Sinusoidal waveforms

If we move a conductor through a magnetic field

so that it cuts magnetic lines of flux as shown in
Fig. 1, a voltage is induced across the conductor
that can be measured with a sensitive voltmeter.

Figure 1

If we now go a step further and move a coil of N

turns through the magnetic field as shown in the
Fig. 2, a voltage will be induced across the coil as
determined by Faraday’s law:

Figure 2
For the sinusoidal waveform in Fig. 1.

Solutions
 INDUCED VOLTAGE

The inductance of a coil is also a measure of the change in flux linking

the coil due to a change in current through the coil. That is,

This equation for the current of a capacitor :

1:

the applied voltage has to supply ohmic voltage drop only

2:
  V I
vi  Vm I m sin t sin(t  )  Vm I m sin t cos t   m m sin 2t
2 2
3:

dq d
i  (CVm sin t )  CVm c os t
dt dt
V V 
i  m cos t  m sin(t  )
1 1 2
C C
dq d
i  (CVm sin t )  CVm cost
dt dt
V V
Im  m  m
1 XC
C

i  I m sin(t  )
2
  Vm I m
vi  Vm I m sin t sin(t  )  Vm I m sin t cos t  sin 2t
2 2

2
power for the whole cycle =  sin(2t )dt  0
0
 AVERAGE VALUE

Even though the concept of the average value is an important one in most technical
fields, its true meaning is often misunderstood. In Fig. 1(a), for example, the average
height of the sand may be required to determine the volume of sand available. The
average height of the sand is that height obtained if the distance from one end to the
other is maintained while the sand is leveled off, as shown in Fig. 1 (b). The area under
the mound in Fig. 1(a) then equals the area under the rectangular shape in Fig. 1(b) as
determined by (A = b X h).
Of course, the depth (into the page) of the sand must be the same for Fig. 1(a) and (b) for
the preceding conclusions to have any meaning.

FIG. 1 Defining average value

FIG. 2 Effect of distance (length) on average value. FIG. 3 Effect of depressions (negative excursions)
on average value
 AVERAGE Speed

FIG. 4 Plotting speed versus time for an automobile excursion.

if we let G denote the average value, as follows:

The algebraic sum of the areas must be determined, since some area contributions are from below the
horizontal axis. Areas above the axis are assigned a positive sign, and those below, a negative sign. A
positive average value is then above the axis, and a negative value, below.
AVERAGE Value of Sinusoidal Waveform
 The average Value for one complete cycle (pure sinusoidal waveform)

the average value of a pure sinusoidal waveform over one full cycle is zero.
Determine the average value of the waveform

Notice That :
the average value of a pure sinusoidal waveform over one full cycle is zero.
 EFFECTIVE VALUES (root mean square - rms)

This section begins to relate dc and ac quantities with respect to the power delivered to
a load. It will help us determine the amplitude of a sinusoidal ac current required to
deliver the same power as a particular dc current. The question frequently arises, How
is it possible for a sinusoidal ac quantity to deliver a net power if, over a full cycle, the
net current in any one direction is zero (average value 0)? It would almost appear that
the power delivered during the positive portion of the sinusoidal waveform is
withdrawn during the negative portion, and since the two are equal in magnitude, the
net power delivered is zero. However, understand that regardless of direction, current
of any magnitude through a resistor delivers power to that resistor. In other words,
during the positive or negative portions of a sinusoidal ac current, power is being
delivered at each instant of time to the resistor. The power delivered at each instant, of
course, varies with the magnitude of the sinusoidal ac current, but there will be a net
flow during either the positive or the negative pulses with a net flow over the full cycle.
The net power flow equals twice that delivered by either the positive or the negative
regions of sinusoidal quantity.
A fixed relationship between ac and dc voltages and currents can be derived from the
experimental setup shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 An experimental setup to establish a relationship between dc and ac quantities.

The power delivered by the dc supply is

The power delivered by the ac supply at any instant of time is

 Equating the average power delivered by the ac generator to that delivered by the dc
source,

The equivalent dc value is called the rms or effective value of the sinusoidal quantity.
 SERIES ac CIRCUITS
IMPEDANCE AND THE PHASOR DIAGRAM

(1) Resistive Elements R

In phasor form
Vm
v  Vm sin(t )  V 0  VR 0 where V   0.707Vm
2
Im
i  I m sin(t )  I 0 =I R 0 where I   0.707 I m
2

IR VR
(2) Inductor Elements L

In phasor form
v  Vm sin(t )  V 0  VL 0
i  I m sin(t  90)  I   90  I L   90

VL

VL

IL
IL
(3) Capacitive Elements C

In phasor form
v  Vm sin(t )  V 0
i  I m sin(t  90)  I 90

IC

VC IC

VC
 ac through resistance and inductance (R-L)

Figure 1

Dividing all quantities by I

By using vector summation

V  VR2  VL2  ( IR ) 2  ( IX L ) 2  I R 2  X L 2
the quantity R 2  X L 2 is know as the impedance Z
where
Z  R2  X L2 or Z 2  R2  X L2
Figure 2
 Power Calculation of R-L Series Circuit

The total power or apparent power (S) is calculated

by multiplying the voltage vectors of Figure 1 by I
as shown in Figure 3 where,
S  IV  it is defined as apparent power (VA)
P  IVR  it is defined as actual power or active power (W ) IV
IVL
Q  IVL  it is defined as inductive reactive power (VAR )

IVR
S  P Q 2 2
or S  P  Q
2 2 2

S  IV
Q  IVL

P  IVR
Figure 3
 Power Factor

By analysis the apparent power S to two components

vertical component and horizontal component as follow :
S  IV
Q  IVL

S  P Q 2 2
or S  P  Q
2 2 2

P  IVR

The horizontal component of S

Q  VI sin 
is equal to active power P where
(reactive power) S  IV
P  VI cos 
The vertical component of S 
is equal to reactive power Q where P  VI cos 
Q  VI sin  (active power)

cos   is defined as the power factor and it is equal

Active power P
cos   
Apparent power S
 ac through resistance and capacitance (R-C)

Figure 4

Dividing all quantities by I

By using vector summation

V  VR2  VC2  ( IR ) 2  ( IX C ) 2  I R 2  X C 2
the quantity R 2  X C 2 is know as the impedance Z
where
Z  R2  X C 2 or Z 2  R2  X C 2
Figure 5
 Power Calculation of R-C Series Circuit

S  IV  it is defined as apparent power (VA)

P  IVR  it is defined as actual power or active power (W )

Q  IVC  it is defined as capactive reactive power (VAR )

S  P2  Q2 or S 2  P 2  Q2 P  IVR

Q  IVL
P  VI cos  S  IV

Q  VI sin  P  VI cos 
(active power)
Active power P 
cos    Q  VI sin 
Apparent power S
S  IV (reactive power)

Figure 6
 Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance in Series

V  VR2  (VL  VC )  ( IR ) 2  ( IX L  IX C ) 2  I R 2  X 2

where X is the net reactance

S  P2  Q2

P  VI cos 
Q  VI sin 
Active power P
cos   
Apparent power S
 Solved Problems

1. Determine the input impedance (total impedance) to the series network in Fig. 1. Draw
the impedance diagram.

Figure 1
2. Using the voltage divider rule, find the voltage across each element of the circuit in Fig. 2.

Figure 2
3. Using the voltage divider rule, find the unknown voltages VR , VL , VC , and V1 for the
circuit in Fig. 3.

Figure 3
4. Using the current divider rule, find the current through each impedance in Fig. 4.

Figure 4
5. Using the current divider rule, find the current through each parallel branch in Fig. 5.

Figure 5
6. For the network in Fig.6.

Figure 6
7. For the network in Fig.7.

Figure 7
8. Using the general approach to mesh analysis, find the current I1 in Fig.8.

Figure 8
Using mesh analysis
9. Write the mesh equations for the network in Fig.9.

Figure 9
10. Using the format approach to nodal analysis, find the voltage across the 4Ω resistor in
Fig.10.

Figure 10