CHAPTER SEVEN

ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Alternating Quantities
(i) The time taken to complete one cycle of variations is called
the periodic time or time period.
(ii) Alternating quantity is positive for half the cycle and
negative for the rest half. Hence average value of alternating
quantity (i or V) over a complete cycle is zero.
(iii) The value of alternating quantity is zero or maximum 2
times every second. The direction also changes 2 times every
second.
(iv) Generally sinusoidal waveform is used as alternating
current/voltage.
T
(v) At t = from the beginning, i or V reaches to their
4
maximum value.

 Important Values of Alternating Quantities

(1) Peak value (i0 or V0) : The maximum value of
alternating quantity (i or V) is defined as peak value or
amplitude.
(2) Mean square value (𝐕 𝟐 𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝟐 ) : The average of square of
instantaneous values in one cycle is called mean square value.
It is always positive for one complete cycle. e.g. V2 =
1 T 2 V20 i20
∫ V dt = or i2 =
T 0 2 2
(3) Root mean square (r.m.s.) value : Root of mean of
square of voltage or current in an ac circuit for one complete
cycle is called r.m.s. value. It is denoted by Vrms or irms
i0
irms = = 0.707 i0 = 70.7% i0
√2
V0
Vrms = = 0.707V0 = 70.7%of V0
√2
(i) The r.m.s. value of alternating current is also called virtual
value or effective value.
(ii) In general when values of voltage or current for alternating
circuits are given, these are r.m.s. value.
(iii) ac ammeter and voltmeter always measure r.m.s. value.
Values printed on ac circuits are r.m.s. values.
(iv) In our houses ac is supplied at 220 V, which is the r.m.s.
value of voltage. Its peak value is √2 × 200 = 311V.
(4) Mean or Average value (iav or Vav) : The average value
of alternating quantity for one complete cycle is zero.
The average value of ac over half cycle (t = 0 to T/2)

2i0
iav = = 0.637i0 = 63.7% of i0,
π
2V0
Vav = = 0.637V0 = 63.7% of V0.
π
 Phase
Physical quantity which represents both the instantaneous
value and direction of alternating quantity at any instant is
called its phase. It's a dimensionless quantity and its unit is
radian.
If an alternating quantity is expressed as X = X0 sin( ωt ± φ0 )
then the argument of sin( ωt + φ) is called its phase. Where t
= instantaneous phase (changes with time) and φ0 = initial
phase (constant w.r.t. time)

 Phase difference (Phase constant) :

The difference between the phases of currents and voltage is
called phase difference. If alternating voltage and current are
given by 𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑1 ) and 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑2 ) then
phase difference  = 1 – 2 (relative to current) or 𝜑 = 𝜑2 − 𝜑1
(relative to voltage)
 Phasor diagram :
A diagram representing alternating current and alternating
voltage (of same frequency) as vectors (phasors) with the
phase angle between them is called a phasor diagram.

 Impedance, Reactance, Admittance and Susceptance

(1) Impedance (Z) : The opposition offered by ac circuits to
the flow of ac through it is defined its impedance. Its unit is
ohm().
(2) Reactance (X) : The opposition offered by inductor or
capacitor or both to the flow of ac through it is defined as
reactance. It is of following two types
 Inductive reactance (XL) : Offered by inductive
circuit 𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂𝑳 𝜈𝑑𝑐 = 0 so for dc, XL = 0.
 Capacitive reactance (XC) : Offered by capacitive
𝟏 𝟏
circuit 𝑿𝑪 = = for dc XC = .
𝝎𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝝂𝑪

 Power in ac Circuits
In dc circuits power is given by P = Vi. But in ac circuits,
since there is some phase angle between voltage and
current, therefore power is defined as the product of voltage
and that component of the current which is in phase with
the voltage.
Thus 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑; where V and i are r.m.s. value of voltage
and current.

(1) Instantaneous power :

Suppose in a circuit
𝑉 = 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 and 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) then
𝑃instantaneous = 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉0 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
(2) Average power (True power) :
The average of instantaneous power in an ac circuit over
a full cycle is called average power.
Its unit is watt i.e.
𝑉0 𝑖0 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = . 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 𝑉0 𝑖0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
√2 √2 2
2
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
= 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅=
𝑍2
(3) Apparent or virtual power : The product of apparent
voltage and apparent current in an electric circuit is called
𝑉𝑖
apparent power. This is always positive 𝑃𝑎𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0 0
2

 Power Factor
(1) It may be defined as cosine of the angle of lag or lead
(i.e. cos)
(2) It is also defined as the ratio of resistance and impedance
𝑅
(i.e. )
𝑍
True power 𝑊 𝑘𝑊
(3) The ratio = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑
Apparent power 𝑉𝐴 𝑘𝑉𝐴

 Resistive Circuit (R-Circuit)

(1) Current :𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 R

𝑉0
(2) Peak current : 𝑖0 = i
𝑅
(3) Phase difference between
voltage and current :  = 0o
(4) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 1
𝑉0 𝑖0
(5) Power : 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
(6) Phasor diagram : Both are in same phase
i
V
 Inductive Circuit (L-Circuit)
𝜋 L
(1) Current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − )
2
i
(2) Peak current :
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
𝑖0 = = =
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 2𝜋𝜈𝐿
(3) Phase difference between
𝜋
voltage and current 𝜑 = 90𝑜 (or + )
2
(4) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 0
(5) Power : P = 0
𝜋
(6) Phasor diagram : Voltage leads the current by
2
V V

90o
90o or
i
i

 Capacitive Circuit (C-Circuit)

𝜋
(1) Current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2 C

(2) Peak current :

𝑉0 i
𝑖0 = = 𝑉0 𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉0 (2𝜋𝜈𝐶)
𝑋𝐶

(3) Phase difference between

𝜋
voltage and current : 𝜑 = 90𝑜 (or − )
2
(4) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 0
(5) Power : P = 0
(6) Phasor diagram : Current leads the voltage by /2
i
i
90o
or
90o
V
V
 Resistive, Inductive Circuit (RL-Circuit)
R L

V
VL
VR VL
i


VR i

VR = iR & VL = iXL

(1) Applied voltage : 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2

(2)Impedance:

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2 = √𝑅 2 + 4𝜋 2 𝜈 2 𝐿2

(3) Current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
(4) Peak current 𝑖0 = = =
𝑍 √𝑅 2 +4𝜋2𝜈2 𝐿2
√𝑅 2 +𝑋𝐿2

𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿
(5) Phase difference : 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝑅
𝑅
(6) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 =
√𝑅 2 +𝑋𝐿2

(7) Leading quantity : Voltage

 Resistive, Capacitive Circuit (RC-Circuit)

R C
VR
 i
VR VC
i
VC V

VR = iR & VC = iXC
(1) Applied voltage : 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2
1 2
(2) Impedance : 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2 = √𝑅 2 + ( )
𝜔𝐶
 (3) Current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
(4) Peak current : 𝑖0 = = =
𝑍 1
√𝑅 2 +𝑋𝐶2 √𝑅 2 +
4𝜋 𝜈2 𝐶2
2
𝑋𝐶 1
(5) Phase difference : 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
𝑅
(6) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 =
√𝑅 2 +𝑋𝐶2

(7) Leading quantity : Current

 Inductive, Capacitive Circuit (LC-Circuit)

L C
VL

V= (VL – VC)
VL VC
90o
i

VC i

VL = iXL & VC = iXC

(1) Applied voltage : 𝑉 = 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶

(2) Impedance : 𝑍 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋
𝜋
(3) Current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 ± )
2
𝑉0 𝑉0 𝑉0
(4) Peak current : 𝑖0 = = = 1
𝑍 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐿−𝜔𝐶

(5) Phase difference :  = 90o

(6) Power factor : 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜑 = 0
(7) Leading quantity : Either voltage or current

 Series RLC-Circuit
R L C
VL
(VL – VC) V
VR VL VC
i i

VR i
V = V0 sint VC
Phasor diagram

VR = iR, VL = iXL & VC = iXC

 𝑉0
(1) Equation of current : 𝑖 = 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜑); where 𝑖0 =
𝑍
(2) Equation of voltage : From phasor diagram
𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2
(3) Impedance of the circuit :
1 2
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶
(4) Phase difference : From phasor diagram
1 1
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 −𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐿− 2𝜋𝜈𝐿−
𝜔𝐶 2𝜋𝜈𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜑 = = = =
𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
(5) If net reactance is inductive : Circuit behaves as LR
circuit
(6) If net reactance is capacitive : Circuit behave as CR
circuit
(7) If net reactance is zero : Means 𝑋 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 = 0
 XL = XC . This is the condition of resonance
(8) At resonance (series resonant circuit)
(i) XL = XC  Zmin = R i.e. circuit behaves as resistive circuit
(ii) VL = VC  V = VR i.e. whole applied voltage appeared
across the resistance
(iii) Phase difference :  = 0o  p.f. = cos  = 1
1
(iv) Power consumption P = Vrms irms = 𝑉0 𝑖0
2
𝑉0
(v) Current in the circuit is maximum and it is 𝑖0 =
𝑅
(vi) These circuit are used for voltage amplification and as
selector circuits in wireless telegraphy.
(9) Resonant frequency (Natural frequency)
At resonance 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶
1 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
 𝜔0 𝐿 =  𝜔0 =  𝜈0 = 𝐻𝑧
𝜔0 𝐶 √𝐿𝐶 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
(Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of
the circuit)
 Band width () : The difference of half power frequencies
𝜔1 and 𝜔2 is called band width () and 𝛥𝜔 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 . For
𝑅
series resonant circuit it can be proved 𝛥𝜔 = ( )
𝐿
(10) Quality factor (Q-factor) of series resonant circuit
(i) The characteristic of a series resonant circuit is determined
by the quality factor (Q - factor) of the circuit.
(ii) It defines sharpness of i -  curve at resonance when Q -
factor is large, the sharpness of resonance curve is more and
vice-versa.
(iii) Q - factor also defined as follows
Max. energy stored
Q - factor = 2𝜋 ×
Energy dissipation
2𝜋 Max. energy stored Resonant frequency 𝜔0
= × = =
𝑇 Mean power dissipated Band width 𝛥𝜔
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐶 𝜔0 𝐿 1
(iv) Q - factor = or = or
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅 𝑅 𝜔0 𝐶𝑅

1 𝐿
⇒ 𝑄-factor = √
𝑅 𝐶

i R=0
Q - factor = Infinity

R = Very low
Q- factor = Large
R = low
Q- factor = Normal
R = High
Q- factor = Low
0 
Resonance curve
 Wattless Current
In an ac circuit R = 0  cos = 0 so Pav = 0 i.e. in resistance
less circuit the power consumed is zero. Such a circuit is called
the wattless circuit and the current flowing is called the
wattless current.
or
The component of current which does not contribute to the
average power dissipation is called wattless current