LECTURE MANUAL

ANIMAL SCIENCE 121

PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

Compiled by

DR ERWIN L. ICALLA
Associate Professor V
 Module 8
Animal Biotechnology
I. Overview

Biotechnology is one of the options ventured by science to address the world’s

major challenges in ensuring food security, wellness and health. There is a need to
address the deteriorating environment, the increasing population, increasing demand
for foods, and decreasing agricultural areas. These can be addressed by improving
the EFFICIENCY OF PRODUCTION which can be achieved by manipulating the
environment or the genotype of animals.

Animal biotechnology has beneficial impacts, though some have spiritual and
moral issues because of the belief that God’s creations has been altered. This topic
will enlighten you as future agriculturists, whether to adopt or avoid biotechnology
applications.

II. Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Explain the basic concepts of biotechnology;

b. Identify the different applications of biotechnology in animals; and
c. Evaluate the pros and cons of biotechnology applications in animals.

III. Take off

Watch the Top 7 Genetically modified animals in

https://youtu.be/TJu8sWZDhU4. What are your opinions on these researches? (more
specific question

IV. Learning Focus

What is biotechnology

Biotechnology is a process of using living organism or their enzymes or their molecules

(bio) to obtain products or to develop processes for welfare of mankind (Bakore,
2015)

Biotechnology is defined by Panda as “the science of altering genetic and reproductive

processes in plants and animals to improve livestock and aims to increase genetic
variation, increase accuracy of selection, reduce generation interval and increase
selection intensity”.

Biotechnological terms

Clone – to produce the same organisms and may physically look the same. “Clone” in
the parlance of modern cellular and molecular biology, are identical cells, and
replicas of DNA and other molecules. Monozygotic twins are clones, but the term
has recently become popularized in the media to mean an individual, usually a
fictitious human, grown from a single somatic cell of its parent. Animal cloning
started in the late 1980s
Blastomere Nuclear Transfer, BNT - the transfer to anucleated oocytes of nuclei from
blastomeres (cells from early, and undifferentiated, cleavage-stage embryos) to
produce a clone. Cloning of sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, mice, rabbits and cats, by
 transplanting a nucleus from a somatic, and presumably differentiated, cell into an
oocyte—from which its own genetic material has first been removed (Wilmut et
al., 1997; reviewed by Westhusin et al., 2001)

Biotechnology applications in animals

Reproductive biotechnology applications

a) Artificial insemination (AI)

This is one of the oldest forms of biotechnology where a semen from a desirable
male animal will be taken and introduced artificially into an estrus female.
One ejaculate of a male can be inseminated into several females.

This is beneficial because a good breeder stock can be multiplied faster and could
reach very far places since the semen can be stored (in liquid nitrogen
tanks with -196˚C temperature) and transported from one country to
another.

With AI, animal breeders have high selection intensity and make progeny testing
scheme faster.

b) Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer Technique (MOET)

This technology triggers the female to produce several ova and initiate the
production of embryos for transfer to several females.

c) Oocyte Harvesting
With MOET, oocytes will be harvested 6-8 days after insemination using a Foley
catheter. An average limited number of embryos that can be obtained from
a cow per year is 20 or less.
Extracted from the presentation of Panda, R (Bombay Vet College)

d) In-vitro Oocyte Maturation (IVM)

e) In-vitro Fertilization (IVF)

Extracted from the presentation of Panda, R (Bombay Vet College)

f) Nuclear Transfer and Embryo Cloning

Extracted from the presentation of Panda, R (Bombay Vet College)

In this technology, a desirable stock will be cloned/copied and
reproduced. From this desirable stock, mature cells will be taken out and
introduced in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus was removed and will
 be replaced with the nucleus taken from the desired stock (hence the name
nuclear transfer)

After the nuclear transfer, the embryo will be implanted into an animal of
the same species (ewe for example) and will give birth to a clone.

g) Sex Selection

b. Pros and cons of animal biotechnology

V. Take Action
Discuss the following:
a. Pros and cons of biotechnology
b. Cloning and transgenic animals
Rating shall be done using a rubrics

VI. Self check

VII. Self Reflect

VIII. References

Grandin (2012). Glass walls project. Retrieved at www.granding.com

REFERENCES:

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. 2016. Principles of Animal Science

101 manual. Central Luzon State University.
GENETIC RESOURCES AND ANIMAL BREEDING AND GENOMICS GROUP, Wageningen
University and Research Centre; 2014.
IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture notes in Animal Science 1a.
Introduction to Animal Science. IAS, College of Agriculture, University of the
Philippines Los Banos, Laguna.
PEPITO, J.E. 2008 Lecture learning guide in Animal Science 21 (Principles of
Animal Science). Department of Animal Science. College of Agriculture, Central
Mindanao University.
SORIANO, M.L. 2004. Lecture / Review Notes in Animal Breeding and Genetics.
Department of Animal Science. College of Agriculture, Central Mindanao
University.
UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN. 1992. Animal Breeding manual. The
Netherlands Oldenbroek K, van der Waaij L. Textbook Animal Breeding:
Animal Breeding AND GENETICS FOR BSC STUDENTS: CENTRE FOR
WRIGHT D. THE GENETIC ARCHITECTURE OF DOMESTICATION IN
ANIMALS. Bioinformatics and biology insights 2015;9:11.
.
Module 9
Animal Nutrition and Feeding
Nutrient Groups and their functions

Overview

Nutrition plays a vital role in the full expression of the genetic potential of
animals to produce meat, milk, eggs and wool. Nutrition as a science, addresses issues
that relate to the understanding of the elements needed to support life of animals and
allow them to attain optimum level of production. Concerns include identification of
chemical elements involved in the processes, optimum amount of these elements in
animals’ diet, proper feeding as well as the economics of feeding. Modern animal
nutrition is also attuned to the changes in nutrient requirements brought about by
changes in the genetic makeup of both the animal (improvement in production and feed
conversion) and its food (e.g. high lysine corn) highly intensified production systems
causing stress to the animal and improvement in animal health through effective
vaccines and antibiotics. Moreover, it encompasses concerns for the environment
necessitating formulation of diets that allow for the reduction of phosphorus, nitrogen,
copper, and zinc in the excreta of animals.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the different feed nutrients groups and its major functions;
2. Describe the different characteristics of nutrients sources;
3. Differentiate fat-soluble and. water soluble vitamins;
4. Evaluate the importance of minerals in the growth and development of animals;
and
5. Categorize, evaluate and classify locally available feeds/feedstuffs.

Take off
Have you seen a swine with a big stomach and a skin and bone horse? What do
you think is the reason why? Or why is it

Learning Focus

Basic Nutrient groups and their function

Animals need nutrients for body maintenance and production. A nutrient is an
element that aid in the support of life. Of the 106 known elements, at least 20(possibly
more) enter the makeup of the essential nutrients. The chemical elements found in
animal’s body (tissues) with well- defined biochemical functions are called essential
nutrients. When these elements are not present or in limited amount sin animals’ diet, a
deficiency symptom that is characteristic to the element is manifested and is alleviated
when source of that element is provided to animals but without known function(s);
these are called adventitious elements.
As pointed out above, essential nutrients make up the animal tissues, other
elements serves only as catalysts of the reactions forming these tissues. Nutrients are
generally used for the following:
1. Source of energy
2. Synthesis of new tissues
3. Repair of old tissues
The essential nutrients are generally divided into six classes, which are called
the basic nutrient groups, namely: water, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and
minerals. A brief information for each nutrient is given below:
 1. Water
Water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen (H) and an oxygen (O) atom. It is
the cheapest and most abundant content. Animals obtain water from drinking water
and metabolic water. The latter is formed from the oxidation of compounds, such as
illustrated below:
C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Water has the following functions to the animals:

a. As a solvent, it functions in the transport of nutrients to the cell and
excretion of waste products of metabolism.
b. It is extremely important in temperature regulation.
c. It cushions the nervous system.
d. Lubricates joints and acts as a cerebrospinal fluid.

Lack of water will result in death of an animal faster than a deficiency of any
other nutrients. Limitations in water intake will reduce rate gain, milk production or egg
production.

2. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are made up of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen (O),
with Hydrogen and Oxygen found in the same ratio as in water. In the plant,
carbohydrates are formed by photosynthesis, chemically illustrated as follows:

6CO2 + 6H2o + 673 kcal (sun) C6H12O6 + 6O2

Plants, the chief source of animal feeds, contain about 75% carbohydrates
(dry matter). The bulk of nutrients found in the animals’ diet are carbohydrates.
However, only less than 1% is found in the animals’ body as the nutrient is continuously
metabolized by the animal. The uses of carbohydrates are as follows:

a. Metabolized as a source of energy.

b. Converted into glycogen which is sometimes called “animal starch”.
c. Converted into fats and stored in the body for future use as a source
of energy.
The basic unit of carbohydrate structure in livestock and poultry feed is the
hexose unit (6 – unit carbon atom molecule). Smaller amount of pentose (5- carbon
atom molecule) are found in animal feeds; usually, these are less digestible than the
hexoses but some animals (especially ruminants) can utilize these fairly well. Much
smaller amounts of diose, triose and tetrose (2, 3, and 4 carbon sugars, respectively)
are present and are generally unimportant.
The classification of carbohydrates are as follows:
1. Monosaccharides – contain one sugar unit; not usually found as such in
feedstuffs but serves as a building unit for more complex carbohydrates.

a) Pentoses. (Arabinose, Xylose & Ribose)

b) Hexoses. (Glucose, Fructose & Galactose)
2. Disaccharides – formed by two monosaccharides.
a) Sucrose – glucose + fructose, found in cane sugar
b) Maltose – 2 glucose units; obtained from hydrolysis of starch
c) Lactose – glucose + galactose; sugar found in milk.
3. Polysaccharides – is composed of long chains of hexose or pentose units.
 a) Starch – long chains of glucose units joined by alpha linkage
between glucose units; cereal grains and tubers are rich sources of
starch.
b) Cellulose – composed of long chains of glucose units that are joined
together by beta-linkage; found in cell walls of plants especially in
mature grasses.
c) Hemi cellulose – made up of both 5 – carbon and 6 – carbon sugar
groups, also a part of plant cell walls but is more digestible than
cellulose.

The kind of carbohydrate unit influences the ability of an animal to digest

sugars from a given feedstuff. Generally, starches such as those found in cereals and
tubers are well utilized by animals. Some feedstuffs (e.g. barley) containing high
amounts of non-starch polysaccharides (arabinoxylans), however are poorly digestible
and cause viscous condition in the intestine (most especially non ruminants). Only
ruminant animals could well utilize feedstuff with high amounts of cellulose and Hemi
cellulose (e.g. grasses)

3. Lipids (Fats and Oils)

Lipids are made of chemical elements C, H and O. Oxygen comprises a much
smaller proportion of their molecule. For this reason, they release more energy upon
oxidation than carbohydrates or proteins.
Lipids are composed of one molecule of glycerol (a carbohydrate) and three
molecules of fatty acids. Fatty acids are long chain organic compounds usually
containing an even number of atoms; they may be saturated (only single bond between
carbon atoms) or unsaturated (double bond between some of the carbon atoms.)
The functions of fat in the body are the following:
● Concentrated source of energy (2.25 times more energy than
carbohydrates and proteins)
● Source of essential fatty acids (vitamin-like role) such as linoleic, linolenic
and arachidonic accid that are needed in the formation of certain
regulatory hormones.
● Carrier of fat- soluble vitamins
● Heat, insulation and protection
● Structural component of tissues such as brain and liver.

Plants and animal by-product are rich sources of lipids. Animal fats (e.g.
tallow) tend to contain more of the saturated fats; which are solid at room temperature.
Vegetable oils (e.g. coconut, corn oil and soybean oil are high in unsaturated fats,
which are liquid at room temperature. This is considered to be the main difference
between fat and oil. In general, oil is more digestible than fat.

4. Proteins
Proteins are complex group of compounds, which contain the elements C, H
and O, nitrogen (N), sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P). They are made of long chains of
amino acids, which vary in relative amounts and kind (among different proteins), joined
together by a peptide bond.
Amino acids are organic acids, which contain one or more amino group.
(NH2). These are classified, based on the dietary need of the animal, as dispensable
(non - essential) and non–dispensable (essential) amino acids.

a. Non-essential amino acids are essential to the animal but are normally synthesized
by them so it is no longer added in the ration. Such as:
 Asparagine Glutamine
Aspartic acid Hydroxyproline
Cystine Tyrosine.
Glutamic acid

b. Essential amino acids are not synthesized by the animal and must always be
provided in adequate amounts in the diet to attain optimum performance of an
animal. These are mnemonicized as PHILL-M-TVAT:

Phenylalanine Methionine
Histidine Threonine
Isoleucine Valine
Leucine Arginine
Lysine Tryptophan

Proteins are in highest concentration in muscle tissues of animals. It is the

most expensive nutrient in an animal’s diet. Proteins are important for the following
functions:
a. It is the basic structural unit of the body
a. Collagen (cornea and connective tissue)
b. Elastin (tendons, arteries and elastic tissues)
c. Keratin (hair, horn and wool)
b. Body Metabolism
a. Enzymes
b. Hormones
c. Immune bodies
d. Hereditary transmission
c. Excess proteins are determinate and used by the animal as a source of
energy.

Animal diets must satisfy a minimum level of crude protein with adequate
and well- balanced amino acids. A crude protein is composed of true proteins and
nitrogenous products (non-protein nitrogen) or amides. True proteins are made up of
amino acids only while non-protein nitrogen (NPN) content that can be converted to
protein by bacterial action.

Quality protein are found in feedstuffs of animal origin. This is because the
amino acid contents of these feeds approximate those that are found in animal tissues.
These are usually best protein sources of non ruminant animals. Ruminant animals have
the capacity to utilize protein sources containing high amounts of NPN, with the help of
rumen bacteria.

5. Vitamins
A vitamin is an organic nutrient required in small quantities necessary for
regulating metabolic processes, but does not become an actual component of body
structures. Vitamins function as accessory nutritional factors with no structural or
energy-yielding role. Vitamins are generally divided into groups. These are the fat-
soluble and water-soluble vitamins. Letters of the alphabet were used to describe
vitamins when their chemical nature was not yet known. The vitamins are as follows:

a. Fat Soluble Vitamins

 1.) Vitamin A – Retinol
2.) Vitamin D2 – Ergosterol; D37 – dehydrocholesterol
3.) Vitamin E – Alpha tocopherol
4.) Vitamin K2- Phyloquinone K2- menaquinone – 7
Vitamin K3 – menadione

b. Water Soluble Vitamins

1.) Vitamin B1- Thiamine

2.) Vitamin B2- Riboflavin
3.) Vitamin B6- Pyridoxine; pyridoxal; pyridoxamine
4.) Vitamin B12- Cobalamine, cyanocobalamine
5.) Niacinamide – Nicotinamide
6.) Pantothenic acid – Pantothenate
7.) Vitamin H – biotin
8.) Folic acid (M) – Folacin glutamic acid
9.) Vitamin C – Ascorbic acid
10.)Inositol – Vitamins of the B-group
11.) Choline
12.) Para – amino benzoic acid (or PABA, an essential group in folic acid)

The fat-soluble vitamins are and are absorbed. These exist in nature as
precursor vitamins and must be converted into active form, through biochemical
processes. Fat-soluble vitamins are involve in the regulation of structural portion of the
body (e.g. Vitamin D regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism; vitamin A
maintains the structural integrity of the photoreceptors of the eye). The water-soluble
vitamins are abundant in feeds and these can be utilized by the animals. They are
involved in enzyme system which function in the direct metabolism of fats, proteins and
carbohydrates as well as transfer of energy throughout the body (B- complex
transmission of nerve impulses (choline) and red blood cell formation (B 2).

Vitamins are involved in the prevention of gross deficiency symptoms such

as:

1) Thiamine – beriberi
2) Nicotinamide – pelliagra (corn – eater disease)
3) Folic – sprue ( a tropical disease)
4) Cyanocobalamine – anemia (macrocytic)
5) Vitamin C – scurvy
6) Vitamin A – night blindness
7) Vitamin D – rickets(young); osteomalacia (adult)
8) Vitamin E – white muscle disease
9) Vitamin K – bleeding disease ( sweet clover poisoning)

Feedstuff in their fresh form as well as fermentation by – products contain

appreciable quantities of vitamins. However, processing and improper handling may
cause substantial reduction in bio potency (vitamin activity) of these vitamins. Although
some vitamins may be synthesized by some animals (e.g. B- complex by ruminant
animals, ascorbic acid by poultry) amounts are not enough to meet their requirement
when these animals are under stress. Hence, dietary vitamin supplements are needed.

6. Minerals
Minerals represent the inorganic nutrients required by an animal. Several
mineral elements are found in the animals; body. However, their mere presence in the
body does not necessarily indicate that the mineral is essential. A nutritionally essential
mineral has the following features:
● An active part of the structure of the body
● Plays an important role in some enzymes, hormones or other such
compounds
● Its removal from the diet may cause specific deficiency symptom to
which could be reversed by the addition of the mineral in question.

Minerals are classified into two groups based primarily on the amounts
needed by the animals, notably.
a. Macro minerals – needed in large amount, requirement is expressed as
percentage of the diet.
1. Calcium (Ca) – required for bone formation; needed for muscle and
nerve function
2. Phosphorus (P) – required for bone formation and for proper
energy utilization
3. Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl) and Potassium (K) –Required for
maintenance of osmotic pressure and maintenance of acid-
base balance (pH).
4. Magnesium – required for bone formation and activation of certain
enzymes.
5. Sulfur (S) – component of amino acids methionine and cysteine

b. Micro minerals – needed in small amounts requirement is expressed in

parts per million or parts per billion.
1. Cobalt (Co)- part of the molecule of vitamin B12
2. Iron (Fe)-part of the hemoglobin molecule which is involved in
oxygen transport in the blood.
3. Copper (Cu) – Require for absorption of iron in the intestine
Iodine (I) – component of thyroxin which controls metabolic rate.
4. Manganese (Mn) –involve in bone and cartilage formation
5. Molybdenum (Mo) – involved in uric acid formation in poultry
6. Selenium (Se) – involve in proper absorption and retention of
vitamin E
7. Zinc (Zn) – component of carbonic anhydrate which is involved
in the transport of carbon dioxide from the cell to the
lungs.
8. Fluorine (F) – increases harness of bones and teeth
9. Nickel (Ni) and Chromium (Cr) – involved in glucose metabolism

For some minerals, the borderline between safety and toxicity is very small.
Toxicity does not necessarily mean death but can also mean greatly reduced
performance. Cu, Se and F are toxic at relatively low dietary levels.

The Nutritive Materials

Feeds provide the essential nutrients for animals. Feed is a term given to
products that provides nutrient. Specifically, these are materials consisting of grains
fodder of by-products of animal or plant origin which when properly used has nutritional
value to the animals. The term feedstuff is commonly used when a group or list of feeds
is being referred to. Processed of nutritive materials that are intended for feeding are
called meal. A diet is composed of several individual feeds selected to make a balance
ration for feeding to stocks. The quantity of feed being offered (daily) to an animal is
called ration.
 1. Classification of feeds
a. Concentrates – These are feeds low in fiber (< 20%) and high in total digestible
nutrients (TDN, > 60%). Also, a concentrated source of one or more nutrients used to
enhance the nutritional adequacy of a supplement mix.
b. Roughages – These are feeds containing >20% crude fiber and
<60% TDN. Roughages are needed to promote bulk in ruminants.

2. Feed Additives
A feed additive is referred to drugs or other compounds to feeds a non-nutritive
nature, that is, they do not supply necessary nutrients such as protein, fat,
carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals but elicit positive effect on an animal. Improved
performance due to addition of feed additives is usually associated to:
● Improved nutrient utilization
● Improved general health of the animal

Some of the common additives used in animal feeds are the following:

a. Antibiotics – broad spectrum and have bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties

(e.g. bacitracin, penicillin, aureomycin and oxytetracycline) Caution must be
observed in adding antibiotics in feeds due to dangers of drug residues in food
animals.
b. Probiotics – beneficial bacterial species are introduced into the intestine to
enhance production of desirable by-products and consequently improve
performance
c. Arsenical – a mineral found to be effective against certain diseases.
d. Hormones – natural or synthetic hormone preparation which increases nitrogen
retention (e.g. progesterone and estradiol)
e. Antioxidants – protect feed components (fats and oil and fat soluble vitamins)
that are susceptible to oxidation (e.g. ethoxiquin and BHT)
f. Feed enzymes – enhance digestion by augmenting endogenous enzymes
(especially at young age and facilitating digestion of poorly digestible feed
components such as fiber and phytic acid.

Extreme care is needed in the use of some feed additives as harmful

residues can be retained in animal food products that may affect health of humans. For
example, some synthetic hormones have been demonstrated to be carcinogens (cancer
causing substances).
Take Action

Collect different feed ingredients that are locally available. Examine each
ingredient according to their physical characteristics. Use your senses for examination
and fill up the table below.

Feed Texture Smell Size Color Form

Ingredients

1
2

4
 5

10

11

12

13

14

15

Perform Learning Activity #7: Nutrient Sources: Concentrates, Roughage and

Supplements

Self Check

Instruction. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write it is the space provided
before the number.

__1. A substance needed by the body for growth, energy, repair and maintenance.
a.) Nutrient b) Carbohydrates c) fatty acid d) calorie
__2. All the following are nutrients found in food except.
a) Plasma b) proteins c) Carbohydrates d) Vitamins
__3. A diet high in saturated fats can be linked to which if the following.
a) Kidney failure b) Bolimia c) Anorexia d) Cardiovascular disease
__4. Amylases in saliva begin the breakdown of Carbohydrates into.
a) Fatty acids b) polypeptides c) amino acids d) simple sugars.
__5. Food passes through the stomach directly by.
a) the large intestine b) the small intestine c) the heart d) the Pancrease
__6 A mineral that the body needs to work properly
a) Calcium b) silver c) Gold d) Lead
__7. This food groups is the best source of energy.
a) Meat groups b) Fats, oils and sweets c) Breads and cereals d) Milk and cheese
__8. Which of these is not considered as nutrients.
a) Vitamins b) Minerals c) Fiber d) fats
__9. Which of these is added to the feed label because sometimes animals don’t eat
enough of this
a) Fat b) Calcium c) Sodium d) cholesterol
__10. Which of this is required on the feed label?
a) Total Carbohydrates b) Sugar c) Iron d) All of the above
__11. The corn, cereal, rice, and starch is a good source of.
a. Carbohydrates b) Vitamin C c) Vitamin D d) Calcium
__12. Meat from poultry, fish, dry beans, eggs and nuts group are sources of
a) Iron b) fiber c) beta-carotene d) calcium
__13. The milk, cheese and yogurt are important for.
a) strong bones b) teeth c) muscles d) all of the above
__14. Which of the following nutrients is needed to build and maintain the structural
components of the body?
a) Carbohydrates b) fats c) protein d) fiber
__15. Which of the following nutrients is known as the sunshine vitamins
a) Vitamin C b) Vitamin A c) Vitamin K d) Vitamin D
__16. The following are needed for strong bones, except.
a. Thiamin b) Calcium c. Magnesium d) Vitamin D
__17. Which of these nutrients if the preferred energy source?
a) Complex Vitamins b) Carbohydrates c) Fats d) Fiber
__18. Nutrient needed for a healthy immune system and strong connective tissue
a) fiber b) Vitamin K c) Vitamin C d) fluoride
__19. Mineral essential for healthy red blood cells and its deficiency causes anemia.
a) Iron b) Magnesium c) Iodine d) Chromium
__20. This nutrient is needed for making hormones, and healthier skin
a) Fat b) Carbohydrates c) Fiber d) Vitamin B12
__21. Nutrient that is important for healthy vision
a) Vitamin K b) Iron c) Calcium d) Vitamin A
__22. What food does not belong to this food group?
a) corn b) rice c) starch d) soybean
__23. Which food nutrient does it belong to the group?
a) ipil-ipil b) SBOM C) fish meal d) legumes
__24. Egg, milk and meat are usually classified as a good source of
a) Carbohydrates b) protein c) fat d) vitamins
__25. Vegetable oils, corn and rice bran are a good source of
a) Vitamins b) protein c) energy d) minerals

Self Reflect

Describe the six major types of nutrients in the animal’s diet. How are these

nutrients fed to your animals? How will your animals grow and produce milk, meat and
eggs with these nutrients?
 Module 10
Nutrient Digestion and Metabolism Of Nutrients

I. Overview
Proper nutrition explicitly revolves around supplying animals with the right
quantity and quality of feed. Producers must ensure that their animals receive all
necessary nutrients for productive and non-productive purposes. Non-productive
functions include maintenance of health and body condition while productive
functions include work, production of meat, milk, eggs and other by-products.
The nutrients in food are often in the form of insoluble macromolecules that are
not immediately accessible to the cells. They need to be converted into biological
molecules so that they can pass through the mucous membranes of the GI tract
and into the bloodstream. The process of breaking down molecules is known as
“digestion” whereas the passage of the end products of digestion into the
mucous membranes is “absorption”.
Digestion is accomplished through mechanical, chemical and microbial
means. Mechanical digestion is achieved through mastication and peristalsis of
the GI tract while Chemical digestion is accomplished by Hydrochloric acid from
the stomach, bile from the liver and the many different enzymes secreted by the
pancreas and the brush border. Microbial digestion in monogastrics happen
mainly in the large intestines through bacterial, fungal and protozoal action.
Meanwhile, the jejunum of the small intestines is the major absorptive site for
dietary nutrients. The presence of villi increases inner surface area of the small
intestines and help transport different types of nutrients into the blood.
Mechanisms such as passive diffusion, facilitative transport, active transport and
pinocytosis dispatch the nutrients into the blood. This module explains how
different types of systems digest and absorb nutrients.

II. Lesson Title: Digestion and Absorption of Nutrients

III. Intended Learning Outcomes/Objectives:

At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the steps of mechanical and chemical digestion in different
species of animals;
2. Compare and contrast the different digestive processes;
3. Describe how nutrients are absorbed by the animals

IV. Learning Motivation

Scatter-gories
Mechanics of the Activity: The class will be divided into two groups or more
and then asked to form a line. Pasted on side of the board or on the wall are
pieces of paper with names (or pictures) of animals on them. The students will
be asked group the animals into seven categories whether they are herbivores
(4 sub classifications), carnivores (2 sub classifications) or omnivores.
The groups will be given a designated corner to paste their outputs. When the
signal to start is raised, each member from line will take his/her turn to pick
from the board one piece of paper then paste it under the category where it
belongs. The students who finish will go back to the end of the line and may
take a second turn until all the pieces of paper are organized. The group who
makes the most number of correct classification will win a prize.

Let’s Review: Herbivores, Omnivores, and Carnivores

Herbivores have digestive systems capable of handling large amounts of
plant material
✓ Animals whose primary food source is plant-based.
✓ Examples: deer, koalas, some bird species, crickets and
caterpillars
o Herbivores can be further classified into
▪ frugivores (fruit-eaters),
▪ granivores (seed eaters),
▪ nectivores (nectar feeders),
▪ folivores (leaf eaters).
Carnivores literally means “meat eater”
✓ Animals that eat other animals
✓ Examples: lions and tigers, snakes, sharks, sea stars, spiders, and
ladybugs
o Carnivores can be further classified into
▪ Obligate carnivores (rely entirely on animal flesh
for nutrients)
▪ Facultative carnivores (eat non-animal in addition
to animal food)
Omnivores eat everything
✓ Animals that eat both plant- and animal-derived food
o Some may be same as facultative carnivores
✓ Humans, bears, chickens, cockroaches and crayfish are example of
omnivores.

V. Learning Content

Nutrient Digestion and Absorption in the Monogastric

Monogastrics
● simple-stomached animals
● possess stomach with a single compartment
● include swine, horses, dogs, rabbits and poultry
● better adapted to utilizing high-energy low-fiber feeds known as
concentrates
● Pigs can digest only about 22% of roughage
● Horses are able to digest 38%
● dry weight of many plants is made up of about 75% carbohydrates
● Monogastric rations are composed of 70 to 80% carbohydrates
● Starch and sugars are a major source of energy for monogastrics
● Fermentation of fiber (hemicellulose) of limited importance

Digestion of Nutrients in Swine

1. Mouth
 o In most animals, the digestion of carbohydrates begins in
the mouth.
o Saliva contains ptyalin (a weak salivary α-amylase) and
salivary maltase
▪ Salivary amylase in pigs is relatively weak compared
to that of humans (about 100x more powerful)
▪ Horse lacks salivary amylase
o Salivary α-amylase changes some starch to maltose or malt
sugar
▪ The enzyme hydrolyses the glucan units in
polysaccharides containing 3 or more -linked
D-glucose units
▪ Random cleavage of the glucosidic bonds in
amylose gives rise to a mixture of glucose and
maltose
▪ Amylopectin yields branched and unbranched
oligosaccharides called “limit dextrins”
o Salivary maltase changes maltose to glucose.

2. Stomach
o Gastric juice is produced
▪ Contains water, pepsinogen, inorganic salts, mucus,
hydrochloric acid and the intrinsic factor for Vitamin
B12 absorption
o Oxyntic cells in the gastric gland region produce
hydrochloric acid
▪ This region also produces pepsinogen
o Action of amylase is inhibited by acidic environment in the
stomach
▪ brought about by the hydrochloric acid (0.2-0.5%) in
the gastric juice
o Acid concentration of gastric juice activates the pepsinogens
into pepsin
▪ HCl also denatures proteins for easier digestion
o Pepsin breaks intact protein to peptides (short chains of 4-9
amino acids)
▪ Pepsins also have a strong clotting action in milk
o Products of protein digestion in the stomach:
▪ polypeptides and a few amino acids
o Plant proteins not degraded in the rumen along with
microbial protein are passed to the lower tract
o In young animals, rennin or chymosin curdles the casein of
the milk
o Lipid digestion begins with the aid of lingual and gastric
lipase
o Gastric lipase splits emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty
acids
 ▪ LIMITED because most fats entering the stomach are
not emulsified

3. Small Intestines
o Doudenal area is the site for mixing digesta and secretions
▪ The chyme is mixed in the small intestines with three
digestive juices: pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal
juice
▪ Pancreatic juice from the acinar cells or tissues
contains:
● enzymes such as α-amylase, lipase,
lecithinases, and nucleases
● proenzymes like trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidases A
and B, proelastase
▪ Bile from the liver contains chiefly glycocholic and
taurocholic bile acids
● Bile activates pancreatic lipase, emulsifies fat
and accelerates the action of pancreatic
amylase
o Emulsification is the breakdown of large
lipid globules into several small lipid
globules
▪ Intestinal juice from brush border contains peptidase,
sucrase, maltase, and lactase
o Enterokinase from the duodenal mucosa activates
trypsinogen into trypsin
▪ Trypsin subsequently converts chymotrypsinogen into
chymotrypsin; procarboxypaptidases into
carboxypeptidases; and proelastase into elatase
o Enzymes produced by the villi are sucrose, maltase, lactase,
oligo-1,6-glucosidase and aminopeptidases

The Fate of Carbohydrates

o Pancreatic α-amylase (amylopsin or pancreatic diastase)
converts starch in the feed into maltose
▪ The enzyme attacks the glucan links in starch
and glycogen
o Maltase breaks down maltose into two glucose units
o Sucrase (invertase) breaks down “table sugar” sucrose into
glucose and fructose
o Lactase breaks down milk sugar lactose into one unit of
glucose and one unit of galactose
o Oligo-1,6-glucosidase breaks the links in limit
dextrins
 o Figure 1 outlines the enzymatic breakdown of
polysaccharides to monosaccharides

Figure 1. The breakdown of polysaccharides into monosaccharides (Photo credit:

https://anatomychartpad.com )

The Fate of Proteins

o Trypsin breaks down proteins not broken down by pepsin to
peptides and amino acids
o Elastase, and chymotrypsin act on the peptides reducing
them to smaller peptides
o Proteoses and peptones, are broken down by peptidases
(carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, and aminopeptidase)  into
single amino acids
▪ Proteoses, peptones, and peptides are combinations
of amino acids
● Proteoses are the most complex compounds
with peptides being the simplest
o Aminopeptidases attack the peptide bonds adjacent to free
amino acids of simple peptides
o Dipeptidases complete the breakdown of dipeptidases to
amino acids
o DNase (polynucleotidases deoxyribonuclease) and RNase
(ribonuclease) act on the nucleic acids in DNA and RNA to
yield component nucleotides
o Nucleosidases break the links between the sugar and
nitrogenous bases to liberate free purines and pyrimidines
 o Finally, phosphatases separate the orthophosphoric acid
from the ribsose or deoxyribose

The Fate of Lipids

o Pancreatic lipase (steapsin) does the bulk of lipid digestion
in the small intestine
▪ Lipase hydrolyses the emulsified fats into fatty acids
and glycerol
▪ It DOES NOT COMPLETELY hydrolyze triacylglycerols
but stops at the monoacylglycerol stage
o Lecithinase A hydrolyzes the bond linking fatty acids to the
β-hydroxy group of lecithin to produce lysolecithinase or
lecithinase B
▪ Lysolecithinase further hydrolyzes lecithinase B to
glycerolphosphocholine and a fatty acid
o Cholesterol esterase catalyses the splitting of cholesterol
esters
4. Large Intestines
o Extensive microbial activity with the action of a complex
population of aerobic and obligate anaerobic bacteria
▪ Includes lactobacilli, streptococci, coliforms,
bacteroides, clostridia, and yeasts
o Nitrogen and carbohydrate sources from dietary and
endogenous residues are digested by bacteria to produce:
▪ Indole, skatole, phenol, hydrogen sulphide, amines,
ammonia and the volatile fatty acids (VFAs) – acetic,
butyric and propionic acids

o The VFAs are absorbed for and serves as an energy source

o Digestion of cellulose and other is SMALL compared to the
horse and ruminants
o Some bacteria synthesize some B vitamins
o Table 1 summarizes the digestion of CHO, CHON and lipids in
monogastrics

Table 1. Summary of carbohydrate, protein and lipid digestion in monogastrics

CARBOHYDRATES
Site Source Enzyme Substrate End Product/s
Mouth Salivary Salivary Starch Maltose
glands amylase (polysaccharide (disaccharides),
s) Oligosaccharides
Stomach Rennin and Milk proteins Coagulated
Pepsin and other proteins and
proteins polypeptides
Small Intestines
Duodenu Pancreas Pancreatic Starch Maltose
m amylase (polysaccharide (disaccharides),
s) monosaccharides
Pancreatic Emulsified fats Fatty acids and
Lipase glycerol
Ileum Lining of the Maltase Maltose 2 Glucose units
intestine;
brush border
membrane
Sucrase Sucrose Fructose + Glucose
Lactase Lactose Galactose +
Glucose
Monosaccharides are absorbed
PROTEINS
Site Source Enzyme Substrate End Product/s
Stomach Chief cells Pepsin Proteins Peptides / peptones
Small Pancreas Trypsin Proteins and Polypeptides
Intestine Elastase peptones
s Chymotrypsin
Duodenu Lining of Carboxypeptid Polypeptides Amino acids and
m intestine ases dipeptides
Ileum Lining of Aminopeptidas Dipeptides Amino Acids –
intestine e absorbed by the
Dipeptidase body
LIPIDS (Fats and Oils)
Site Source Enzyme Substrate End Product/s
Stomach Fats Warmed and
melted – assumes
liquid or semi-liquid
form
Small Pancreas Lipase and Fats Glycerol and free
Intestine colipase fatty acids –
s absorbed as such
Ileum Intestinal Lipase Emulsified fats Glycerol and free
juice fatty acids
Glycerol and free fatty acids are absorbed

Digestion of Nutrients in Poultry

o Little saliva is present in the mouth; only a thick mucus type
saliva is produced
▪ Salivary amylase is produced
▪ Its action on starch continues in the crop
o Hydrolysis of starch happens in the crop
o Lactobacilli adhering to the walls of the crop ferments
stored feed producing lactic and acetic acids
o The oxynticopeptic cells of the proventriculus secrete
hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen
▪ Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins
 o In the small intestine, bile and pancreatic juices with
amylase, trypsin, and lipase are released
▪ They function in the same way as they do in
mammals
o Intestinal mucosa produces mucin, α-amylase, sucrose and
proteolytic enzymes
o The intestinal juices, which contain peptidase, maltase,
sucrase, and lactase, also have the same functions as in the
mammalian system
o Digestion of carbohydrtaes, proteins and fats in the small
intestines is similar to that of pigs
o Cellulose present in cereal grains is not broken down by
microbial activity to any great extent
o VFAs are produced in the ceca but these unlikely contribute
to the energy requirement of poultry
Pre-cecal Digestion of Nutrients in the Horse
o Non-ruminant herbivore
▪ Small intestines
● Main site for digestion of non-fibrous
carbohydrates, proteins an fats
▪ Enalrged hind gut (ceacum)
● Microbial population ferments fibrous materials
like the rumen of ruminants
● Horse falls between the pig and the ruminant
in its ability to digest fibrous feed
o Saliva has no digestive enzyme activity
o Limited microbial fermentation in the esophageal and fundic
regions of the stomach with lactic acid being produced
o Small intestines is the main site of digestion of proteins to
amino acids
o Pancreatic amylase and α-glucosidase secreted by cells in
wall of the small intestines act on soluble carbohydrates
such as sugars and starches
▪ Amylase activity is low compared with that of the pig
▪ Disaccharidase activity is similar with that of the pig
o Horse has no gallbladder
▪ Presence of hydrochloric acid in the duodenum
stimulates secretion of bile from the liver
▪ Lack of gallbladder does not seem to affect fat
digestion
o It is not clear whether pancreatic secretions have lipase
activity
o Remaining undigested material passes to the large intestine
for microbial fermentation
 o Large intestine or cecum and colon contain an active
microbial flora similar to ruminants
▪ Bacterial breakdown of cellulose and other
carbohydrates produce VFA
▪ Bacterial synthesis of B vitamins and protein
Absorption of Digested Nutrients
o The jejunum of the small intestines is the major absorptive
site
o Mechanisms for absorption
▪ Passive transport – if there is high concentration of
nutrients outside the cell and a low concentration
inside
● Simple diffusion
▪ Facilitative transport – carrier transports the molecule
down its concentration gradient
▪ Active transport or co-transport
● Carrier has two binding sites
● Organic nutrient is attached to one binding site
● The other site picks up a sodium ion
(monosaccharides and amino acids) or a
hydrogen ion (dipeptides)
o The sodium or hydrogen ion travels
down the chemical gradient
o The loaded carrier moves across the
intestinal membrane and deposits the
organic nutrient inside
o EMPTY carrier returns across the
membrane, free to pick up more
nutrients
▪ Pincocytosis or “cell drinking”
● Cells engulf large molecules in solution or
suspension
o For instance, In many newborn
sucklings, immunoglobulins in the
colostrum are absorbed intact

o Absorption of Carbohydrates
▪ Monsaccharides differ in rate of absorption
▪ Absorption rate of monosaccharides under equal
concentration in DECREASING order:
● Galactose
● Glucose
● Fructose
● Mannose
 ● Xylose
● Arabinose
▪ Aldoses such as glucose are actively transported
across the cell by a specific carrier
▪ Fructose is transported by a facultative carrier

o Absorption of Fats
▪ Efficient absorption of fats requires a rapid
movement of the highly hydrophobic molecule
through the unstirred water layer adjacent to the
mucosa (rate limiting stage of absorption)
▪ Absorption across the brush border of membrane of
the intestinal cells is by passive diffusion and at its
maximum in the jejunum
▪ Medium and short-chain fatty acids can be absorbed
very rapidly from the lumen of the small intestines
▪ In fowls, most of the fat is transported in the portal
blood as low-density lipoproteins
● Sodium-dependent and takes place against a
concentration gradient

o Absorption of Proteins
▪ Products of protein digestion in the lumen of the
small intestines are free amino acids and small
oligo-peptides
● Small oligo-peptides enter the epithelial cells
of the small intestines and hydrolyzed by
specific di and tri-peptidases
▪ The amino acids are absorbed from the small
intestines by an active transport mechanism which is
mostly sodium-dependent
▪ Sodium is not necessary for glycine, proline, and
lysine
▪ Transfer systems vary for the transport of:
● Neutral amino acids
● Dicarboxylic and basic amino acids
● Imino acids and glycine
▪ Some amino acids can be transported by more than
one mechanism
▪ The rate of absorption is higher for methionine than
valine
▪ Valine is absorbed faster than threonine
▪ Intact proteins such as immunoglobulins in
colostrum are absorbed through pinocytosis by
newborn animals

o Absorption of Minerals
 ▪ Absorption of mineral elements is either by simple
diffusion or carrier-mediated transport
● Exact mechanism for all minerals has not been
established
o Absorption of Calcium is regulated by 1,25-
dehydroxycholecalciferol
▪ Lower alimentary pH favors Ca absorption
▪ Oxalates and phytates inhibit absorption
o Absorption of iron is largely independent of the dietary
source
▪ Absorption in adults is generally low
o Zinc is absorbed through the small intestines by a carrier-
mediated process, with uptake at the brush border
membrane being the rate-limiting step
▪ Calcium is believed to inhibit the absorption of zinc
o Iodine in organic combination is less well absorbed than the
inorganic form

o Absorption of Vitamins
o Fat -soluble vitamins, A,D, E, and K pass through the
intestinal mucosa mainly by the same passive diffusion
mechanism as fats
▪ They may combine within cells with proteins and
enter the general circulation as lipoproteins
o Vitamin A is more readily absorbed that carotene
o Phytosterols are poorly absorbed
▪ Unless ergosterol has been irradiated to Vitamin D 2
before ingestion, it cannot be absorbed in any
quantity
o Water-soluble vitamins are believed to be absorbed both by
simple diffusion and by sodium-dependent carrier-mediated
transport
o Vitamin B6 is absorbed by passive diffusion
o A carrier glycoprotein (intrinsic factor) is important for the
absorption of Vitamin B12
Digestion of Nutrients in Ruminants
o A key feature of the digestive processes in ruminants is the
production of microbial cells and hence the synthesis of
microbial proteins
o Microbial fermentation before enzymatic digestion
▪ Toxic substances in the diet may be attacked by
microbes before it reaches the small intestines
o Microbes three major “services”:
▪ Synthesize high quality protein in the form of
microbial bodies
 ▪ Synthesize protein from non-protein sources
▪ Synthesize B-vitamins
1. Mouth
o Chewing breaks the feed into smaller particles
o Saliva contains no enzymes but provides Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, and Sodium for rumen microbes
▪ It is involved in nitrogen recycling to the rumen
▪ Highly buffered – contains high HCO and PO 4 to help
maintain appropriate rumen pH
o Forage and feed mixes with saliva containing sodium,
potassium, phosphate, bicarbonate, and urea, to form a
bolus.
2. Stomach
o Stomach consists of a non-secretory forestomach
(reticulum, rumen, omasum) and a secretory stomach
(abomasum)
o Butyric acid from the fermentation of concentrates
encourage formation of rumen wall papillae in young
ruminants
o Nearly all carbohydrate digestion occurs (>90%) within the
rumen
▪ Most sugars get completely digested
▪ about 30-50% of the fiber, cellulose and
hemicellulose
▪ Sixty percent or more of starch
▪ Breakdown of cellulose and other resistant
polysaccharides is the most important digestive
process in the rumen
o Microbial mass synthesized in the rumen provides about
20% of the nutrients absorbed by the host animal
o Microbial population of each species vary with the animal’s
diet
▪ Diets rich in concentrates promote proliferation of
lactobacilli
▪ High forage diets result in high acetic acid
▪ More grain or finely ground forage produce more
propionic acid
o Rumen microorganisms act in consortia to attack and
breakdown feed
▪ These symbiotic organisms produce the enzyme
cellulase for the digestion of cellulose
▪ Bacteria number 109-1010/ml of rumen contents
● Over 200 species identified, mostly non-spore-
forming anaerobes
● Electron micrography shows 75% of rumen
bacteria are attached to feed particles
 Protozoa are about 106/ml
▪
● Over 100 species identified
● Most important ones are anaerobic ciliates,
holotrichous and entodiniomorphoid protozoa
● Commonly holotrichs which include genera
Isotricha and Dasytricha
● Some oligotrichs include the genera
Entodinium, Diplodinium, Epidinium and
Ophryoscolex
▪ Fungi are the least in number
● At least 12 species or strains have been
identified, Typically those belonging to genus
Neocallimastix
● Capable of utilizing most polysaccharides and
many soluble sugars
● Contribution to fermentation of feed not yet
quantified
● They become the most numerous when diets
are rich in fiber
o Table 2 shows the more important species, their substrates
and the resultant products of fermentation
▪ Note: Succinic acid is converted to propionic acid by
other bacteria Selenomonas ruminantium into
propionic acid

Table 2. Fermentative properties of ruminal bacteria: (Hespell, 1981)

SPECIES
Fibrobacter (Bacteroides)
succinogenes
Ruminococcus albus
Ruminococcus flavefaciens
Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens
Clostridium lochheadii
Streptococcus bovis
Ruminobacter (Bacteroides)
amylophilus
Prevotella (Bacteroides)
ruminicola
Succinimonas amylolytica
Selenomonas ruminantium
FUNCTION PRODUCTS
Formate, Acetate,
Cellulolytic, Amylolytic
Succinate
Formate, Acetate,
Cellulolytic, Xylanolytic Ethanol, Hydrogen,
Carbon dioxide
Formate, Acetate,
Cellulolytic, Xylanolytic Succinate, Hydrogen
Formate, Acetate,
Cellulolytic, Xylanolytic, Lactate, Butyrate,
Proteolytic Ethanol, Hydrogen,
Carbon dioxide
Formate, Acetate,
Butyrate, Ethanol,
Cellulolytic, Proteolytic
Hydrogen, Carbon
dioxide
Amylolytic, Soluble Sugar Formate, Acetate,
Fermenter, Proteolytic Lactate
Amylolytic, Pectinoiytic, Formate, Acetate,
Proteolytic Succinate
Amylolytic, Xylanolytic, Formate, Acetate,
Pectinoiytic, Proteolytic Propionate, Succinate
Amylolytic, Dextrinolytic Acetate, Succinate
Amylolytic, Soluble Sugar Acetate, Lactate,
Fermenter, Glycerol- Propionate, Hydrogen,
 Utilizing, Lactate-Utilizing,
Proteolytic
Pectinoiytic, Proteolytic,
Lachnospira multipara Amylolytic
Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens Pectinoiytic, Dextrinolytic
Methanobrevibacter Methanogenic, Hydrogen-
ruminantium Utilizer
Methanogenic, Hydrogen-
Methanosacrina barkeri Utilizer
Pectinoiytic, Soluble Sugar
Treponema bryantii
Fermenter
Soluble Sugar Fermenter,
Megasphaera elsdenii
Lactate-Utilizing
Lactobacillus sp. Soluble Sugar Fermenter
Anerovibrio lipolytica Lipolytic, Glycerol-Utilizing
Eubacterium ruminantium Soluble Sugar Fermenter
Oxalobacter formigenes Oxalate-degrading
Wolinella succinogens Hydrogen-Utilizer
Carbon dioxide
Formate, Acetate,
Ethanol, Lactate,
Hydrogen, Carbon
dioxide
Formate, Acetate,
Lactate, Succinate
Methane
Methane, Carbon
dioxide
Formate, Acetate,
Lactate, Succinate,
Ethanol
Acetate, Propionate,
Butyrate, Valerate,
Caproate, Hydrogen,
Carbon dioxide
Lactate
Acetate, Propionate,
Succinate
Formate, Acetate,
Butyrate, Carbon dioxide
Formate, Carbon dioxide
Succinate, Carbon
dioxide

o The abomasum is largely concerned with the hydrolysis of

protein by pepsin in acid medium
▪ Plant and microbial protein are broken down by
digestive enzymes into their component amino acids
3. Small Intestines
o Digesta entering the small intestine mix with secretions from
the pancreas and liver
o Active nutrient absorption occurs throughout the small
intestine, including rumen bypass protein absorption
4. Large Intestines
o Absorbs water from material passing through it and then
excretes the remaining material as feces from the rectum

The Fate of Carbohydrates

o Includes cellulose, hemicelluloses, starch and fructans
(water-soluble carbohydrates)
o All carbohydrates are attacked by Fibrobacter succinogenes
and Rumicocci and fungi
▪ Except the β-linked carbohydrates associated with
lignin
o Time required for food passage through the digestive tract
ranges from one to three days
o First stage of CHO digestion in the rumen:
 ▪ Analogous to the digestion of CHO by monogastrics
▪ Possible through the extracellular microbial enzymes
▪ Cellulose is decomposed by one or more β-1,4-
glucosidases to cellobiose
● Cellobiose then converted to glucose OR
converted by phosphorylase to glucose-1-
phosphate
▪ Starch and dextrins are converted by amylase to
maltose and isomaltose
● Isomaltose is then converted by maltases,
maltose phosphorylases or 1,6-glucosidases to
glucose or glucose-1-phosphate
▪ Fructans are hydrolyzed by enzymes attacking 2,1
and 2,6 linkages to yield fructose
● Fructose may also be produced together with
glucose in the digestion of sucrose
▪ Hemicellulose breakdown produces pentoses when
enzymes hydrolyze the β-1,4 linkages to yield xylose
and uronic acid
● Uronic acid is later converted to xylose
▪ Pectic acid from hydrolyzed uronic acid from pectin is
attacked by polygalactorunidases to produce
galactorunic acid, which later yield xylose
▪ Xylose is also produced from hydrolysis of xylans (dry
matter of grass

o Second stage of CHO digestion in the rumen

▪ Intracellular metabolism of nutrients by
microorganisms
▪ Metabolism of carbohydrates by the animal itself
▪ The key intermediate product of fermentation is
pyruvate which is then converted to VFAs, carbon
dioxide and methane
o Degree of lignification determines the extent to which
cellulose is digested
▪ Lignin and cutin is resistant to attack by bacteria
▪ Lignin appears to hinder the digestion of cellulose
with which it is associated
o Figure 2 shows the digestion of carbohydrates in ruminants
Figure 2. Digestion of Carbohydrates in ruminants

The Fate of Proteins

o The protein content of the rumen is often higher than the
protein content of the feed being ingested
o The main proteolytic organisms are Prevotella ruminicola,
Peptostreptococci species and protozoa
o Partial or extensive degradation of protein by proteolytic
organisms produce AMMONIA which is then used in the
synthesis of MICROBIAL PROTEIN
▪ With most feeds, each kilogram of organic matter
digested in the rumen yields approximately 200g of
microbial protein
● Immature forages with high soluble
carbohydrates yield more microbial protein
(260g/kg organic matter)
● The yield of rumen microbial protein per unit
of organic matter digested is LOWER in silages
than with other feed
o Some small peptides and amino acids are also used by
rumen organisms to synthesize microbial proteins
o Some proteins come from the passage of a large number of
bacteria to the omasum and abomasum where they are
digested
▪ Bacteria contains about 50% CP and 3% lysine
similar to soybean meal
● Also contains energy, Vitamin K, and water-
soluble vitamins
▪ Protozoa retained in the rumen “lock up” microbial
protein and prevent its passage to the small
intestines
 ▪ Defaunation (removing protozoa from rumen) has
been shown to increase the microbial protein
reaching the duodenum by 25%
● Defaunating agents include copper sulfate,
high starch diets, or the ionophore monensin

Utilization of Non-Protein Nitrogen Compounds by

Ruminants
o It is possible to capitalize on the ability of rumen microbes
to convert non-protein nitrogenous compounds to protein by
adding urea or even ammonium salts to the diet
▪ Urea is hydrolyzed to ammonia by bacterial urease
o Two conditions must be met in order for ammonia to be
efficiently incorporated in microbial protein
▪ First, initial ammonia concentration must be below
the optimum
▪ Second, microorganisms must have a readily
available source of energy for protein synthesis
o Therefore, the feed should be LOW in rumen-degradable
protein and HIGH in readily fermentable carbohydrates
o Other nitrogenous compounds:
▪ Biuret, Isobutylidene (IBDU), Uric acid from poultry
excreta
o Figure 3 illustrates the digestion of proteins in ruminants

Figure 3. Digestion of Protein in ruminants

The Fate of Lipids

o The feed of ruminants is high in triacylglycerols such as

▪ Residues of the C18 polyunsaturated acids

▪ Linoleic acid
 ▪ Linolenic acid
o Initial stages of lipid digestion by microorganisms in
ruminants:
▪ Intense lipolysis
▪ Fatty acid hydrogenation
▪ De novo lipid cellular synthesis
o Capacity of rumen microorganisms to digest lipids is strictly
limited
▪ If the lipid content of ruminant diet is above 100g/kg,
microbial activity is reduced
o First stage of fat digestion: bacteria split off individual fatty
acids and sugars from glycerol through hydrolysis
▪ More than 85% of glycerides undergoing hydrolysis
o Some hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen) of unsaturated
acids takes place in the rumen.
▪ The unsaturated free fatty acids released are
extensively biohydrogenated and converted back to
saturated fatty acids
● About 1/3 palmitic and 2/3 stearic acids
o Second stage: free fatty acids pass out of the rumen
attached to feed particles
▪ In the small intestines, they combine with bile and
pancreatic secretions to form micelles
o Micelle formation is the key to fat digestion
▪ This is the form in which water-soluble fatty acids are
absorbed
● FAs are converted back to triglycerides and
packaged into chylomicrons and lipoproteins
before entering the lymphatic system
o Rumen-protected fats pass through the rumen unaltered for
digestion in the small intestines
o Figure 4 shows how lipids are digested by ruminants

Figure 4. Major processes involved in digestion of fat in ruminants (Volac

Wilmar Feed Ingrediants Ltd, 2018)
Absorption of Digested Nutrients

o Absorption of VFAs
o VFAs are absorbed across the rumen wall, apparently by
diffusion across the rumen wall
▪ VFAs supply about 50% or more (up to 70%) of the
energy requirement of the ruminant
o About 25% of the VFAs are absorbed from the post-ruminal
tract

o Absorption of Amino Acids

o Rumen undegradable protein (RUP) or undegradable intake
protein (IUP) digested to amino acids is absorbed in the
small intestines
o Rumen degradable protein (RDP) or degradable intake
protein (DIP) is digested in the rumen and metabolized by
rumen microorganisms to ammonia (NH3)
o Amino acids from microbial proteins digested in the
abomasum and small intestines are absorbed in the small
intestines
o Non-protein nitrogen (NPN) is digested to produce ammonia
for microbial protein synthesis from which amino acids are
absorbed in the small intestines like RDP

o Absorption of Lipids
o Absorption of fatty acids occur predominantly in the jejunum
region of the small intestines
o Ruminants have a higher efficiency to absorb fatty acids
compared with non-ruminants
▪ 80% for saturated fatty acids
▪ 92% for polyunsaturated fatty acids
o Bile salts and lysophospholipid micellar system have a great
capacity to solubilize fatty acids
▪ Transfer of free fatty acids to the micellar phase
occur as digesta passes along the intestinal tract
● 5% occurs in the duodenum
● 20% occurs in the upper jejunum
● 25% on the mid and lower jejunum
● 50% in the ileum
o Acidic condition of duodenal and jejunal contents limits
strongly the formation of insoluble calcium soaps with
saturated fatty acids
o Very little absorption of water-insoluble long chain fatty
acids takes places in the rumen and abomasum
 o Transfer of free fatty acids to the micellar phase
▪ Residues of the C18 polyunsaturated acids
▪ Linoleic acid
o Absorption of Vitamins and Minerals
o Grazing animals must absorb 30 micronutrients, seven
macro-minerals, 9 trace minerals, 10 water-soluble vitamins
and four fat-soluble vitamins to remain healthy
o There is copious synthesis of essential water soluble
vitamins during the course of rumen fermentation
▪ they become available for absorption during the
digestion of rumen microbial protein in the small
intestine.
o Little information has been published on fat-soluble vtiamins
absorption (AFSV) in ruminants
▪ the process is assumed to be the same as that widely
studied in non-ruminants
● FSV are absorbed in fat micelles
(chylomicrons) via the lymphatic system
absorption
o Calcium is absorbed mainly by facilitated diffusion across
the small intestine mucosa
o Phosphorus is primarily absorbed by passive diffusion down
electrochemical gradients in the small intestines
o Na is actively absorbed through the action of Na pumps in
the intestinal mucosa.
o K is absorbed passively from the rumen and is less
regulated.
▪ The high solubility of Na and K present in and added
to feeds ensures that efficiencies of absorption (ANa
and AK) are close to 100% in healthy animals.
o Mg is unusual among elements in being principally absorbed
from the rumen by two mechanisms:
▪ one is active and the dominant force at lower Mg
intakes, moving Mg against an electrochemical
gradient across the mucosa;
● Na-dependent and inhibited by K
▪ The other is passive and increases in importance as
Mg intakes increase.
VI. Take Action

Class Activity. The class will be grouped into three and will draw lots on what
species of animal to focus on. Each group will be asked to create a flow chart or
diagram using different materials of their choice to depict the digestion of
carbohydrates, protein and fat for the particular species that they picked earlier.

VII. Self-Check / Self-Learning Activities

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read the statements carefully then shade the letter that
corresponds to the BEST answer. There is only one best answer for each
question. (1 pt each)

1. Which of the following is true of the small intestines?

[a] it is not a location where proteins are digested
[b] fats are not digested until they reach it
[c] fats have already been digested before they reach it
[d] it is the only location where proteins are digested

2. Hydrolysis is the name for the process that breaks down ___
[a] lipids
[b] minerals
[c] carbohydrates
[d] vitamins

3. The ____ contains channels through which ____ pass into the bloodstream
after digestion
[a] small intestines; micronutrients
[b] large intestines; micronutrients
[c] small intestines; proteins
[d] large intestines; electrolytes
4. Both proteins and carbohydrates are broken down by ____. Pepsin breaks
down ___ and amylase breaks down ____.
[a] enzymes; proteins; carbohydrates
[b] enzymes; carbohydrates; proteins
[c] lipids; carbohydrates; proteins
[d] lipids; proteins; carbohydrates

5. Which of the following is a list of agents that catalyze the breakdown of

carbohydrates?
[a] salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, brush border enzymes
[b] pepsin, pancreatic amylase, and salivary amylase
[c] salivary amylase, intestinal amylase, and brush border enzymes
[d] intestinal amylase, pancreatic amylase, and brush border enzymes

VIII. Self-Reflect

What interesting discoveries did you make while learning this lesson? How will you use
what you’ve learned in your personal life?

REFERENCES:

CUNNINGHAM M. AND ARCNER D. 2001Animal Science and Industry.

Prentice Hall. New Jersey. pp. 57 – 87.
COLLISION, A.E. AND R.S. LOWREY. 1987. Feeds and Feeding. 645 pp.
McDonald, P. R.A. Edwards, J.F.D, Greenhalgh and C.A Morgan. 1995Animal
GALLESPIE, JAMES R. 1997. Modern Livestock and Poultry Production. Fifth
Edition. International Thompson Publishing Compony.3 Columbia Circle Box
15015. Albany, New York, USA
NUTRITION, 5TH ED. MCDONALD, P. R.A. EDWARDS, J.F.D, GREENHALGH AND C.A
MORGAN. 1996. xiii + 607 pp. John Wiley and Sons. New York.
PHILSAN. 2003. Feed Reference Standards. 3rd ed. . Philippine Society of
Animals Nutritionist.
 MODULE 11
Animal Products and By-products Marketing

CLASSES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Module Overview

This module discusses the very vital role played by animals in our lives –
production of animal products important for human survival. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization, livestock contribute 40% of the global value of agricultural
output and support the livelihood and food security of almost 1.3 billion people. This
module focuses on the different products that can be derived from animals, most
importantly meat, milk and egg. This also targets to help you understand how the
animal and its products are handled and distributed in the market

Intended Learning Outcomes

1. Appreciate the proximate composition of meat, milk and eggs;

2. Identify meat and their sources; and
3. Process meat into longganisa/embutido and milk into pastillas.
4. Discuss the basic concepts and principles of marketing animal products as
they relate to animal productivity;
5. Describe criteria for classifying animal products and by-products;
6. Demonstrate basic skills in slaughtering of animals and processing of
products

Take off

Show in class pictures of the following: ice cream, yoghurt, bacon, bologna,
steak, century egg, steak.

Preview videos of how some of these are processed.

Allow students to share any first-hand experience or exposure they had in any
meat, milk or egg product processing. Which task in it they like best? Hate most?

Content Focus

1. Animal products and animal by-products

2. Methods of marketing livestock in the Philippines

a. Problems commonly encountered in the marketing of livestock

b. Meat and meat products distribution system

c. Type of meat markets

Animal product vs. animal by-products

 An animal product refers to any material derived from the body of an animal like
meat, milk and eggs. It also includes rennet. Rennet is commonly used in the
production of cheese.

As defined by the USDA, products other than muscle meat are classified as
animal by-products. In the European Union, animal by-products refer to materials from
animals that people usually do not consume.

For thousands of years, poultry supplied meat and eggs, cattle, sheep and goats
provided meat and milk, and pigs provided a source of meat. According to FAO, pork is
the most widely eaten meat in the whole world accounting for over 36% of the world
meat intake, followed by poultry and beef with about 35% and 22%, respectively.

Classes of animal products

Meat
Meat is defined by the Codex Alimentarius as “All parts of an animal that are
intended for, or have been judged as safe and suitable for human consumption”. It is
composed of water, protein and amino acids, minerals, fats and fatty acids, vitamins,
small quantities of carbohydrates and other bioactive components. Meat’s importance is
derived from its high quality protein, containing all essential amino acids and highly bio
available minerals and vitamins (FAO, 2014).

Meat protein has very high biological value. Two servings of meat daily provide
the recommended intake of essential amino acids. The essential amino acids in meat is
quite constant regardless of species or cut. Connective tissue proteins have high
amount of proline, hydroxyproline and glycine and low in tryptophan and tyrosine.

Meat of the different animals

Beef - the meat that comes from cattle more than 1 year old
Veal – meat from cattle less than 1 year old
Pork – meat that comes from swine
Carabeef – meat that comes from carabao more than 1 year old
Caraveal – meat from carabao less than 1 year old
Chevon – meat from goats
Mutton – meat from sheep
Lamb – meat from lambs (sheep that is less than 1 year old)
Venison – meat from deers
Poultry meat – meat from domesticated birds like chicken, ducks, turkey, ostrich, etc

Table __ Proximate composition of meat from different sources

Meat Crude Protein,% Ether Extract ,% Moisture, % Ash , %

Pork 1805 4.7 73.8 1.0
Beef 19.2 1.1 76.3 1.1
 Carabeef 20.2 1.0 74.4 1.1
Chevon 18.6 2.7 75.5 1.0
Mutton 20.2 4.7 74.1 1.0
Venison 21.9 0.2 76.7 1.2
Chicken 22.6 0.1 76.3 1.0
turkey 20.3 2.1 76.6 1.0
Duck 19.8 6.0 73.1 1.1
Geese 23.0 3.9 72.1 1.0

Milk
Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion from the mammary glands of lactating
female mammals. It can be derived from animals specifically from the dairy breeds of
cattle, carabao and goat. Milk has important nutrients including protein, calcium,
potassium, phosphorus, iodine, Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) and Vitamin B12
(cyanocobalamin). The protein that comes from milk is one of the highest quality
protein but it is low in sulfur containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine. It is also
rich in lysine. Milk lipids also contain high saturated fatty acids and low in linolenic and
linoleic acids.

The color of milk ranges from off white to almost golden yellow. Milk appears to
be opaque due to suspended fat, protein, lactose and minerals. The pH of milk ranges
from 6.5 to 6.7. Milk normally freezes within -0.512 to -0.550 °C.

Table ___ Nutritional Composition of Milk from Different Sources

Water (%) Protein (%) Fat (%) Lactose (%) Ash (%)
Buffalo 82.44 4.74 7.4 4.64 0.79
Cattle 87.29 0.40 3.66 4.92 0.71
Carabao 78.58 5.66 9.68 5.10 0.98
Goat 87.81 3.50 3.80 4.10 0.78
Sheep 80.60 5.44 8.26 4.78 0.90
Human 87.60 1.20 3.80 7.00 0.21

Common terminologies used in this section:

Pasteurization is a process of heating a foodstuff, usually a liquid for a definite

time at a definite temperature and cooling it immediately thereafter.

Homogenization is the process by which fat droplets of milk are reduced in

size and dispersed uniformly by a homogenizer. This makes every drop of the milk
more delicious.

Certified milk refers to the pasteurized or unpasteurized milk having no more

than 10,000 bacteria per millilitre at any time prior to delivery, and maintained at 50 °F
or less prior to delivery.

Evaporated milk is milk that has about 60 % of its water removed by gently
heating it. It contains 7% protein, 7.9% fat, 9.9% lactose and 1.5% minerals.
 Condensed milk refers to concentrated milk which has been added with sugar.
It contains 27% water, 8.1% protein, 54.8% lactose and 1.5% minerals.

Dried or powdered milk refers to milk dehydrated to about 5% of moisture

from the milk solids.

Filled milk refers to milk where the butterfat is replaced with vegetable fat.
Reconstituted milk refers to milk reconstituted by combining dry whole milk
solids with the appropriate amount of water.

Recombined milk is made by combining cream, butterfat or milk fat and water
with nonfat dry milk solids.

Eggs
An egg is a secretory product of reproductive system which has five principal
parts, namely: (1) shell, (2) shell membranes (3) albumen (egg white) (4) yolk (5)
germinal disk. The most important purpose of eggs in all species is the perpetuation of
life. Therefore, eggs are essential link in the reproductive cycle of animal life. In terms
of chemical composition, an egg is 31% yolk, 59% albumen and 10% shell.

Eggs vary greatly in color, shape and size. Some are white shelled, other poultry
species lay brown-shelled eggs some ducks lay almost solid black eggs. Contrary to
common belief, there is no relationship between egg shell color and nutritional content
of eggs. Some eggs are spiral in shape, others are conical, oval, elliptical or biconic.
One egg weighs 50-60 grams on the average.

Eggs are compact package of well-balanced food nutrients. It has high protein
content, high in Vitamins A and D, high in riboflavin and low in carbohydrate.

Fig. __ Parts of a table egg

Source: http://en.eggs.dk/

Table __ Proximate composition of eggs from poultry species raised

Moisture, % Protein,% Ether extract,% Ash,%

Chicken 72.8 12.14 11.0 1.0
Duck 70.6 11.7 12.6 1.0
Quail 73.9 11.8 10.6 1.0

Methods of marketing livestock in the Philippines

 The proliferation of traders in the marketing chain, and the very limited
participation by small producers in the product distribution has continuously exerted a
downward pressure on farmer’s income. With very limited market information and
resources, small producers most often fall prey to unscrupulous traders, thereby,
transferring the potential economic opportunities that can be realized through efficient
marketing. Competing in the traders market will be very difficult and costly considering
that regular traders have already the experience and resources needed for trade.

Existing marketing systems of livestock in the Philippines

1. Livestock market/ concentration yards – farmers or traders bring their animals

to the concentration yards for sale. Markets usually have facilities for the care
of the animals. Transactions could be: 1.) trader to trader 2.) farmer to trader
3.) trader to farmer.

2. Barrio agents are highly skilled in live weight estimation. They perform one or
both of the following;.

a. buy livestock from scattered backyard farms and sell these to viajeros
b. act as viajeros or wholesaler and sell livestock directly to retailers
3. Wholesalers/ viajeros buy the livestock in wholesale quantity, transport the
livestock and resell them to wholesalers, retailers and processors.

4. City dealers are intermediaries between the provincial viajeros and the
wholesalers in the cities.

5. Retailers are those who buy animals and sell then to the consumers.

6. Contract growing scheme has several approaches used. In all of these, a

mother company takes the animals produced and takes care of the processing
before final sale to consumers.

Problems Commonly Encountered in the Marketing of Livestock

1. No grade standard.
2. Lack of integrated information.
3. Difficulty of transporting animals as a result of stiff shipping requirements and too
many islands comprising the island.
4. The cost of transportation is very high.
5. Lack of suitable public transport system.

Meat and Meat Products Market Distribution

Traditionally, the meat distribution system is multi-layered with many middle

men involved in the whole process. The most common is the five (5) distribution
system.

Producer ------- Barrio Agent ------ Wholesaler ------- Retailer -------- End Consumers

However, recent trends indicated that more producers have resorted to the
direct marketing system to reduce or eliminate the middlemen involved and maximize
profit.
 Producers ------------- Retailers

1. Supermarkets
2. Groceries
3. Hotels end consumers
4. Restaurants

Types of Meat Markets

1. Retailers

a. Wet Markets – are the meat stalls in public markets. Meat are usually hung in
bulk and sliced only when customer comes. Meat for these markets is usually
supplied by wholesalers.

b. Wholesalers - these are components of grocery stores. Meat are properly

fabricated and handled.
2. Wholesalers
a. Packers trading – packers buy live animals and slaughter them to supply their
requirements.
b. Packers to retailers – packing plants sell their excess meat to retailers.

2. Retail outlets – wholesaler maintain their sales outlets.

4. Institutional buyers – packers/ wholesalers sells their products directly to

restaurants, hotels etc.

TAKE ACTION

Go to the public / livestock auction market and observe how products are
distributed to the end consumers. List at least five shortcomings of the industry that
needs improvement.

SELF-CHECK

I. Matching Type. Match Column A with Column B. Write your answer on the space
provided before the number.

Column A Column B

___ 1. meat from cattle less than 1 year old a. certified milk
___ 2. meat that comes from carabao more than 1 year old b. evaporated milk
___ 3. meat from Toggenburg c. carabeef
___ 4. meat from Barbados blackbelly d. pasteurization
___ 5. refers to the pasteurized or unpasteurized milk having e. powdered milk
no more than 10,000 bacteria per millilitre at any f. condensed milk
time prior to delivery g. recombined milk

___ 6. refers to concentrated milk which has been added h. mutton

with sugar i. caraveal

___ 7. process of heating a foodstuff, usually a liquid for j. evaporated milk

a definite time at a definite temperature and cooling k. veal
immediately thereafter l. homogenization

___ 8. milk dehydrated to about 5% of moisture from

the milk solids

___ 9. milk that has about 60 % of its water removed

by gently heating

___ 10. refers to milk where the butterfat is replaced

with vegetable fat

II. Discuss at least five problems experienced when marketing livestock

SELF-REFLECT

1. Having learned the concept of marketing strategies, do you think we can make
use the advent of technology nowadays to improve the type of market
distribution we have right now?

REFERENCES:

1 Frandsons Anatomy and Physiology of Domestic Animals

2 Edu, Iken. 2012. The Central Nervous System Mexus Education Pvt. Ltd.
https://youtu.be/uaAwIN1gPm4
3 Andersen, Paul. 2014. The Brain. Bozeman Science. https://youtu.be/kMKc8nfPATI
4. Sth215. 2008. Stimulus and Response. Education, Technology.
https://www.slideshare.net/sth215/stimulus-and-response
5. https://agriculturedblog.wordpress.com/2012/03/07/the-other-three-parts/
6. KELLEMS, R. O. AND CHURCH, D. C. 2002. Livestock Feeds and Feeding. 5 th
Edition. ISBN 0-13-010582-1. Prentice-Hall.
7. KRISHNASAMY, V., OTTE, J., et al. 2016. Poultry Farming & Feed
Formulations:
8. Nutrition, Methods & Strategies of Feeding. © 2016 by Intelliz Press LLC. .
ISBN: 978-1-68251-165-7. Printed in Republic of Korea.
9. PEPITO, J. 2008. Learning Guide in Animal Science 21. Principles of Animal
10. Science. Central Mindanao University, College of Agriculture, Department of
Animal Science, Musuan Maramag Bukidnon, 33pp, 87-90pp
11. PEPITO, J., SORIANO, M.L., INTONG, R., VILLAR, N.M., LAGUA, E.,
12. CALLEJO, J., GUTIEREZ, W., SORIANO., A.C., ORTEGA, A.D.S., QUISIL, JD.,
CABADOR, J. 2016. Learning Guide in Introduction to Animal Science.
Central Mindanao University, College of Agriculture, Department of Animal
Science, Musuan Maramag Bukidnon, 33pp
13. PERRY, T. W., CULLISON, A. E., LOWREY, R. S. 2000. Feeds and Feeding. 5 th
Edition. International Edition. ©2000 Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. ISBN
981 -4035-31-9.
14. REECE, W.O.ED. 2015. Duke’s Physiology of Domestic Animals 13 edition.
Wiley-Blackwell Publication
15.