GENERAL

BIOLOGY 2
Quarter 4 - Module 3 – 4 : Week 5 - 8

Page | 1
What This Module is About
This module demonstrates your understanding of the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support
life, particularly on the essential components of this planet that drives all living things or biotic factors (plants,
animals, microorganisms) to exist. It also emphasizes on the different subsystems (geosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up the Earth and how these systems interact to produce the kind of Earth we
live in today.
This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics that will help you answer the questions
pertaining to our very own, planet earth.
This module has eleven (10) lessons:
 Lesson 1: Reproduction and Development
 Lesson 2: Nutrition
 Lesson 3: Gas Exchange
 Lesson 4: Transport and Circulation
 Lesson 5: Regulation of Body Fluids
 Lesson 6: Immune Systems
 Lesson 7: Chemical and Nervous Control
 Lesson 8: Sensory and Motor Mechanisms
 Lesson 9: Feedback Mechanisms
What I Need to Know
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction, development, nutrition,
gas exchange, transport/ circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune
systems, and sensory and motor mechanisms. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
2. Explain how some organisms maintain steady internal conditions (e.g., temperature regulation, osmotic
balance and glucose levels) that possess various structures and processes. STEM_BIO11/12-IVi-j-2

Lesson 1 Reproduction and Development

What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
Compare and contrast the following processes inplants and animals: reproduction and development.
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• differentiate asexual from sexual reproduction; and
• describe different modes of sexual and asexual reproduction
• describe the different stages of animal development
• describe human reproductive organ systems
• enumerate the different types of reproductive cycles
• describe double fertilization in flowering plants; and
• explain processes in plant development.
What I Know
Definition of Terms:
1. Asexual Reproduction 11. Haploid
2. Sexual Reproduction 12. Diploid
3. Fission 13. Gametogenesis
4. Fragmentation 14. Fertilization
5. Budding 15. Cleavage
6. Sporulation 16. Gastrulation
7. Isogamy 17. Organogenesis
8. Heterogamy 18. Growth
9. Bisexual Reproduction 19. Folicular phase
10. Development 20. Ovulation
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. Differentiate Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction.

2. Identify the types of asexual reproduction and give examples.

Types of Asexual Reproduction Examples

1.
2.
3.
4.
3. Summarize the differences between asexual and sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Page | 2
 Number of Parents Involved

Gametes

Genetic composition of offspring

What’s It
INTRODUCTION:
Development is the process by which a multicellular organism, beginning with a single cell, goes through a
series of changes, taking on the successive forms that characterize its life cycle.
Animal and Plant Development

FOUR KEY PROCESSES UNDERLIE DEVELOPMENT

The developmental changes an organism undergoes as it progresses from an embryo to mature adulthood involve
four processes:
 Determination sets the developmental fate of a cell—what type of cell it will become—even before any
characteristics of that cell type are observable. For example, in a developing mammalian embryo, as well as
in some adult organs, there are mesenchymal stem cells that look unspecialized. But their fate to become
muscle, fat, tendon, or other connective tissue cells has already been determined.
 Differentiation is the process by which different types of cells arise from less specialized cells, leading to
cells with specific structures and functions. For example, mesenchymal stem cells differentiate to become
the cells listed above.
 Morphogenesis (Greek for “origin of form”) is the organization and spatial distribution of differentiated cells
into the multicellular body and its organs. Morphogenesis can occur by cell division, cell expansion
(especially in plants), cell movements, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).
 Growth is the increase in size of the body and its organs by cell division and cell expansion. Growth can
occur by an increase in the number of cells or by the enlargement of existing cells. Growth continues
throughout the individual’s life in some organisms, but reaches a more or less stable end point in others.
https://www.macmillanhighered.com/BrainHoney/Resource/6716/digital_first_content/trunk/test/hillis2e/hillis2e_ch14_2.html
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring. Provided all organs are present, normally
constructed, and functioning properly, the essential features of human reproduction are (1) liberation of an ovum, or
egg, at a specific time in the reproductive cycle, (2) internal fertilization of the ovum by spermatozoa, or sperm cells,
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the uterus, or womb, (4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early embryo
developed from the fertilized ovum, in the wall of the uterus, (5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of the
unborn child during the entire period of gestation, (6) birth of the child and expulsion of the placenta, and (7)
suckling and care of the child, with an eventual return of the maternal organs to virtually their original state.

Page | 3
Lesson 2 Nutrition
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify and describe the types of Life cycles.
Types of Life Cycles Description
1.
2.
3.
What I Need to Know
Learning Competency:
Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: Nutrition. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of plants and animals
• enumerate and describe the main stages of food processing;
• describe the organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system and their roles;
• summarize the mechanisms of digestion, absorption, and delivery of nutrients into cells;
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Nutrient 11. Proteins 21. Absorption
2. Autotrophs 12. Fats 22. Elimination
3. Heterotrophs 13. Amino acids
4. Symplast route 14. Fatty acids
5. Apoplasts route 15. Phagocytosis
6. Root hairs 16. Pinocytosis
7. Root nodules 17. Digestive system
8. Mycorrhizae (singular, mycorrhiza 18. Endocytosis
9. Calorie 19. Ingestion
10. Carbohydrates 20. Digestion
What’s New

Page | 4
PRE-ACTIVITY:

What is It
INTRODUCTION:
PLANT NUTRITION
Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism. The two types of
organisms based on the mode of nutrition are:
A. autotrophs – organisms that obtain energy from sunlight and chemicals to produce their own food.
Examples: plants; chemosynthetic bacteria.
B. heterotrophs – organisms that cannot make their own food and obtain their energy from other organisms.
Examples: animals, fungi.
The nutritional requirements of plants:
A. water
B. carbon dioxide
C. Further, note that water and carbon dioxide are the raw materials needed for
D. photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert the energy from sunlight into
E. chemical energy.
F. essential nutrients or elements – which include macronutrients which are normally
G. required in amounts above 0.5% of the plant’s dry weight; and micronutrients which
H. are required in minute or trace amounts;
I. examples of macronutrients: C, H, O, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
J. examples of micronutrients: Cl, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Co, Mo
The routes for the absorption of water and minerals across plant roots:
A. symplast route – through plasmodesmata
B. apoplast route – along cell walls
Note that the water and minerals from the soil need to reach the conducting tissues of plants, specifically the
xylem
ANIMAL NUTRITION
A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the
amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). The greater the
number of Calories in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven, 1996).
THE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF ANIMALS:
I. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are usually obtained from grains,
cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables. On average, carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.

Page | 5
II. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come from dairy products, poultry,
fish, meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.
III. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures; also used to insulate
nervous tissue, and also serve as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are
important for good health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack
foods. They contain a higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.
IV. Essential Nutrients – include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat because they could
not be synthesized inside the body. These include:
A. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight could
not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and
valine.
B. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans.
C. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-soluble
Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C.
THE MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING:
A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
allowing for a greater surface area for chemical digestion.
B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then into nutrient molecules small enough to be Chemical digestion
by enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the addition of water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis
C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube wall and into the body fluids; the cells take
up (absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars.
D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the gut.
THE ORGANS INVOLVED IN FOOD PROCESSING IN THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
A. The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
I. Oral Cavity – it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by the teeth, and mixed with saliva by the tongue.
Saliva is secreted into the mouth by three pairs of salivary glands located above the upper jaw and below the lower
jaw.
II. Pharynx –the region in the back of the throat that serves as the entrance to the esophagus that connects to the
stomach and trachea (windpipe) that serves as airway to the lungs. To block breathing as food leaves the pharynx,
a flap-like valve (the epiglottis) and the vocal cords close off the trachea.
III. Esophagus – connects the pharynx with the stomach. No digestion takes place within the esophagus but the
contractions within its muscular wall propel the food past a sphincter, into the stomach. The rhythmic waves of
contraction of the smooth muscle wall of the esophagus are called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis. The
esophagus is about 25 cm (10 in.) long.
B. The Stomach
I. The stomach is a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It has three important functions.
First, it mixes and stores ingested food. Second, it secretes gastric juice that helps dissolve and degrade the food,
particularly proteins. Third, it regulates the passage of food into the small intestine.
II. The gastric juice is a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases.
III. The churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the gastric juice convert food into a thick,
liquid mixture called chyme.
C. Small Intestine
I. The small intestine is approximately 6 meters long and is composed of three regions: the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum.
II. It is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules from food occurs. The complete digestion of
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins occurs in the duodenum, about the first 25 cm. of the small intestine.
III. The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water and the products of digestion into the bloodstream.
IV. Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the ileum, the surface area of which is increased by
villi and microvilli.
D. The Accessory Digestive Organs
I. Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder – review the functions discussed in previous meeting.
E. The Large Intestine or Colon
I. The large intestine is much shorter than the small intestine, about 1 meter.
II. It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions and water. A small amount of fluid,
sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed through its walls.
III. Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have villi and has only one thirtieth of the absorptive
surface area of the small intestine.
IV. Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where they help process undigested material into the final
excretory product, feces.
F. The Rectum and Anus
I. The rectum is a short extension of the large intestine and is the final segment of the digestive tract. It is where the
compacted undigested food from the colon are pushed via peristaltic contractions.
II. The distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
III. The anus is the terminal opening of the digestive system through which feces are expelled.
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. Illustrate the steps in the digestive system. Label the organs involved and specify their functions.
What’s I’ve Learned
POST QUIZ:

Page | 6
1. Give three examples of nutrient deficiencies in plants and the corresponding symptoms.
2. Research on examples of parasitic plants and predator plants. Give an example for each. What structural
adaptations are present in these plants that allow them to acquire nutrition through parasitism and predation?
3. What contributes to the absorption capacity of the small intestine?
4. Why doesn’t gastric juice destroy the stomach cells that make it?
5. What are the cells making up the gastric glands of the stomach?

Lesson 3 Gas Exchange

What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to compare and contrast gas exchange in plants and animals. STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• state some basic principles IN gas exchange;
• describe the structures for gas exchange in plants and animals;
• describe the organs in the human respiratory system and their roles;
• discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation;
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Respiration
2. Cellular Respiration
3. Positive pressure breathing
4. Negative pressure breathing
5. Air sacs
6. Oxygen Transport
7. Carbon dioxide transport
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. Identify the Organs of the Respiratory System and its functions.
2. Identify the Plant structures responsible for gas exchange and its functions .
What Is It
INTRODUCTION:
Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves. They require oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis.
The gases diffuse into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through pores, which are normally on the underside of the
leaf - stomata. From these spaces they will diffuse into the cells that require them.
Stomatal opening and closing depends on changes in the turgor of the guard cells. When water flows into the guard
cells by osmosis, their turgor increases and they expand. Due to the relatively inelastic inner wall, the guard cells
bend and draw away from each other, so the pore opens. If the guard cells loose water the opposite happens and
the pore closes. The guard cells lower their water potential to draw in water from the surrounding epidermal cells, by
actively accumulating potassium ions. This requires energy in the form of ATP which, is supplied by the chloroplasts
in the guard cells.
Respiration occurs throughout the day and night, providing the plant with a supply of energy. Photosynthesis can
only occur during sunlight hours so it stops at night. A product of respiration is carbon dioxide.
This can be used directly by the plant in photosynthesis.
However, during the day, photosynthesis can be going 10 or even 20 times faster than respiration (depending on
light intensity), so the stomata must stay open so that the plant has enough carbon dioxide, most of which diffuses in
from the external atmosphere.
https://www.s-cool.co.uk/a-level/biology/gas-exchange/revise-it/gas-exchange-in-plants#:~:text=Plants%20obtain%20the%20gases%20they,underside
%20of%20the%20leaf%20%2D%20stomata.

Page | 7
In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by
diffusion across moist membranes. In simple animals, the exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with
complex animals, such as mammals, the exchange occurs between the environment and the blood. The blood then
carries oxygen to deeply embedded cells and transports carbon dioxide out to where it can be removed from the
body
Earthworms exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide directly through their skin. The oxygen diffuses into tiny blood
vessels in the skin surface, where it combines with the red pigment hemoglobin. Hemoglobin binds loosely to
oxygen and carries it through the animal’s bloodstream. Carbon dioxide is transported back to the skin by the
hemoglobin.
Terrestrial arthropods have a series of openings called spiracles at the body surface. Spiracles open into tiny air
tubes called tracheae, which expand into fine branches that extend into all parts of the arthropod body.
Fishes use outward extensions of their body surface called gills for gas exchange. Gills are flaps of tissue richly
supplied with blood vessels. As a fish swims, it draws water into its mouth and across the gills. Oxygen diffuses out
of the water into the blood vessels of the gill, while carbon dioxide leaves the blood vessels and enters the water
passing by the gills.
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/gas-exchange/mechanisms-for-gas-exchange#:~:text=In%20animals%2C
%20gas%20exchange%20follows,occurs%20directly%20with%20the%20environment.&text=Hemoglobin%20binds%20loosely%20to
%20oxygen%20and%20carries%20it%20through%20the%20animal's%20bloodstream.
What I’ve Learned
MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.
1. Which of these is the correct equation for photosynthesis?
a. carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen c. carbon dioxide + glucose → water +
oxygen
b. glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
2. Which gas is released when plant cells respire aerobically?
a. Oxygen b. Carbon dioxide c. Nitrogen
3. When does respiration happen in plants?
a. All the time b. Only during the day c. Only during the night
4. There is an overall uptake of carbon dioxide and release of oxygen by a plant under certain conditions. Which
statement about such a plant is correct?
a. Respiration is happening faster than photosynthesis
b. Photosynthesis and respiration are happening at the same rate
c. Photosynthesis is happening faster than respiration
5. How do plants obtain the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis?
a. By osmosis b. By diffusion c. By active transport.
6. Which of these is an adaptation of leaves for efficient gas exchange?
a. Tightly packed spongy mesophyll cells
b. A waxy cuticle on the upper surface of the leaf
c. Tiny pores, called stomata, in the lower epidermis
7. What happens to stomata in the light?
a. Their guard cells absorb water by osmosis, become turgid and the stomata open
b. Their guard cells absorb water by osmosis, become flaccid and the stomata close
c. Their guard cells lose water by osmosis, become turgid and the stomata open
8. When is the movement of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour at the surface of the leaf likely to be
greatest?
a. When the stomata are open c. When it is cool and humid
b. When the stomata are closed
9. What colour would hydrogencarbonate indicator be at high concentrations of carbon dioxide?
a. Purple b. Red c. Yellow
10. Net gas exchange from a leaf can be investigated using hydrogencarbonate indicator in a stoppered tube. Why
might one of the test leaves be boiled first?
a. To see if high temperatures increase the rate of photosynthesis and respiration
b. To show that a leaf has to be alive for it to affect the amount of carbon dioxide in the tube
c. To remove the waxy cuticle so that gas exchange can happen more quickly

Lesson 4 Transport and Circulation

What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners compare and contrast transport and circulation in plants and animals (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• explain the functions of structures in animal circulation; and
• trace the path of blood in the systemic and the pulmonary circulation
• describe the transport of substances in xylem and phloem;

Page | 8
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Define the following words.
1. Xylem 6. Arteries
2. Phloem 7. Veins
3. Diffusion 8. Valves
4. Cell transport 9. Systemic Circulation
5. Circulation 10. Pulmonary Circulation
What’s New
PRE ACTIVITY:
1. What are the functions of xylem and phloem?
What is It
INTRODUCTION:
Plants have two systems for the transportation of substances, by using two different types of transport tissue.
Water and solutes are transported by the xylem from the roots to the leaves, while food is transported by the
phloem from the leaves to the rest of the plant. Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from
the leaves, therefore causing more water to be drawn up from the roots. Plants have adaptations in order to
reduce the excessive loss of water.

Xylem and phloem

There are two transport systems present in the plant
to move food, water and minerals through their roots,
stems and leaves. These systems make use
continuous tubes called the xylem and phloem which
are also known as vascular bundles.
Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells
(inside the leaf) evaporates and then diffuses out of the
leaf. This is called transpiration.

https://sites.google.com/site/biopt14operationplant/plant-transport-
system#:~:text=There%20are%20two%20transport%20systems,also
%20known%20as%20vascular%20bundles.

Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular

organisms rely on simple diffusion for transport of nutrients
and removal of waste. Multicellular organisms have
developed more complex circulatory systems.
There are two types of circulatory systems found in
animals: open and closed circulatory systems.
Open circulatory systems
In an open circulatory system, blood vessels transport all
fluids into a cavity. When the animal moves, the blood
inside the cavity moves freely around the body in all
directions. The blood bathes the organs directly, thus
supplying oxygen and removing waste from the organs.
Blood flows at a very slow speed due to the absence of
smooth muscles, which, as you learnt previously, are
responsible for contraction of blood vessels. Most
invertebrates (crabs, insects, snails etc.) have an open
circulatory system

Page | 9
The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems. The pulmonary circulatory
system consists of blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and return
oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. In the systemic circulatory system, blood vessels transport
oxygenated blood from the heart to various organs in the body and return deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation system
In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood leaves the heart through the right ventricle and is
transported to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery is the only artery that carries deoxygenated
blood. It carries blood to the capillaries where carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli (lung cells)
and then into the lungs, where it is exhaled. At the same time, oxygen diffuses into the alveoli, and then enters the
blood and is returned to the left atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein.
Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulation system that leaves the heart, carrying oxygenated blood to
the body's cells, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. Blood leaves through the left ventricle into the
aorta, the body's largest artery. The aorta leads to smaller arteries that supply all organs of the body. These arteries
finally branch into capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells, and waste and carbon
dioxide diffuse out of cells and into blood. Deoxygenated blood in capillaries then moves into venules that merge
into veins, and the blood is transported back to the heart. These veins merge into two major veins, namely the
superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava (figure:doublecirculation). The movement of blood is indicated by
arrows on the diagram. The deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the the superior vena cava. Major
arteries supply blood to the brain, small intestine, liver and kidneys. However, systemic circulation also reaches the
other organs, including the muscles and skin

Pulmonary circulation system

Page | 10
Lesson 5 Regulation of Body Fluids
What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to describe excretory systems in animals especially the human urinary system and their
functions in homeostasis. (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• define some key terms related to osmoregulation;
• describe different types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body fluids in relation to the environment;
• enumerate the three types of nitrogenous wastes in animals;
• enumerate and describe excretory systems in invertebrates;
• characterize the mammalian urinary system and the role of nephrons; and
• analyze the role of the kidneys in the body’s acid-base balance.
What I Know
Page | 11
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Internal Environment 6. Osmoregulators
2. Osmolarity 7. Ammonia
3. Osmosis 8. Urea
4. Osmoregulation 9. Uric acid
5. Osmoconformers 10. Filtration
What’s New
PRE ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions briefly.
1. What are the possible consequences should there be a failure in the ability of the body to dispose or eliminate
toxic metabolic wastes?
2. What are the two types of animals based on the osmolarity of their body fluids in relation to the environment?
3. Identify the three types of nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals .
What Is It
INTRODUCTION:
Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules through a semipermeable membrane into an area that has a higher
solute concentration. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure needed to prevent the solvent from crossing the
membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the concentration of solute particles. In an organism, the solvent is water
and the solute particles are mainly dissolved salts and other ions, since larger molecules (proteins and
polysaccharides) and nonpolar or hydrophobic molecules (dissolved gases, lipids) don't cross a semipermeable
membrane. To maintain the water and electrolyte balance, organisms excrete excess water, solute molecules, and
wastes.
Osmoregulation Strategies of Different Organisms
Bacteria - When osmolarity increases around bacteria, they may use transport mechanisms to absorb electrolytes or
small organic molecules. The osmotic stress activates genes in certain bacteria that lead to the synthesis of
osmoprotectant molecules.
Protozoa - Protists use contractile vacuoles to transport ammonia and other excretory wastes from the cytoplasm to
the cell membrane, where the vacuole opens to the environment. Osmotic pressure forces water into the cytoplasm,
while diffusion and active transport control the flow of water and electrolytes.
Plants - Higher plants use the stomata on the underside of leaves to control water loss. Plant cells rely on vacuoles
to regulate cytoplasm osmolarity. Plants that live in hydrated soil (mesophytes) easily compensate for water lost
from transpiration by absorbing more water. The leaves and stem of the plants may be protected from excessive
water loss by a waxy outer coating called the cuticle. Plants that live in dry habitats (xerophytes) store water in
vacuoles, have thick cuticles, and may have structural modifications (i.e., needle-shaped leaves, protected stomata)
to protect against water loss. Plants that live in salty environments (halophytes) have to regulate not only water
intake/loss but also the effect on osmotic pressure by salt. Some species store salts in their roots so the low water
potential will draw the solvent in via osmosis. Salt may be excreted onto leaves to trap water molecules for
absorption by leaf cells. Plants that live in water or damp environments (hydrophytes) can absorb water across their
entire surface.
Animals - Animals utilize an excretory system to control the amount of water that is lost to the environment and
maintain osmotic pressure. Protein metabolism also generates waste molecules which could disrupt osmotic
pressure. The organs that are responsible for osmoregulation depend on the species.
Osmoregulation in Humans
In humans, the primary organ that regulates water is the kidney. Water, glucose, and amino acids may be
reabsorbed from the glomerular filtrate in the kidneys or it may continue through the ureters to the bladder for
excretion in urine. In this way, the kidneys maintain the electrolyte balance of the blood and also regulate blood
pressure. Absorption is controlled by the hormones aldosterone, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and angiotensin II.
Humans also lose water and electrolytes via perspiration.
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus of the brain monitor changes in water potential, controlling thirst and secreting
ADH. ADH is stored in the pituitary gland. When it is released, it targets the endothelial cells in the nephrons of the
kidneys. These cells are unique because they have aquaporins. Water can pass through aquaporins directly rather
than having to navigate through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane. ADH opens the water channels of the
aquaporins, allowing water to flow. The kidneys continue to absorb water, returning it to the bloodstream, until the
pituitary gland stops releasing ADH.

What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify the structures and functions of the Kidney.

Page | 12
Lesson 6 Immune Systems
What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to explain how immune systems work (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• compare innate and adaptive immune responses;
• define the term “antibody”;
• name the different kinds of antibodies produced by humans; and
• explain the function of each type of antibody.
• explain where T cells come from;
• identify the different types of T cells and
• describe the functions of T cells
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Innate immune Response 5. Cell mediated response
2. Adaptive immune response 6. antibodies
3. Immunity 7. antigen
4. Humoral Response 8. infection
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. What are the different types of Immunity?
What Is It
The immune system is typically divided into two categories--innate and adaptive--although these distinctions are not
mutually exclusive.
Innate immunity
Innate immunity refers to nonspecific defense mechanisms that come into play immediately or within hours of an
antigen's appearance in the body. These mechanisms include physical barriers such as skin, chemicals in the
blood, and immune system cells that attack foreign cells in the body. The innate immune response is activated by
chemical properties of the antigen.
Adaptive immunity
Adaptive immunity refers to antigen-specific immune response. The adaptive immune response is more complex
than the innate. The antigen first must be processed and recognized. Once an antigen has been recognized, the
adaptive immune system creates an army of immune cells specifically designed to attack that antigen. Adaptive
immunity also includes a "memory" that makes future responses against a specific antigen more efficient.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/immunology/page3.html

Page | 13
Human antibodies are classified into five isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgA, and IgE) according to their H chains, which
provide
each isotype
with distinct

characteristics and roles.

IgG
IgG is the most abundant antibody isotype in the blood (plasma), accounting for 70-75% of human immunoglobulins
(antibodies). IgG detoxifies harmful substances and is important in the recognition of antigen-antibody complexes by
leukocytes and macrophages. IgG is transferred to the fetus through the placenta and protects the infant until its
own immune system is functional.
IgM
IgM usually circulates in the blood, accounting for about 10% of human immunoglobulins. IgM has a pentameric
structure in which five basic Y-shaped molecules are linked together. B cells produce IgM first in response to
microbial infection/antigen invasion.
Although IgM has a lower affinity for antigens than IgG, it has higher avidity for antigens because of its
pentameric/hexameric structure. IgM, by binding to the cell surface receptor, also activates cell signaling pathways.
IgA
IgA is abundant in serum, nasal mucus, saliva, breast milk, and intestinal fluid, accounting for 10-15% of human
immunoglobulins. IgA forms dimers (i.e., two IgA monomers joined together). IgA in breast milk protects the
gastrointestinal tract of neonates from pathogens.
IgE
IgE is present in minute amounts, accounting for no more than 0.001% of human immunoglobulins. Its original role
is to protect against parasites. In regions where parasitic infection is rare, IgE is primarily involved in allergy.
IgD
IgD accounts for less than 1% of human immunoglobulins. IgD may be involved in the induction of antibody
production in B cells, but its exact function remains unknown.
T cell: A type of white blood cell that is of key importance to the immune system and is at the core of adaptive
immunity, the system that tailors the body's immune response to specific pathogens. The T cells are like soldiers
who search out and destroy the targeted invaders.
Immature T cells (termed T-stem cells) migrate to the thymus gland in the neck, where they mature and differentiate
into various types of mature T cells and become active in the immune system in response to a hormone called
thymosin and other factors. T-cells that are potentially activated against the body's own tissues are normally killed or
changed ("down-regulated") during this maturational process.

Page | 14
There are 3 main types of T cells: cytotoxic, helper, and regulatory. Each of them has a different role in the immune
response.
Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+)
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) have a co-receptor called CD8 on their cell surface. CD8 partners with the T cell receptor
and with MHC class I molecules, acting as a sort of bridge. This bridge allows cytotoxic T cells to recognize normal
cells that are infected by a pathogen. When the cytotoxic T cell recognizes the infected cell, it becomes activated
and produces molecules that kill the infected cell, destroying the pathogen in the process.

Regulatory T cells (Treg cells) also have CD4 on their surface, but they do not activate the immune system like
helper T cells do. Instead, regulatory T cells play a protective role by shutting off the immune response when it is no
longer needed. This prevents excessive damage to the normal cells and tissues in the body. Regulatory T cells
suppress the immune response in several ways, including:
 Producing anti-inflammatory cytokines that suppress the immune response
 Releasing molecules that kill activated immune cells
 Changing the way dendritic cells behave so they can't activate T cells
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet of paper:
a. Describe when inflammation is good and when it is bad.
b. What are the five hallmarks of inflammation?
c. What is the importance of inflammation in the immune response?

Lesson 7 Chemical and Nervous Control

What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners compare and contrast chemical and nervous control in plants and animals (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• explain how animals respond to environmental stimuli;
• describe the mechanisms of chemical and nervous control in animals;
• explain how plants respond to environmental stimuli; and
• describe the mechanisms of chemical control in plants.
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms
1. Nervous System 9. Autonomic Nervous System
2. Peripheral Nervous System 10. Axon
3. Central Nervous System 11. Myelin Sheath
4. Brain 12. Neurons
5. Spinal Cord 13. Hypothalamus
6. Motor Neurons 14. Tropisms
7. Sensory Neurons 15. Thermoreceptors
8. Somatic Nervous System 16. Pain receptors
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. How animals respond to environmental stimuli?
2. How plants respond to environmental stimuli?
What Is It
INTRODUCTION:
Animal behaviour is controlled by a nervous system, which is comprised of special nerve cells called neurons. The
nervous system operates according to the same general principles in all types of animals. The nervous system is
stimulated from the environment, through sensory receptors. A stimulus is any form of energy that can be detected
by the body. A signal is the physical coding of information (e.g., a message) capable of transmission through
environment. Sensory processing includes all central acts of information processing, which link the initial stages of

Page | 15
sensory reception with the creation of subjective sensory perception. Animals normally only respond to stimuli which
they select; they filter out certain stimuli that surround them, and react to others they choose to accept.
TYPES OF STIMULI
Stimuli can be of many types:
· Visual - what the animal sees · Tactile - what the animal feels
· Auditory -what the animal hears · Chemical - what the animal smells or tastes.
Types of sensory receptors Example of function
Mechano Receptors Sense deep touching
Corpuscles in the deep layers of skin Maintaining posture
Stretch receptors in skeletal muscles Senses of hearing and balance
Hair cells of vestibular apparatus and cochlea of inner ear
Thermo Receptors Monitor external temperature
Ends of sensory neurons in skin Monitor internal temperature
Neurons in hypothalamus
Chemo Receptors Monitor blood oxygen level
Receptor cells in arteries Sense taste
Taste bud receptors Sense smell
Sensor cells in surface layers of the nose
Photo Receptors Sense low light vision
Rod cells in retina Sense bright light and colour
Cone cells in retina
Pain Receptors Awareness of tissue damage
Ends of sensory neurons

Mechano Receptors
Mechanoreceptors are those which detect movement. Sound is generally detected through mechanoreceptors
which detect vibrations in air or water. Sound waves cause vibrations in air or water particles, which are then
detected by mechanisms such as vibration sensitive hairs (in the limb joints of many arthropods) or sensitive
membranes in the ears of mammals.
Thermo Reception
This refers to the sensitivity of nerve endings to temperature. The mechanism is similar to chemoreception; but has
not been studied and understood as extensively as chemoreception. Birds are thought to have relatively few
thermo-receptors compared with mammals. Birds do have thermo-receptors on their beak & tongue though. Many
reptiles have well developed thermo-receptors, both on the skin, and even in their brain. Some snakes hunt their
prey using body heat. Heat travels through the atmosphere as infra-red (long wavelength) electromagnetic radiation,
and is detected by cells sensitive to changes in temperature. Heat receptors are generally deeper in the body than
cold receptors.
Chemo Reception
This is the ability to identify and detect concentrations of chemical substances. Virtually every nerve cell is a
“chemoreceptor” (ie. It reacts to specific substances released by other nerve cells, in a specific way). There are two
types of chemo receptors:
· Exteroceptors – which detect chemicals in the external environment (ie. outside the animal);
· Interoceptors – which detect chemicals within the animal’s body (eg. in the blood, digestive system, etc
Pheromones
These are chemicals excreted by one animal in order to cause a response in another animal. E.g. The silkworm
moth produces a polyalcohol chemical (known as bombykol) from its abdominal gland, which attracts males of the
species from as much as several kilometres away. Research has found that the organic chemical for each
pheromone varies tremendously depending on what signal it entails.
Taste
Mammals in general can detect four basic tastes: acid, bitter, salt and sweet. In a human, different parts of the
tongue are affected by different tastes. The flavour of food depends upon both taste and smell.
Examples of Chemical Stimulation:
· Some clams will try to escape when placed in water that has had starfish in it.
· A cat becomes alert and flees when it smells a dog.
· When injured certain fish release a type of pheromone that alerts other fish to danger.
· Many animals release sex pheromones to attract a mate.
Photo Receptors - Sight
Vision in primitive animals might be little more than the simple discrimination of light or darkness. In more complex
animals, vision is however increasingly complex, allowing identification, formation and resolution of images and
colours. Sensory judgement in more complex animals (eg. mammals) depends upon not only differentiating
perceived images, but also the ability to be selective in what is seen (ie. separating the signal from noise).
https://www.acsedu.com/info/pets/animal-care-and-handling/animal-perception.aspx#:~:text=The%20nervous%20system%20is%20stimulated,be
%20detected%20by%20the%20body.&text=Animals%20normally%20only%20respond%20to,others%20they%20choose%20to%20accept.
Plant Responses
Like all organisms, plants detect and respond to stimuli in their environment. Unlike animals, plants can’t run, fly, or
swim toward food or away from danger. They are usually rooted to the soil. Instead, a plant’s primary means of
response is to change how it is growing. Plants also don’t have a nervous system to control their responses.
Instead, their responses are generally controlled by hormones, which are chemical messenger molecules.
Plant Tropisms
Plant roots always grow downward because specialized cells in root caps detect and respond to gravity. This is an
example of a tropism. A tropism is a turning toward or away from a stimulus in the environment. Growing toward

Page | 16
gravity is called geotropism. Plants also exhibit phototropism, or growing toward a light source. This response is
controlled by a plant growth hormone called auxin. As shown in Figure below, auxin stimulates cells on the dark side
of a plant to grow longer. This causes the plant to bend toward the light.
Daily and Seasonal Responses
Plants also detect and respond to the daily cycle of light and darkness. For example, some plants open their leaves
during the day to collect sunlight and then close their leaves at night to prevent water loss. Environmental stimuli
that indicate changing seasons trigger other responses. Many plants respond to the days growing shorter in the fall
by going dormant. They suspend growth and development in order to survive the extreme cold and dryness of
winter. Dormancy ensures that seeds will germinate and plants will grow only when conditions are favorable.
Responses to Disease
Plants don’t have immune systems, but they do respond to disease. Typically, their first line of defense is the death
of cells surrounding infected tissue. This prevents the infection from spreading. Many plants also produce hormones
and toxins to fight pathogens. For example, willow trees produce salicylic acid to kill bacteria. The same compound
is used in many acne products for the same reason. Exciting new research suggests that plants may even produce
chemicals that warn other plants of threats to their health, allowing the plants to prepare for their own defense. As
these and other responses show, plants may be rooted in place, but they are far from helpless.
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. What are the divisions of the nervous system?
2. Differentiate the functions of the endocrine and the nervous system

Lesson 8 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

.

What I Need to Know

Learning Competency
The learners should be able to describe the structures involved in major animal senses (STEM_BIO11/12-IVa-h-1)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• describe the five types of sensory receptors;
• illustrate the three types of eyes in animals;
• explain how vision occurs in humans;
• differentiate the parts of the human ear and describe the functions of each
• discuss how the senses of smell and taste detect chemicals.
• describe diverse means of animal locomotion;
• differentiate the three types of skeletal systems: hydrostatic, exoskeleton and endoskeleton
• explain how a muscle contracts.
What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms

1. Photoreceptors 8. Conjunctiva
2. Mechanoreceptors 9. Retina
3. Chemoreceptors 10. Optic Nerve
4. Thermoreceptors 11. Eustachian tube
5. Pain receptors 12. Hydrostatic Skeleton
6. Sclera 13. Endoskeleton
7. Cornea 14. Appendicular skeleton
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY:
1. How different animals sense their environment. Examples: dogs sniffing chemicals.

Animals Sense their environment

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What Is It
INTRODUCTION
A major role of sensory receptors is to help us learn about the environment around us, or about the state of our
internal environment. Different types of stimuli from varying sources are received and changed into the
electrochemical signals of the nervous system. This process is called sensory transduction.
Sensation is the activation of sensory receptors at the level of the stimulus. Perception is the central processing of
sensory stimuli into a meaningful pattern involving awareness. Perception is dependent on sensation, but not all
sensations are perceived.
Structural Receptor Types

Page | 17
The cells in the retina that respond to light stimuli are an example of a specialized receptor cell, a photoreceptor.
An exteroceptor is a receptor that is located near a stimulus in the external environment, such as the somatosensory
receptors that are located in the skin.
An interoceptor is one that interprets stimuli from internal organs and tissues, such as the receptors that sense the
increase in blood pressure in the aorta or carotid sinus.
A proprioceptor is a receptor located near a moving part of the body, such as a muscle or joint capsule, that
interprets the positions of the tissues as they move.
Functional Receptor Types
Chemical stimuli can be detected by a chemoreceptors that detect chemical stimuli, such as a chemicals that lead to
the sense of smell.
Physical stimuli, such as pressure and vibration, as well as the sensation of sound and body position (balance), are
interpreted through a mechanoreceptor.
Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a
thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature.
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/13-1-sensory-receptors/
The three types of eyes that have evolved in the animal kingdom are:
I. Eye cups in flatworms and other invertebrates
II. Compound eyes in insects and arthropods
III. Single lens eyes in squid

THE HUMAN EYE

http://jyssbio5158.weebly.com/the-human-eye.html
How hearing is possible in the human ear
The outer ear lobes catch sound waves and channel them to the eardrums. From the eardrum, the middle ear
amplifies the sound wave vibrations to three small bones – the hammer, anvil and stirrup. The sound waves travel to
the oval window. The Eustachian tube equalizes air pressure in the middle ear and outer ear. The hearing organ is
in the inner ear, composed of several channels of fluid wrapped in a spiral cochlea. This is encased in the bones of
the skull. Vibrations in the oval window produce pressure waves. These waves travel through the upper canal to the
tip of the cochlea, enter the lower canal and fade away. Pressure waves of the upper canal push down to the middle
canal and the membrane below this canal vibrates. These vibrations stimulate hair cells attached to the membrane
by moving them against the overlying tissue. The hair cells are able to develop receptor potentials causing release
of neurotransmitters that induce action potentials in the auditory neurons.
The three types of skeleton
I. Hydrostatic skeleton occurs in a body compartment in which a volume of fluid is held under pressure. This is
common in aquatic and burrowing animals. An example is the Hydra and other invertebrates with a semi-enclosed
body cavity made of a few layers of cells. There is no solid “bone” but the animal under aquatic pressure can stay
upright and move. Earthworms have smooth muscles and fluid-filled body compartments.

Page | 18
II. Rigid, armor-like coverings characterize an exoskeleton. Muscles are attached inside. Joints are thin and flexible.
The best examples are found in arthropods (insects, crustaceans). When insects grow, they shed off their old
“armor” and grow a new one. Cite other examples such as those in clams and snails.
III. An endoskeleton consists of rigid but flexible support made of bones, cartilage surrounded by masses of
muscles. In sponges, cells are supported on spicules. The endoskeleton of echinoderms is made from calcium
plates underneath the skin.
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. Explain echolocation in bats.
2. Discuss the evolution of the vertebrate eye.
3. Draw the differences among striated or skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle.

Lesson 9 Feedback Mechanisms

What I Need to Know
Learning Competency
The learners should be able to explain how some organisms can maintain steady internal conditions
(STEM_BIO11/12-IVi-j-2)
Specific Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
• explain the need for homeostasis; and
• describe how various organs systems enable homeostasis
• differentiate positive and negative feedback mechanisms
• outline the homeostatic control of temperature regulation, osmotic balance and glucose level regulation

What I Know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Define the following terms:
1. Homeostasis
2. Positive feedback mechanism
3. Negative feedback mechanism
What’s New
PRE-ACTIVITY: Answer the following questions.
1. Explain why homeostasis is important to organisms.
What Is It
INTRODUCTION:
Animal organs and organ systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes through a process called
homeostasis (“steady state”). Homeostasis means to maintain dynamic equilibrium in the body. It is dynamic
because it is constantly adjusting to the changes that the body’s systems encounter. It is equilibrium because body
functions are kept within specific ranges. Even an animal that is apparently inactive is maintaining this homeostatic
equilibrium.
Homeostatic Process
The goal of homeostasis is the maintenance of equilibrium around a point or value called a set point. While there
are normal fluctuations from the set point, the body’s systems will usually attempt to go back to this point. A change
in the internal or external environment is called a stimulus and is detected by a receptor; the response of the system
is to adjust the deviation parameter toward the set point. For instance, if the body becomes too warm, adjustments
are made to cool the animal. If the blood’s glucose rises after a meal, adjustments are made to lower the blood
glucose level by getting the nutrient into tissues that need it or to store it for later use.
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
Any homeostatic process that changes the direction of the stimulus is a negative feedback loop. It may either
increase or decrease the stimulus, but the stimulus is not allowed to continue as it did before the receptor sensed it.
In other words, if a level is too high, the body does something to bring it down, and conversely, if a level is too low,
the body does something to make it go up. Hence the term negative feedback. An example is animal maintenance
of blood glucose levels. When an animal has eaten, blood glucose levels rise. This is sensed by the nervous
system. Specialized cells in the pancreas sense this, and the hormone insulin is released by the endocrine system.
Insulin causes blood glucose levels to decrease, as would be expected in a negative feedback system
Positive Feedback Loop
A positive feedback loop maintains the direction of the stimulus, possibly accelerating it. Few examples of positive
feedback loops exist in animal bodies, but one is found in the cascade of chemical reactions that result in blood
clotting, or coagulation. As one clotting factor is activated, it activates the next factor in sequence until a fibrin clot is
achieved. The direction is maintained, not changed, so this is positive feedback. Another example of positive
feedback is uterine contractions during childbirth

Page | 19
What’s More
ACTIVITY:
1. Identify and describe 10 disorders that result from the disruption of homeostasis.

Credits to: Department of Education

Page | 20