbons)
but lower than those of corresponding alcohols and
carboxylic acids as aldehydes and ketones do not
form H-bonds with themselves.
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-CHO
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: change –e from the hydrocarbon
name and add the suffix –al to the parent chain
Common Name: use the prefix table for the common
name and add the suffix –aldehyde
EXAMPLES:
• Vanillin from the vanilla bean and cinnamaldehyde,
which provides the smell and flavor of cinnamon
• Aldehydes and ketones impart some very
characteristics fragnance in compounds. For
instance, ketones help in thw formation a compound
“acetophenone” which is responsible for fragnances
such as cherry, jasmine, honeysuckle, almond,
strawberry, etcs.
• Formaldehyde – formalin
• Benzaldehyde – perfumes, cosmetic products and
dyes
• Glue preparation and polymeric products, plastics,
coatings and adhesives
KETONE
PROPERTIES:
• Colorless liquid, pleasant smell, and highly reactive.
• Ketones are soluble in water. It is a hydrogen-bond
acceptor, but not a hydrogen-bond donator, and
cannot hydrogen-bond to itself. This makes ketones
more volatile than alcohols and carboxylic acids of
similar molecular weight.
• Boiling point is higher than hydrocarbons and ethers
but lower boiling point than those of alcohols of
similar molecular masses
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-COR
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: change –e from the hydrocarbon
name and add the suffix –one to the parent carbon
chain
Common Name: use the prefix table for the common
name and add the suffix –one
EXAMPLES:
• Acetone, also known as propanone used in
manufacture of plastics and other industrial products
limited extent in household products and byproduct
of metabolism.
• Cortisone a steroid prevents the release of
substances in the body that cause inflammation.
• Acetophenone used as a chemical in a perfume it
has an aromatic odor
M.E. STA. MARIA
AMINES
PROPERTIES:
• Amines are compounds that contain a basic nitrogen
atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally
derivatives of ammonia (NH3), wherein one or more
hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent
such as an alkyl or aryl group.
• The lower aliphatic amines are gaseous in nature
with a fishy or rotting smell
• Primary amines with three or four carbon atoms are
liquids at room temperature whereas higher ones
are solids.
• Lower aliphatic amines can form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules; hence they are soluble in
water.
• Primary Amines - Only one of the hydrogen atoms in
the ammonia molecule has been replaced. That
means that the formula of the primary amine will be
RNH2 where "R" is an alkyl group.
• Secondary Amines - Two of the hydrogens in an
ammonia molecule have been replaced by
hydrocarbon groups.
• Tertiary Amines - all the hydrogens in an ammonia
molecule have been replaced by hydrocarbon
groups.
GENRAL STRUCTURE:
AMIDES
PROPERTIES:
• Melting point - although it is liquid, the other higher
carbon chain of amides are solid at room
temperature
• Solubility -low amides are soluble in water they can
have hydrogen bond with water molecules. amides
both act as hydrogen bond donor and acceptor
• Basicity - amides show no measurable basicity
GENERAL STRUCTURE: R-CONH2
NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: add the suffix –amide to the parent
carbon chain
Common Name: identify the alkyl group attached to
the nitrogen atom and arranged them alphabetically
and add the word amide
EXAMPLES:
• Acetaminophen, common names: Tylenol,
Paracetamol, Panadol used as an aspirin substitute.
It acts to reduce fever and pain.
• Barbiturates are depressant drugs used to induce
sleep and release tension and use to treat seizure
disorder and severe trauma in the skull.
• Urea is used to treat dry or rough skin condition and
some nail problems (ingrown nails) and also used to
remove dead tissues and serves as a fertilizer

NOMENCLATURE:
IUPAC Name: add the suffix –amine to the parent
carbon chain
Common Name: identify the alkyl group attached to
the nitrogen atom and arranged them alphabetically
and add the word amine

EXAMPLES:
• Morphine, C17H19NO3 – Analgesics or pain-killers,
help relieve moderate to severe pain.
• Methamphetamine, also known as crystal meth or
meth, is a highly addictive drug. It is an artificial
substance made from very toxic materials, which can
cause serious harm or death when handled or
inhaled
• Ephedrine, C10H15NO - medication and stimulant,
often used to prevent low blood pressure during
spinal anesthesia
• Chlorpheniramine is an antihistamine that helps to
relieve allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy
skin, insect bites and stings.
• Chlorpromazine is a tranquilizer that sedates
without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety,
restlessness or even mental disorder

M.E. STA. MARIA