Holy Angel University

School of Engineering and Architecture

Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Aerodyn2 (Aerodynamics 2)

Lecturer: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen

WING THEORY

DEFINITION OF WING PROPERTIES

Geometric Wingspan, b – is the distance between tip to tip of the wing, measured perpendicular to the
airplane of wing centerline, regardless of the geometric shape of the wing.

Wing Area, S - is the projection of the planform on a plane of reference which is usually the chord plane.

Wing aspect ratio, A:

b2
1. A   is the ratio of the square of the wing span to the total wing area.
S
b
2. A   is the ratio of the wing span to the mean aerodynami c chord .
c
S
3. A  2  is the ratio of the total wing area to the square of the mean aerodynami c chord .
c
Taper ratio, λ:
c
  t  is the ratio of the tip chord ct to the root chord cr .
cr
Mean aerodynamic chord, MAC:
2  2    1 
c  MAC  c r   for straight tapered wings.
3    1 

Sweep angle, Λ – is the angle between a line perpendicular to the centerline and the leading edge or the
quarter chord line. It is denoted as  L.E. or  c 4 .

1
Wing Aerodynamic Forces and Moment

2
 L  CL q S
D  CD q S
M  Cm q S c
Example No. 1: A straight, tapered wing 30 ft. span has leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep angle of 30o and
15o, respectively. Find the magnitudes of root chord, tip chord and the mean aerodynamic chord.
Given:

Required:
cr , ct , and MAC
Solution:
For ΔABC:
cr
tan 30 0 
15'
cr  (15' )(tan 30 0 )  8.66 ft
For ΔBCD:
c
tan 150  t
15'
ct  (15' )(tan 150 )  4.02 ft
ct 4.02
   0.464
cr 8.66
2  2    1   2   (0.464) 2  0.464  1
MAC  c  cr     8.66    6.62 ft
3   1   3   0 . 464  1 

Circulation, Downwash, Lift and Induced Drag

  e  i
Where:

3
 i  0
Hence,
  e

  e  i
Where:
  geometric angle of attack
 e  effective angle of attack
 i  induced angle of attack

Where:
V  freestream velocity
VR  resul tan t velocity

4
 w  downwash velocity
w
tan 1   i 
V
Where  i is in radians.
The total force on the wing is given by:
D
tan 1   i  1
L
w
Di  L  L i
V
Let:
w1  downwash far behind tthe wing
Two Methods of Calculating Lift
1. Momentum method
According to the linear momentum principle, assuming uniform downwash over S’,
w
L  V ( S 'V ) 1  w1 ( S 'V )
V
2. Energy method
The work done on the air mass per unit time equals the kinetic energy increase per unit time.
w2
DiV  S 'V 1
2
2
w
Di  S ' 1
2
From:
Di  L i
w12
D
S ' 2
L 1  2  S ' Vw1
1 w 2w
V
Equating for L, from momentum method and energy method:
LL
Vw 2
w1 ( S 'V )  S ' 1
2w
w1
1
2w
w1  2 w
Prandtl has shown that, with semi-elliptic lift distribution, the swept area is a circle whose diameter is the span
(b):

5
 b 2
S' 
4
From momentum method:
L  w1 ( S 'V )
 b 2  1
L   (2 w) V  b 2 wV
 4  2
But,
1
L  CL V 2 S
2
Equating for L:
LL
1 1
C L V 2 S  b 2 wV
2 2
2
C LVS  b w
C VS C V C V
w L 2  L 2  L
b b A

S
For induced angle of attack ,  i :
w C V / A
i   L
V V
C
 i (rad .)  L , where e  1.0
A
18.24C L
 i (deg .)  , where e  1.0
A
For induced drag ceofficient , C D1 :
Di  L i
C Di qS  C L qS i
CL
C Di  C L
A
C L2
C Di  , where e  1.0
A

6
 CL C2
Equations  i  and C Di  L are valid for wings with elliptical loading (i.e., uniform downwash
A A
distribution). The induced drag coefficient for this case has been shown to be minimum. This condition can be
achieved by using an elliptical planform.

For non  elliptic lift distributi on,

C
 i (rad .)  L
Ae
18.24C L
 i (deg .) 
Ae
2
C
C Di  L
Ae
Where:
e = span efficiency factor or Oswald’s efficiency factor (= 0.85 - 0.95 for the wing alone)
eA = effective aspect ratio, Aeff.
For total drag coefficient for a wing , C D :
C D  C D0  C Di
C L2
C D  C D0 
Ae
Where C D is the (lift independent) sum of skin friction and pressure drag.
0

Glauert has shown that , for rec tan gular wings , more nearly correct formulas are :
C
 i (rad .)  L 1   
A
18.24C L
 i (deg .)  1   
A
C2
C Di  L 1   
A

A τ δ
3 0.11 0.022
4 0.14 0.033
5 0.16 0.044
6 0.18 0.054
7 0.20 0.064
8 0.22 0.074
9 0.23 0.083

Example No. 1: A rectangular monoplane wing has a span of 14 meters and a chord of 2 meters. When
CL = 0.42, determine (a) Induced angle of attack (b)Induced drag coefficient.
Given:
Rectangular wing
b  14 m
c  2m
7
 CL = 0.42
Required:
 i and C Di
Solution:
18.24C L
 i (deg .)  1   
A

b 14 m
A  7
c 2m
In Table above,
τ = 0.20 and δ = 0.064 @ A = 7.
Hence,
18.24C L
i  1      (18.24)(0.42)  1  0.20  1.31deg .
A  7 
C 2
 (0.42) 2
C Di  L 1       1  0.064   0.0085
A  ( )(7) 

Example No. 2: A monoplane weighing 8,900 N has a span of 12 m. What is the induced drag at 3,000 m
altitude if the equivalent airspeed is 36 m/sec.? Assume e = 0.85.
Given:
W  8,900 N
b  12 m
h  3,000 m
Ve  36 m / sec
e  0.85
Required:
Di
Solution:
1
Di  C D1 V 2 S
2
2
C 1
Di  L V 2 S
Ae 2
At level flight,
1
L  W  C L V 2 S
2
W
CL 
1
V 2 S
2
Subst.,

8
 2
 
 W 
 
 1 V 2 S 
Di 2  1 V 2 S
Ae 2
2
W
Di 
1
Ae V 2 S
2
W2
Di 
b2 1
 e V 2 S
S 2
2
W 
 
b
Di   
1
e V 2
2
Where :
W
 span loading
b

At h = 3,000 m:
4.26 4.26
 ah   (0.00651 K / m)(3,000 m) 

   0 1    1.225 kg / m 3 1  288 K
  0.908 kg / m 3
 T0   
V V 36
V e  e   41.81 m / sec
  0.908
0 1.225
2 2
W   8,900 N 
   
 b  12 m 
Di    259.56 N
1 2 ( )( 0 . 85)( 0 . 5)( 0 . 908 kg / m 3
)( 41 . 81 m / sec) 2
e V
2

Correction of Airfoil Characteristics

Assume that two wings have high but different aspect ratios. Also assume that they have the same
airfoil. Tn that case, according to Prandl’s Lifting Line Theory if these wings are placed at different angle of
attack αa - αi , their lift coefficient CL must be the same where αa = α - α0 is the absolute angle of attack
and α0 is the angle of attack of zero lift.

9
 e  a  i
Where:
 e  effective angle of attack
 a  absolute angle of attack
 i  induced angle of attack
Where:
a   0
  geometric angle of attack
 0  angle of attack of zero lift
For wing No.1:
e  a  i
1 1

For wing No.2:

e  a  i
2 2

Equating for  e :
a  i  a  i
1 1 2 2

a  a  i  i
1 2 1 2

CL CL
a  a  
1
 ( Ae)1  ( Ae) 2
2

CL  1 1 
a  a  
1
  ( Ae)1 ( Ae) 2 
2 

Where  a is in radians.
 1 1 
 a   a  18.24C L   
 ( Ae)1 ( Ae) 2 
1 2

Where  a is in deg rees.

Since,
C L  a a
C
a  L
a
10
Substituti ng ,
CL CL CL  1 1 
    
a1 a2   ( Ae)1 ( Ae) 2 
Multiplyin g both sides by a2 / C L :
a2 a  1 1 
 1 2   
a1   ( Ae)1 ( Ae) 2 
a2
a1 
a  1 1 
1 2  
  ( Ae)1 ( Ae) 2 
Where :
a1  slope of lift curve of wing number 1
a2  slope of lift curve of wing number 2
Let :
a1  a  slope of lift curve of wing with finite aspect ratio
a2  a  slope of lift curve of wing with inf inite aspect ratio (two  dim ensional airfoil )
a
a
a
1 
Ae

Definition of terms:

Angle of attack - the acute angle between a reference line in a body and the line of the relative wind direction
projected on a plane containing the reference line and parallel to the plane of symmetry.

Absolute angle of attack - the angle of attack of an airfoil, measured from the attitude of zero lift.

Geometric angle of attack - simply referred to as the angle of attack, has been defined as the angle between
the relative wind and the wing chord.

Effective angle of attack - the angle of attack at which an airfoil produces a given lift coefficient in a two-
dimensional flow.

Induced angle of attack - the difference between the actual angle of attack for infinite aspect ratio of an airfoil
for the same lift coefficient.

Critical angle of attack - the angle of attack at which the flow about an airfoil changes abruptly as shown by
corresponding abrupt changes in the lift and drag.

Downwash velocity - the air velocity deflected perpendicular to the direction of motion of an airfoil, i.e., it is
the bending down of the air column upon which the wing acts while in flight.

Relative wind - the direction fro which the air comes in meeting the wing, this direction being the direction of
the airstream before it has been disturbed by the approaching wing.

11
Induced drag - part of the drag caused by lift.
Examples:
1. The slope of lift curve for infinite aspect ratio is 0.09 per degree. What is the CL for a wing with aspect ratio
of 6 at an angle of attack of 9 degrees measured from angle of zero lift? Assume e = o.85.

Given :
a  0.09 / deg .
 a  9 deg .
A6
e  0.85
Re quired :
CL
Solution :
C L  a a
a 
CL   a 
0.09 / deg .9 deg .  0.613
1 
a
1
18.24 deg .0.09 / deg .
Ae 60.85
2. The test results of NACA 23012 airfoil shows the following:

 (deg) cl
0 0.15
9 1.2

If the airfoil is used to construct an elliptical wing of A = 7.0, determine the wing lift curve slope.
Ans. a = 0.09/deg.
Given:

Required:
Slope of lift curve, a at A = 7
12
Solution:
cl cl2  cl1 1.2  0.15
a     0.117 / deg .
  2   1 90
a
a
a
1 
Ae
or:
a 0.117 / deg .
a   0.09 / deg .
18.24a (18.24 deg .)(0.117 / deg .)
1 1
Ae (7)(1)
3. An airfoil, with aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 90, CL = 1.067 and CD =0.0780. Find for the same
airfoil shape, the angle of attack and CD corresponding to CL = 1.067 for aspect ratio of 9.1. Assume e = 1.0.
Given:
A6  6
C L  1.067
 6  90
C D  0.0780
6

A9.1  9.1

Required:
 9.1 and C D 9.1
Solution:
 1 1 
 9.1   6  18.24C L    , where  in degrees
  Ae 9.1  Ae 6 
 1 1  0
 9.1  9 0  (18.24)(1.067)     7 .9
 (9.1)(1.0) (6)(1.0) 
2
CL  1 1  (1.067) 2  1 1 
C D9.1  C D6      0.078      0.057
   Ae 9.1  Ae 6    (9.1)(1.0) (6)(1.0) 
4. For a certain airfoil with infinite aspect ratio, the CL is 1.03 at 90 angle of attack and the corresponding CD is
0.067. Find the angle of attack and CD for an aspect ratio of 8, when CL is 1.03. Assume e = 1.0.
Given:
A  inf inite
C L  1.03
 e  90
C D0  0.067
Required:
 8 and C D8 at A8  8.
Solution:
  e   i
18.24C L
 (in deg .)   e 
Ae
13
 (18.24)(1.03)
 8  90   11.35 deg .
(8)(1.0)
C D  C D0  C D1
C L2
C D  C D0 
Ae
(1.03) 2
C D8  0.067   0.1092
( )(8)(1.0)

Assignment No. 1:
1. An airplane weighing 5,000 lbs. has a wing area of 250 ft2. If the lift-curve slope is 6.0 per radian and the
angle of attack of zero lift is –2 deg., calculate the angle of attack (in degrees) of this airplane at a level flight
speed of 200 mph under standard sea-level conditions.
Ans.   0.137 deg .

2. The rectangular wing model of 40 in. by 5 in. has the following characteristics determined from a wind tunnel
test: e = 0.87, C L = a = 0.09 per deg. and  o = -3o, if a full-scale rectangular wing of 42 ft by 6 ft is
constructed with the same airfoil section. What lift will it develop at  = 5o and 120 mph under standard sea-
level conditions? Assume e = 0.87 for the full-scale wing.
Ans. L =6,457.05 lb

3. An airfoil, with aspect ratio of 6, at an angle of attack of 7.50, has CL = 0.851 and CD =0.0530. Find for the
same airfoil shape, the angle of attack and CD corresponding to CL = 0.851 for aspect ratio of 8.7. Assume e =
1.0.
Ans.  8.7  6.7 0 and C D8.7  0.041

4. An airfoil of infinite aspect ratio, has a CD of 0.015 when CL is 1.1. (a) What is the CD for a similar airfoil
with aspect ratio of 8.5, when CL is 1.1? (b) What is the lift to drag ratio? Assume e = 1.0.
Ans. ( a ) C D8.5  0.0605 ; (b) L / D  18.18

WING STALL

Wing stall is due to flow separation. How the flow separation progresses chordwise and spanwise on a
wing depends on the following items:

1. Airfoil stall characteristics

2. Planform Geometry and Twist

The following planform effects are important in determining stall behavior

a) Taper Ratio

A rectangular wing – has a larger downwash angle at the tip than at the root. The effective angle of
attack at the tip is thus reduced, and therefore it will stall last. However, it is aerodynamically inefficient;
because the planform is far from elliptical so that it produces more induced drag.

14
 To reduce the induced drag, planform tapering to approximate the ideal elliptical planform is often used.
With the tip reduced, the local Reynold’s number and the induced angle of attack are decrease in the tip region.
Therefore, the tip section will tend to stall first for a tapered wing. This is undesirable from a standpoint of a
lateral stability in stall entries and stall recoveries. It is seen that as the taper ratio is decreased it promotes tip-
stall.

c) Aspect ratio

With increasing aspect ratio wing tends to behave more like an airfoil section. For that reason it can be
expected that C L increases with aspect ratio.
max

c) Sweep angle
For swept aft wings, since the wing tips are usually situated aft of the center of gravity, loss lift at the
tips causes the nose to come up. If the angle of attack is high originally, this will increase the angle of attack
further. This may result in loss of pitch control. This phenomenon is known as pitch – up.

Note that a swept forward wing would tend to exhibit pitch down.

In addition, because of the tendency toward spanwise flow, a swept –aft wing tends towards tip stall
because of boundary layer thickening. A swept forward wing for the same reason, will tend toward root-stall.

The trend is for to decrease with sweep angle (fore & aft)

d) Twist (or Wash out)

If the angles of attack C Lmax at various spanwise stations are not equal the wing is said to have twist. If
the angle of attack at the wing tip is less than that of the root, the wing is said to have washout. With washout,
the tips will be at a lower angle of attack than the root, and thus the tip stall may be delayed until after the stall
has occurred at the root.

Activity No. 1

Title: Corrected Airfoil Characteristics

15
 Aerodyn2
Aerodynamics 2

ACTIVITY NO. 1
CORRECTED AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

NAME:
SEMESTER: 2nd
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020 - 2021

ENGR. ROBERTO R. RENIGEN

INSTRUCTOR

16
ACTIVITY
No. 1 CORRECTED AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

NAME: SUBMISSION DATE:

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. ROBERTO R. RENIGEN RATING:

GIVEN:
Airfoil Profile : NACA: 4418

Design Aspect Ratio, AD =

PAGE 1 OF PAGES

17
ACTIVITY NO. 1 CORRECTED AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

EXPLANATION TABLE:

①, CL = Read from graph

②,  6 = Read from graph

③,  i = 18.24 KCL
Where:
1 1
k 
( Ae) D ( Ae) 6
e  ew

In Figure 9:23,
@ A6  6, ew6  0.90.
@ AD  , ewD  .
Therefore:
1 1
k  
( )( ) (6)(0.9)
 i = 18.24 KCL = 18.24k①

④,  D = ② + ③

⑤, CD6 = Read from graph

2
⑥, CDi = 0.318kCL = 0.318k①2

⑦, CDD = ⑤ + ③

⑧, Cos  D = Cos ④

⑨, Sin  D = Sin ④

⑩, CLCos  D = ① x ⑧

⑪, CDD Sin  D = ⑦ X ⑨
Page 2 of pages
18
⑫, CN = ⑩ + ⑪

⑬, CL Sin  D = ① X ⑨

⑭ CDD Cos D = ⑦ X ⑧

⑮ CC = ⑭ - ⑮

⑯ C.P. = Read from graph

⑰ Cmc / 4 = ( 0.25 - ⑯) X ⑫
⑱ Cma .c . = ⑰ + ( a.c. - 0.25 ) X ⑫

Where:
a.c.  0.25  0.4(t / c) 2

a.c.  0.25  (0.4)(0.18) 2  0.237

⑲ CDi = ⑥ / KAD

⑳ C D0 = ⑦ - ⑲

19
ACTIVITY NO. 1 CORRECTION AIRFOIL CHARACTERISTICS

① ② ③ ④ ⑤ ⑥ ⑦ ⑧ ⑨ ⑩
CL 6  i D CD6 CDi CDD Cos  D Sin  D CLCos  D

----- deg. deg. deg. -----

0.00 -3.40 0.00 -3.40 0.0100 0.0000 0.0100 0.99824 - 0.00000
0.05931
0.20 -0.60 - -0.68 0.0150 - 0.0147 0.99993 - 0.19999
0.08 0.0003 0.01193
0.40 2.00 - 1.83 0.0200 - 0.0188 0.99949 0.03199 0.39980
0.17 0.0012
0.60 5.00 - 4.75 0.0325 - 0.0299 0.99657 0.08281 0.59794
0.25 0.0026
0.80 7.50 - 7.17 0.0500 - 0.0454 0.99219 0.12476 0.79375
0.33 0.0046
1.00 10.50 - 10.08 0.0750 - 0.0677 0.98455 0.17508 0.98455
0.42 0.0073
1.20 13.50 - 13.00 0.1040 - 0.0935 0.97437 0.22495 1.16924
0.50 0.0105
1.40 17.00 - 16.42 0.1450 - 0.1308 0.95923 0.28262 1.34293
0.58 0.0142
1.45 18.50 - 17.90 0.1650 - 0.1497 0.95162 0.30729 1.37985
0.60 0.0153

⑪ ⑫ ⑬ ⑭ ⑮ ⑯ ⑰ ⑱ ⑲ ⑳
CDD Cos D C N CL Sin  DCDD Cos D CC C.P. Cmc / 4 Cma .c . CDi C D0

%
-0.00059 - 0.0000 0.00998 0.010 - - - 0.00 0.01
0.0 0 0 00 00
01
-0.00018 0.2 - 0.01471 0.017 57.5 - - 0.00 0.01
00 0.0023 1 0 11.4391 11.4417 18 29
9 4 3

20
0.00060 0.4 0.0128 0.01883 0.006 40.0 - - 0.00 0.01
00 0 0 0 15.9158 15.9210 73 16
2 1
0.00247 0.6 0.0496 0.02978 - 35.0 - - 0.01 0.01
00 8 0.019 0 20.8643 20.8721 64 35
9 9 7
0.00566 0.7 0.0998 0.04500 - 32.5 - - 0.02 0.01
99 0 0.054 0 25.7809 25.7912 91 63
8 0 6
0.01186 0.9 0.1750 0.06669 - 30.0 - - 0.04 0.02
96 8 0.108 0 29.6432 29.6562 54 23
4 9 1
0.02104 1.1 0.2699 0.09114 - 29.8 - - 0.06 0.02
90 4 0.178 9 35.2800 35.2955 54 81
8 7 0
0.03696 1.3 0.3956 0.12543 - 29.5 - - 0.08 0.04
80 7 0.270 0 40.3615 40.3793 90 17
2 0 8
0.04601 1.4 0.4455 0.14248 - 29.3 - - 0.09 0.05
26 6 0.303 6 41.5065 41.5250 55 42
1 9 7

21