Institute of Public Management and Development Studies

Department of Public Management

Title of Thesis:
Factors Affecting Women Participation in Political Leadership: The
Case of Dire Dawa City Administration

By:
Suad Mohammed Umer
ID. No PMM 0079/06

Under the Supervision of

Dr. Bersisa Kacho

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Public Management, Ethiopian Civil Service

University, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of a Masters Degree in
Public Management.

May, 2015
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

i
 Declaration

I Suad Mohammed, Registration Number/I.D. Number PMM 0079/2006, do hereby

declare that this Thesis is my original work and that it has not been submitted
partially, or in full, by any other person for an award of a degree in any other
university/institution.

Name of Participant --------------------------------- Signature------------------------------

Date-------------------------------------

This Thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as University
supervisor.

Name of Advisor--------------------------------------- Signature-----------------------------

Date------------------------------------

i
 Approval

The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommend to the Ethiopian
Civil Service University to accept the Thesis submitted by
--------------------------------------------------------------------, and entitled
“------------------------------------------------------------------------------“, in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for award of Masters Degree in Public Management.

Name of Advisor ---------------------------------------------- Signature------------------

Date------------------------

Name of Internal Examiner------------------------------------------- Signature---------------

Date---------------------

Name of External Examiner----------------------------------------- Signature----------------

Date---------------------

Name of Head of Department-------------------------------------- Signature-----------------

Date-----------------------

ii
 Abstract

Nowadays, issues of political participation of women become increasing all over the
world. But still it doesn’t reach the expected level and their participation limited at a
lower level position. The situation is similar in Dire Dawa administration. The main
purpose of this research is to assess factors affecting women’s participation in
political leadership in Dire Dawa Administration. What are the socio-cultural,
economic and political factors, what is the attitudes of women toward politics and is
there favorable policy environment are the major research questions. To do so, this
study employed both qualitative and quantitative research approach and descriptive
type of survey was used in order to get better and deep information. Besides both
primary and secondary data sources were used to examine the issues under
discussion and data has collected using questionnaires, interview and FGD. 135
sample sizes were employed and respondents were selected randomly from the
selected 5 sectoral bureaus and administrative council. In addition, 7 higher political
leaders including the mayor for interview and 6 chairman of standing committee and
3 heads of women organization (league, federation and union) for FGD were
purposefully selected to support the study. Inferential statistics were also employed to
analyze the quantitative data. Questionnaire survey was administered by women
employee and women member of the administrative council. The study result shows
that although there is improvement in the participation of women in political
leadership, their representation in different leadership position especially at the
higher level position is very low. There are different factors behind this. Socio-
cultural, economic, political, psychological and inappropriate implementation of
policies and strategies are among the major factors. Finally, the study concluded by
providing possible recommendations that, to increase the participation of women’s in
political leadership position, much work should be done to solve influencing factors
such as empowering women economically, working on the perception of the societies
and men political leaders, creating conducive political environment for women,
develop women confidence on themselves by using different mechanism and properly
implementing the stated policies, strategies, programs and packages to solve those
factors hindering women participation and gender inequality.

Key words: women, factors, political participation, leadership.

iii
 Acknowledgment

First of all I would like to thank my Allah, who gave me this unthought chance and
reach me this stage and next to my Mom who I haven’t words to express her debt for
me. I’m highly indebted to her. Her interest and encouragement to support me all the
time which perhaps has given me my strongest reason for believing in the courage and
sheer commitment towards going in my life Endeavour, Generally, She is a reason
behind the stage I present now. A great thanks also to my grand Mom who support me
by covering almost all what I need financially during learning session.

A heartfelt thanks to my esteemed Advisor, Dr. Bersisa Kacho, who gave me valuable
constructive comments though the course of this study to make this thesis valid, he
was sharing me his technical and immense knowledge of his research experience and
he was always appreciating my job.

My great thank to my beloved elder brother Hussein Mohammed, he always

appreciates and motivates me to higher achievements in every moment and continue
supporting me morally and financially and he was always with me. In addition, many
thanks to my friends who were supporting me during my thesis work.

Finally, at last but not the list my thanks goes to all respondents participated in this
study specially the higher officials, political leaders and the selected bureau’s head
whose gave me valuable data’s which is important for my study.

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 Table of Content

Title Pag

Declaration ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i

Approval------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii

Abstract-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii

Acknowledgement------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv

Table of Content----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v

List of Tables-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------viii

List of Figures-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------ix

List of Charts-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------x

List of Appendices-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
xiii

Acronyms/Appreciation----------------------------------------------------------------------xiv

Chapter One: Introduction-------------------------------------------------------1

1.1 Background of the Study......................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem.....................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives of the study........................................................................................3
1.3.1 Main Objective..............................................................................................3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives........................................................................................3
1.4 Research Questions..............................................................................................3
1.5 Significance of the Study......................................................................................4
1.6 Scope of the study................................................................................................4
1.7 Description of the Study Area..............................................................................5
1.8 Organization of the paper.....................................................................................7
1.9 Limitation.............................................................................................................8
Chapter Two: Literature Review------------------------------------------------9
2.1 Conceptual Literature Review..............................................................................9

v
 2.1.1. Definition and Concepts of Political Participation and Leadership..............9
2.1.1.1 Participation................................................................................................9
2.1.1.2 Political Participation..................................................................................9
2.1.1.3 Leadership.................................................................................................10
2.1.1.4 Political Leadership..................................................................................10
2.2 Theoretical Framework......................................................................................11
2.2.1 An overview of women’s political participation in international and national
perspectives...........................................................................................................11
2.2.2 Importance of women participation in political leadership.........................13
2.2.3 Main Factors that Affect Women’s Participation in Political Leadership...14
2.2.3.1 Socio-Cultural Influences.........................................................................14
2.2.3.2 Socio-economic Influences.......................................................................15
2.2.3.3 Political Factors........................................................................................17
2.2.3.4 Women’s attitude to participate in politics...............................................18
2.3. Empirical Framework.......................................................................................19
2.3.1 Women & Leadership..................................................................................19
2.3.2 Prior research and research gap...................................................................20
2.4 Conceptual Framework on Women’s participation in political leadership.......23
Chapter Three: Research Methodology---------------------------------------24
3.1. Operational definition of independent variables...............................................24
3.2. Indicators of independent variables...................................................................25
3.3. Research Design................................................................................................26
3.4. Data Collection Methods and Data Sources......................................................26
3.4.1. Research Instrument/Data Collection Techniques----------------------------27

3.4.1.1. Questionnaire...........................................................................................27
3.4.1.2. Interview..................................................................................................27
3.4.1.3. Focus Group Discussion..........................................................................28
3.5. Sample Design...................................................................................................28
3.5.1. Population...................................................................................................28
3.5.2. Sample Frame.............................................................................................28
3.5.3. Sample Size.................................................................................................28
3.6. Sampling Technique..........................................................................................30
3.6.1. Probability Sampling..................................................................................30

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 3.6.2. Non Probability Sampling..........................................................................30
3.7. Data Analysis.....................................................................................................31
Chapter Four: Data Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation------------32
4.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................32
4.2. Response rate.....................................................................................................32
4.3. Characteristics of Respondents..........................................................................33
4.4. Result or Findings on Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Political
Leadership Positions.................................................................................................36
4.4.1: Political Factors..........................................................................................36
4.4.1.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on political factors.........43
4.4.2. Socio-cultural Factors.................................................................................47
4.4.2.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Socio-cultural factors51
4.4.3. Economic Factors......................................................................................54
4.4.3.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Economic factors......57
4.4.4. Psychological/Attitudinal Factors...............................................................59
4.4.4.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Psychological or
Attitudinal factors.................................................................................................64
4.4.5. Policy environment.....................................................................................67
4.4.5.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on policy environment...70
4.5. Discussion of Findings......................................................................................73
4.5.1. Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Political Leadership Positions
in Dire Dawa administration.................................................................................73
4.5.1.1. Political Factors.......................................................................................74
4.5.1.2. Socio-cultural factors...............................................................................76
4.5.1.3. Economic factors.....................................................................................78
4.5.2. Attitudes of women/ Psychological factors................................................80
4.5.3. Conduciveness of policy environment for women’s participation in
political leadership................................................................................................81
Chapter 5:Summary of findings,Conclusion and Recommendation------84
5.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................84
5.2. Findings.............................................................................................................84
5.3. Conclusion.........................................................................................................90
5.4. Recommendation...............................................................................................92
References-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

vii
Annexes------------------------------------------------------------------------------

List of Tables

Title Page

Table 3.1: Indicators of Independent 25

Variables---------------------------------

Table 3.2: Summary of Sample Size--------------------------------------------- 30

Table 4.1: Response Rate---------------------------------------------------------- 33

Table 4.2: Respondents Profile--------------------------------------------------- 34

Table 4.3: Political factors -------------------------------------------------------- 36

Table 4.4: Perception of Respondents on Political Factors------------------- 39

Table 4.5: Perception of Respondents on Socio-cultural Factors ------------ 47

Table 4.6: Socio-cultural Factors ------------------------------------------------ 48

Table 4.7: Reponses on Psychological Factors -------------------------------- 61

viii
 List of Figures

Title Page

Figure 1: Conceptual framework on women’s political participation--------- 23

ix
 List of Charts

Title Page

Chart 1: Perception on political factors which hindering women’s 38

participation in political leadership------------------------------------

Chart 1.1: Women's voice has not properly been heard in the political 38
arena-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Chart 1.2: Political rumor among different parties discouraged women 38

political participation----------------------------------------------------

Chart 2: Respondents perception on the statement of political factors 41

which hinder women participation in political leadership----------

Chart 3: Responses on ‘Electoral systems helps in awareness creation to 42

increase women participation’-----------------------------------------

Chart 4: Respondents perception on socio-cultural factors------------------- 50

Chart 4.1: Socially constructed roles such that women are inferior to men 50
have protected women's from participation in political
leadership-----------------------------------------------------------------

Chart 4.2: The perception that women's as supporters rather than main 50
actor s hinder them to participate in political activities-------------

Chart 5: Responses on socio-cultural factors affecting women 51

participation in political leadership------------------------------------

Chart 6: Respondents perception on economic factors hindering women 54

from participating in political Leadership----------------------------

Chart 6.1: Economic dominance of men over women negatively affect their 54
participation in political leadership----------------------------------

Chart 6.2: Women's high unemployment rate affected their participation in 54

political leadership-------------------------------------------------------

x
 Chart 7: Women's economic dependence on their husband determined 55
their active participation in political
leadership----------------------

Chart 8: Respondents perception on economic factors affecting women’s 56

participation in political Leadership-----------------------------------

Chart 8.1: Women are tied up on how they can improve their live rather 56
than participating in political leadership------------------------------

Chart 8.2: Insufficient allocation of budget by the government for women 56

political education limits their participation in politics-------------

Chart 9: Respondents perception on psychological factor which affect 59

women’s participation in political leadership-----------------------

Chart 9.1: Most women's didn’t have interest to be a political leader--------- 59

Chart 9.2: Women's luck confidence to stand for election or appointment--- 59

Chart 10: Most women believe that politics is not a good job----------------- 60

Chart 11: Perceptions on attitudinal factors which influences women 63

political participation----------------------------------------------------

Chart 12: Perception of respondents on the conduciveness of policy 67

environment--------------------------------------------------------------

Chart 12.1: There are not adequate policies and strategies that support 67
women’s political participation---------------------------------------

Chart 12.2: Women’s policy encourage them to participate in political 67

leadership-----------------------------------------------------------------

Chart 13: Perception of respondents on the conduciveness of policy 69

environment--------------------------------------------------------------

Chart 13.1: Affirmative action has not properly implemented to increase 69

women participation in political leadership--------------------------

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 Chart 13.2: Women's should get additional chance to increase their 69
participation in politics--------------------------------------------------

List of Appendices

Annex I: Questionnaire Filled by Respondents

Annex II: Interview Conducted with Higher Officials
Annex III: Focus Group Discussion for Standing Committee’s and Women
Organization

xii
Annex IV: Questionnaire Translated to Amharic
Annex V: Budget Breakdown
Annex VI: Activity Schedules
Annex VII: Map of Dire Dawa City Administration

xiii
 Acronyms/Abbreviations

AEZs - Agro-Ecological Zones

ABO - Aphra Behn Online
BoWCYA - Bureau of Women Children and Youth Affaires
CEDAW - Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women
CSA - Central Static Authority
DAW - Division for the Advancement of Women
DDA - Dire Dawa Administration
DFID - Department for Foreign and International Development
EPRDF - Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front
ESPDP - Ethiopian Somali Peoples Democratic Party
ESPS - European Social and Political Studies
EWLA - Ethiopian Women’s Lawyers Association
FDRE - Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FGD - Focus Group Discussion
GSDRC - Governance and Social Development Resource Center
HIV - Human Immunity Virus
ICRW - International Center for Research on Women
IDEA - Individual with Disabilities Education Act
IDRC - International Development and Research Center
IFAD - International Fund for Agricultural Development
MDG - Millennium Development Goal
MoWCYA - Ministry of Women, Children and Youth Affairs
NB - Note be Careful
NDI - National Development Index
NGO - Non Governmental Organization
SPSS - Statistical Packages for Social Science
UN - United Nation
UNDP - United Nation Development Program
UNFPA - United Nations Fund for Population Activities
U.S. - United State

xiv
 Chapter One: Introduction

Background of the Study

Women’s participation in politics is of strategic importance, not only for women’s

empowerment but because it has wider benefits & impacts. According to Moore &
Vainello (2000), the barriers against women attaining high political positions of
leadership were so strong in the past decades that most scholars attributed their
relative differences between sexes. As to Ajack, O. (2013), “women’s equal
participation in political leadership and decision-making is not only a demand for
justice or democracy, but can also be seen as a necessary condition for women’s
interests to be taken into account.” Being both broader & more specific in its demand
for equal rights, the women’s movement of the late century promoted unprecedented
female participation at all levels of public life. ‘Women have combined new levels of
participation with the responsibility of leadership even infields marked as exclusively
masculine as recently fifty years ago’(Freeman et al, 2001).

Women constitute slightly more than half of the world population. Their contribution
to the social and economic development of societies is also more than half as
compared to that of men by virtue of their dual roles in the productive and
reproductive spheres. Yet their participation in formal political structure, and
processes, where decisions regarding the use of societal resources generated by both
men and women are made, remains insignificant. Presently, women’s representation
in legislatures around the world is 15 percent. Despite the pronounced commitment of
the international community to gender equality and to the bridging the gender gap in
the formal political arena, reinforced by the convention on elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women (CEDAW) and the Beijing platform of action, there are
only twelve countries where women hold 33% or more seats in the parliaments
(UNDP Report, 2005).

According to Berouk (2004:87), and Vaughan and Tronvoll (2003:112) cited in

Begum (2009), very few women make themselves available to run for political office,
attempt to head their ruling party or the opposition in Ethiopia despite various
opportunities avail for them. According to Ajack (2013), women’s participation in

1
political leadership is of greater benefits. As has been said earlier, women supposed to
have equal rights with men in their participation at all spectrums. However, the fact
remains that women's representation in Ethiopia political as well as decision – making
process is at best minimal.

Statistically, evidences indicate that Ethiopia finds itself among the lowest in Africa
where it comes to raising the level of women representation in various sectors of their
participation of which political leadership takes the highest share (Demstachen, 2000,
p.4). Therefore, since there is no any research conducted on women’s participation in
political leadership in Dire Dawa Administration before, it becomes the basic ground
for the administration to conduct a research on assessing the major possible factors
that hinder women’s participation in political leadership.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In recent times, the status of women in politics has captured the imagination of
spectators around the world (Tigist, 2005). Comprising over 50 percent of the world’s
population, women continue to be underrepresented as voters, political leaders and
elected officials. Demtsachen (2000 & 2004) asserted that in reality a handful of
Ethiopian women hold decision – making & leadership positions. The opportunities
available to them in decision making, both domestic and public, have been narrow
and the situation persist.

Gender inequality has a long and deep rooted history in Ethiopia. Dire Dawa is no
exception, but has increased its focus in the last decade. However, in spite the
constitutional rights of women and some encouraging achievements, women are still
deprived of their basic rights (UN HABITAT, 2008).

According to the 2014(G.C) women, children and youth affairs bureau report, in 2011
there were only 25.92% women member in the dire dawa administrative council, 50%
in city kebele’s Councils, 50% in rural kebele’s council, and 35% in civil service. In
2013(G.C) women participation increased to 49% in the administrative council but
inversely reduce to 47% and 41% in urban kebele and rural kebele and remains 35%
in civil service.

2
This shows us unless their number increased in becoming member of the council,
their participation on decision making position is remains minimum. Ample
researches have been conducted in different countries of the world. However, most of
these researches were made focusing on one part of the government body, i.e. the
legislative one in order to reflect the status of women’s participation (Ajack, O.,
2013). Moreover, in Dire Dawa Administration, there has no any research conducted
so far on women’s participation in political leadership. In this city, there are 46
women leaders (16.1%) out of 286 political leaders. However, the crucial issue here is
not merely understanding the status of women’s participation in political leadership
positions in the administration, but most importantly, trying to investigate the reason
behind their absence to enter in to the political sphere. Therefore, this study will try to
assess the major factors hindering women’s participation in the political leadership
positions.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 Main Objective

The main objective of the study is to investigate factors affecting women’s

participation in political leadership of Dire Dawa Administration and to come up
with possible recommendations.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1/ To identify the major socio-cultural, economic and political factors affecting
women’s participation in political leadership.
2/ To examine the existence of conducive policy environment for women to
participate in political leadership.
3/ to assess attitude/opinion of women to assume some political leadership

1.4 Research Questions

1) What are the major socio- cultural, economic and political factors affecting
women’s participation in political leadership in the study area?
2) Is there favorable policy environment for women to participate in political
leadership?
3) What is the attitude/ opinion of women regarding participation in political
leadership?

3
1.5 Significance of the Study

Being one of the sub-components of the eight millennium development goals (MDG),
the equitable and justifiable participation of women in political leadership has many
benefits. If women have equally participated in political leadership as to their men
counterparts, there will be fair resource distribution among the nation’s communities.
Similarly, sound participation of women in political leadership would be the basis for
country democratization process where gender equity is ensured, peace is promoted,
decision making is not dominated by one sex only and where fair development is
achieved. This research is also be important to identify a gap in the area that in turn
allow the government, the community and varies stakeholders to be aware of the
necessity and importance of women’s participation in political leadership. Therefore,
an assessment of factors affecting women’s participation in political leadership in
Dire Dawa Administration can give hint for the city’s political role players to have
awareness on such determinants limiting the participation of women in the city’s
political leadership so that a balanced gender based composition in political
leadership would be assured.

This research is then, helpful for the city’s policy makers when designing policies and
strategies to consider women’s issue of participation in political leadership as well as
in economic activities. Furthermore, it is important for those interested NGOs and
other civic society organizations in building women’s capacity for their better
participation in the administration’s political leadership by emphasizing on the
findings of the research. Finally, this research may be used as a reference for other
researchers who may want to conduct further studies in the area.

1.6 Scope of the study

The purpose of this study is to investigate/aim factors affecting women’s participation
in political leadership in Dire Dawa Administration. The factors that affect women’s
participation in political leadership is the variables which were studied. For the fact
that women’s participation in political leadership attributes to many factors, this study
were only focus on assessing the socio-cultural, economic, political and psychological
factors; and examining the existence of conducive policy environment for women
participation in the Dire Dawa Administration. Therefore, those factors i.e., socio-

4
cultural, economical, psychological and political are the specific indicators of the
study.

Dire Dawa is one of the two chartered cities in Ethiopia. This city is the second
largest city in Ethiopia. There are 52 governmental sectors (Twelve Bureaus, Thirty
One Offices and Nine kebele’s of the city) in the city and a total of 7284 civil servants
are presented in these sectors. There are also one administrative council in Dire Dawa
Administration. Dire Dawa Administration also has 38 rural kebeles. However, the
study were focus only on five sectors(BoWCYA, Education, Civil Service,
Government Communication and Finance & Economy Development Bureau) which
have directly or indirectly related with the issues studied, and the council of the
administration.
The researcher were used the data related with women’s participation in politics of
2012 – 2014(G.C).

1.7 Description of the Study Area

Geographical Location, Climate Condition, Population and ethnic group of Dire
Dawa Administration
The study was conducted in Dire Dawa Administration. It is geographically located in
the eastern part of the country specifically lying between 900 27' and 900 49'N
latitudes and between 4100 38' and 4200 19'E longitudes and the town is 515 Km
from Addis Ababa the capital city of Ethiopia and 333 Km from the international port
of Djibouti. The total area of the administration is 128,802 ha and the Administration
shares common boundaries with Somali National Regional States in the West, North
and East and with the Oromia National Regional State in the Southern part of the
country.

Dire Dawa Administration is located at center of Ethio-Djibouti railway. This gives

Dire Dawa city the advantage of being a commercial town. Administratively, the
region has no any administrative zones or woreda; and it had been divided into 25
urban kebeles and 32 peasant associations. However, the recent restructuring process
has merged the number of urban kebeles in to 9 with more power and responsibility.
The restructuring process of the administration was not restricted to urban kebeles
only but extended to government offices too. With the newly practiced structure 52
offices/agencies were organized under the City Administration, which is accountable

5
to Ministry of Federal Affairs. The area delineated as rural occupies 98.7% of the total
area.

DDA characterized by only two broad Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZs) mainly based
on altitude, moisture and physiography. The Administration and its surroundings are
among the most broken and mountainous regions of the country, but with a difference
that the slope in the Administrative is lower compared to the Northern and
northeastern part of Ethiopia.

In the Dire Dawa Administration, water is limiting factor for both agricultural and
domestic use purpose. However, in the southern part of the Administration area, in the
mountain ranges, there is a potential of spring water and surface water runoff
specially, during rainy season. On the contrary in the northern part there is a potential
of ground water.

Dire Dawa has its own numerous and precious cultures and heritages of glorious
attractions. Out of this, internationally certified Laga-oda Ancient Cave, Africans
Graveyard built after the Second World War, in memory of members of British Air
Force and African soldiers who sacrificed their lives for the freedom of Ethiopia
against the Italian invasion during World War II, Italian Mosque found at the foothill
of Ganda Gara, in Laga Hare urban kebele, Ancient Catholic Church stationed at Byo
awale rural kebele, Ancient Railway Station and Kezira (Afetessa) open market are
among the immense potentials that the Administration has as real glories or tourism
attractions and related activities.

Apart from these, construction & industrial minerals, which include limestone, silica
sand and clay, natural hot spring found in the northwestern part of Gerba Aneno
Kebele Peasants Association, that off course may have a healing power for certain
ailments and Ethno-tourism are also the other economic & tourism potential of the
Administration. In addition, the region has also a plausible source for solar and wind
energy resources which is significantly important for future development.

According to the 2007 population and housing census of Ethiopia, the total population
of the Dire Dawa Administration was estimated to be 341,834, out of which the urban
population was 233,224 and that of the rural population, 108,610. Out of the total
population in the Administration, men population comprises the majority (50.2 %.).

6
While, female constitute the remaining 49.8%. In terms of age distribution, about 48.6
percent of the population is young, below the age of 19 years.

Climate change may affect men, women and the youth differently. Women have a key
role of looking after the households. They spend long hours during drought in search
of water and firewood depriving them of productive hours for other productive
economic activities. During floods, water and sanitation-related diseases are more
prevalent. The women spend more time attending to sick family members. This
predisposes women to increased health risks and reduced income generation.

The overwhelming ethnic group in the DDA is the Oromo comprising of 45.9% of the
total population. The second largest ethnic group is the Somale (24.3%), the third is
the Amhara (20.1%), Gurage (4.5%) and others (5%). Two religious groups, Islam
and Christianity, dominate in the Administration. The majority of the population
(70.71%), being to the Muslim faith. Christians account for the remaining (29.01%)
and traditional or others 0.28 percent. Amharic language is the working language in
Dire Dawa Administration (CSA, 2008).

1.8 Organization of the paper

In this research the barriers behind women’s participation in political leadership have
been assessed; the current status of women in political leadership and the existence of
conducive policy environment for women participation in Dire Dawa Administration
were also examined. Therefore, this research structured/consists five chapters. The
first chapter were covers the Background of the study, statement of the problem, main
and specific research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, scope
of the study, description of the study area, limitation of the study and organization of
study. The second chapter were composed on literature review with definition of key
terms, theoretical and empirical overview of women’s participation in political
leadership, the legal and policy framework and research gaps. In the third chapter,
research methodology have been defined i.e. methods of data collection, sampling
techniques, sample size and data analysis. The fourth chapter covers the data

7
analysis, interpretation and discussion and the last fifth chapter cover the summary of
findings, conclusion and recommendation parts.

1.9 Limitation

During the time of data collection the researcher encounter some limitations.
Since the data are collected from higher profile officials and concerned personnel,
those officials were very busy because the time was the national election period and
they were perform many things related with the election. So this was the main
problem to collect the primary data(Interview and Focus Group Discussion) but the
researcher solved this problem by arranging appropriate time and make an
appointment with higher political leaders and bureau heads to conduct the interview
and for FGD the researcher ask when the standing committee have a meeting and
going there on that time and conduct the group discussion in continuing after the
meeting completed. The other problem was that some respondents were also busy and
specially meeting the members of the council to collect the quantitative primary data
(questionnaire) was very difficult because they work in different place and some of
them are work in rural kebele. But the researcher has solved this problem also by
calling and going to their work place.

8
 Chapter Two: Literature Review

Definitions and concepts of key words, theories, prior research works, suggestions
and thoughts of different scholars, etc are included in this study. Generally, this
section attempts to highlight pertinent issues related to the study topic.

2.1 Conceptual Literature Review

2.1.1. Definition and Concepts of Political Participation and Leadership

2.1.1.1 Participation
According to Gaventa and Valderrama (1999), cited in stiefel & wolfe (1994:5), In a
highly influential study in the late 1970’s, participation was defined as ‘the organized
efforts to increase control over resources and regulative institutions in given social
situations, on the part of group and movements hitherto excluded from such control’.

As to World Bank (1995), the definition of participation as a ‘process through which

stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives and the
decisions and resources which affect them’ (John Gaventa and Camilo
Valderrama,1999). Participation is a joint consultation in decision making, goal
setting, profit sharing, teamwork, and other such measures through which a firm
attempts to foster or increase its employees’ commitment to collective objectives.

2.1.1.2 Political Participation

According to Henrik Serup Christensen (ABO 2011), the definition of political
participation offered by Brady(1999:737) has become widely used in recent years:
‘Action by ordinary citizens directed towards influencing some political outcomes’.

Acta Polotica (2014), also stated political participation as follows:

Political participation can be loosely defined as citizens’ activities
affecting politics. The simple appearance of this definition is
deceptive. The list of specimens of political participation is virtually
endless and includes such divergent phenomena as voting,
demonstrating and boycotting – but also guerrilla gardening,
volunteering, flashes mobs and even suicide protest Casting a vote,
boycotting some product, donating money, running for office,

9
 forwarding emails, contacting an alderman, attending a political
poetry slam – the list of modes of political participation is long and
gets longer almost daily. The continuous expansion of available modes
of participation in the last decades underlines the relevance of
political participation for democracy and democratization:
participation is the elixir of life for democracy. Yet especially
discussions about the increase of opportunities for political
involvement are accompanied by growing conceptual ambivalences in
at least two ways. First, conclusions about the changing nature of
participation differ widely depending on the concept used.
Summarizing the consequences of applying similar concepts for
different phenomena (Acta Politica, 2014).

2.1.1.3 Leadership
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can
become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of
self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982). Leadership is a process
by which a person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the
organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leadership is a
process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common
goal (Northouse, 2007, p3).

The U.S. military has defined leadership as a ‘process by which a soldier influences
others to accomplish a mission’ (U.S. Army, 1983). Leadership is inspiring others to
pursue your vision within the parameters you set, to the extent that it becomes a
shared effort, a shared vision, and a shared success (Steve Zeitchik, 2012). Leadership
is a process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts of others, towards the
achievement of a goal (Kruse, 2013).

2.1.1.4 Political Leadership

Freeman (2001, pp-4) stated that when we speak of political leadership we deal with a
controlling mechanism of public life, one imbued with enormous capacity to effect
change; and in modern democracy political leadership remains unconquered territory
for women. As Ajack, 2013 stated, Political leadership according to Blondell, J., 1987

10
cited in Northons (2010, p.3) is among the varies aspects of leadership, in particular in
the nation-state, occupies a special position.

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.2.1 An overview of women’s political participation in international and
national perspectives

Women’s participation and access to formal political power structures vary across
countries. There is a steady upward trend in women’s political participation and
representation in developed countries particularly in Nordic countries. Out of twelve
countries where women representation in parliament is more than 33%, nine of them
are ranked in the high human development countries are not significant (farzana bari,
2005). On the other hand, united nations (n.d) noted that despite the international
standards that men and women have equal right for participation in the political
process, the practice has been quite harder for women to exercise this right.

In addition, according to UN women (n.d), from the local to the global level, women
leadership and political participation are restricted. Women are underrepresented as
voters, as well as in leading positions, whether in elected office, the civil service, the
private sector or academia. This occurs despite their proven abilities as leaders and
agents of change, and their right to participate equally in democratic governance. To
further strengthen this, Farzana (2005) remarks that women’s enhanced participation
in governance structures is viewed as the key to redress gender inequalities in
societies. The global debate of the promotion of women’s political
participation/representation has been surrounded by intrinsic and instrumentalist
argument. Women constitute half of the world population and the therefore, it is only
fair that they should have equal participation and representation in world democracies.
Women’s presence in parliaments around the world is a reality that is impacting on
the social, political and economic fabric of nations and of the world. Yet, their access
to these important legislative structures, learning how to work within them, and the
extent to which they impact on and through them, remain serious challenges (Julie
Ballington, 2005).

As the 2011 UN general assembly resolution on women’s political participation noted

that women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the

11
political sphere, often as a result of discriminatory laws, practices, attitudes and
gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to health care and the
disproportionate effect of poverty on women (UN Women, 2012).
While equal political participation is fundamental to democracy, research consistently
shows that unequal political participation exists among social groups. One consistent
inequality in political participation has related to gender, with women, on average,
being less likely to participate in politics than men (Thomson Reuters, 2014).

The African Women Leadership Organization (n.d) argues that African women are
hard working and raises the different attributes they possess:
Over the years, the African woman has been seen from different
perspectives. To many, she is industrious. To others, she is the
backbone of the family. Some even see her as the backbone of the
economy. This leads to some pertinent questions… Who really is the
African woman? What are those attributes of an African woman that
makes her unique? What are her strengths? What makes her peculiar?
What are the adversities she faces in her given community? Most
importantly, how does she harness the strengths she has, amidst
various weaknesses and threats?
On the other hand, Dolphyne (1991) previously stated that “Women’s status in Africa
is unlikely to improve in short term, due to the level of underdevelopment,
particularly in rural areas. The slow rate of economic growth and the level of
indebtedness of many African countries has reduced the development effort”. Women
are absent from senor positions of national and international organizations that govern
our lives (Caroline Sweetman, 2000).

The UN economic and social council resolution 1990/15 calls on governments,

political parties, trade unions, and professional and other representative groups to
adopt a 30 percent minimum proportion of women in leadership positions, with a
view to achieving equal representation (UN Women). According to the Ministry of
Civil Service, Ethiopia (2005), despite being granted constitutional rights of
participation in decision making process, the involvement of women is very limited at
levels. In 2004, the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia reported that among 547
seats of the Federal Parliament, only 7.7% of them were occupied by women. At

12
regional and district levels, women constitute only 13% and 14% of council members
and elected officials, respectively.

2.2.2 Importance of women participation in political leadership

The participation of women in a political leadership as well as in other governmental

activities has a great advantage to the development of the country. In related with this
concept Madeleine K. Albright (n.d) states that:
“Every country deserves to have the best possible leader and that
means that women have to be given a chance to compete. If they are
never allowed to compete in the electoral process then the countries
are really robbing themselves of a great deal of talent”…. In addition,
equitable participation of women in politics and government is
essential to building and sustaining democracy.

According to world economic forum (2005), the economic participation of women-

their presence in the workforce in quantitative terms- is important not only for
lowering the disproportionate levels of poverty among women, but also as an
important step toward raising household income and encouraging economic
development in countries as a whole. Moreover, Mahnaz Afkhami (2010) explains the
importance of women participation in political leadership as a critical step towards
reshaping economic, political, and social conditions to allow for equality in
opportunities and results for both women and men.

UNDP (2012) notes that it is very important to empower women if we are to advance
democratic governance create environment of inclusive and responsive political
process. However, superficial efforts that pretend to increase the number of women
involved in politics do not offer real qualitative influence or decision-making powers
to produce immediate benefits. Key changes have taken place in countries like Liberia
and Mozambique when women took the countries leadership positions, or when a
significant political space has been created by a woman of high personality as in
Tanzania, creating spaces for others to move into (DFID & IDRC, 2010).

13
2.2.3 Main Factors that Affect Women’s Participation in Political Leadership

The wide spread feeling among some of the region’s leading women’s organizations
is that the political, economic and cultural environment is not always conducive to the
substantial and efficient participation of women, as well as to the formulation of the
issues affecting them (D.R. ink, 2012). Women’s historic exclusion from political
structures and processes is the result of multiple structural, functional, and personal
factors that vary in different social contexts across countries. However, beyond these
specificities of national and local contexts, there is a generic issue in women’s
political participation that relates to the wide context of national and international
politics, liberal democracy and development (UN, 2005).

The World Economic Forum discusses the fact that women’s challenges are
multifaceted at global level:
From unprecedented population ageing to increasing unemployment,
from global leadership imbalances to persisting conflicts, from
resource scarcity to volatile global food supplies, the world faces a
series of interconnected challenges. The Global Agenda Council on
Women’s Empowerment aims to highlight how women’s empowerment
is a  part of the solutions to these challenges.  
According to GSDRC (n.d), the participation of women and men in formal and
informal decision-making structures varies greatly between countries, but is generally
in favor of men. Institutional as well as cultural, economic and societal factors limit
women’s opportunities and abilities to participate in decision making.

2.2.3.1 Socio-Cultural Influences

The socio-cultural dependence of women is one of the key detrimental factors to their
political participation in public political domain. Farzana Bari (2005) states ‘Women
also find it hard to participate in politics due to limited time available to them because
of their dual roles in the productive and reproductive spheres. With their primary roles
as mothers and wives and competing domestic responsibilities and care work, they are
left with little time to participate in politics’.

14
The patriarchal system puts women’s to participate in their private sphere and for men
on their public spheres. Due the separation made in public and private activities the
domestic activities is specified for women’s and the public activities are also
separated for men (Gebremedhin Twelde, 2013). As noted by Rebecca A, (2013),
“women are underrepresented not only in the political sphere but also in decision-
making within the private sector, at the village level and in civil society. At the local
level, men usually dominate positions of power, including as religious and traditional
leaders, local politicians and village elders”. According to Gebremedhin (2013), as
stated in DAW (2005), as mother and wives and work in their domestic activities so,
they are left with little time to participate in politics.

Similarly, it is remarked by Franks et al. (2006), the traditional roles given to men and
women are different and they continue to perform their respective traditional roles –
women carry on in their nurturing roles and men in the roles of breadwinners. The
fact that women maintain these stereotypical beliefs, whilst building careers, places a
burden on them. Despite this, Martin, P., & Barnard, A. (2013) argue that although
women are involved in such activities of development; the contributions of women
have been overlooked and marginalized in national and donor development plans.

“One cannot ascertain when or where the stigma against women leaders stemmed
from. However, there seems to be widespread reasons for why people think women
should not take active part in leadership and governance… The argument about the
“biological clock” seems to be the most popular case against women leaders. In many
African societies, it is believed that as a result of a woman’s metabolism and her duty
of bearing and bringing up children, she has little time for anything other than the
upkeep of her household” ( www.mtholyoke.edu).

2.2.3.2 Socio-economic Influences

Davey (2008) as quoted by Martin, P., & Barnard, A. (2013) noted that, generally
speaking, men are driven by a desire for status, power and social comparisons
whereas a desire to do a good job and contribute to organizational functioning is what
motivates women. This does, however, pose unique challenges to career-oriented

15
women in general and more specifically, to women who choose a traditionally male-
dominated career (Hartmann, 2010).

Women’s representation and leadership tend to be confined to areas that are

traditionally ‘feminine’ such as social welfare. Women’s representation in informal
decision-making processes is often more common than their representation in formal
positions and structures (Rebecca A, 2013). Contrary to this, Rathgeber (1994)
argues:
…all the feminist theoretical and policy models outlined have one
main weakness as they all assume that women are a homogenous
group or category as they come in contact with the development
process. Hence they assume that all women in developing countries
especially in Africa have similar experiences, needs, problems,
interest, goals and aims. But the needs of middle class women are not
the same as the urban or rural poor and so development policies will
affect both groups in the same way equally.

Gebremedhin Tewelde (2013), as cited in meron (2003) explains that 70% of the
people considered to be poor are women and this fact restricts them from being able
to afford enough amounts of money required to fund their electoral campaigns,
occupy political offices or fund their education. Thus, they are less likely to
participate in upper levels of administrations as compared to men. In most countries
women carry a disproportionate share of domestic work. Their participation in politics
is further constrained by poverty and lack of education and access to information. It
must be recognized that it is difficult for women to participate in political life when
their major concern is survival and they have no choice but to spend much of their
time trying to meet the basic needs of families (Rebecca A, 2013).

The complex nature of economic Challenge of women and its all-rounded

consequences are discussed by the Canadian Women’s Foundation as follows:
...you can’t move a woman out of poverty just by teaching her to write
a resume, as some other programs try. She might first need help
meeting basic needs like food and shelter for her children. Before
accepting a job, she will likely need help finding affordable childcare.

16
 Some women find their families are hostile to the idea of them
becoming more financially independent, and need help learning to
negotiate these tensions. Living with domestic violence can destroy
women’s self-esteem—they often need help learning to believe they are
capable of success.
According to farzana Bari (2005), the need for money is very high to participate in
politics and women lack access to and ownership of productive resource, limiting the
scope of their political work.

IFAD underlines the importance of economically empowering women and its multiple
advantages from various angles saying:
“secure access by women to productive resources such as land, water
and financial capital has a ripple effect.  When women build assets
and achieve better economic status, they develop higher self esteem,
are more visible in their communities, more mobile, and their children
are better fed. Wider impacts can include greater respect for women’s
rights, better ability of women to negotiate sexual relations and a
consequent reduction in HIV infection, and positive changes in gender
roles”. 

2.2.3.3 Political Factors

Women face numerous obstacles in achieving representation in governance. Their

participation has been limited by the assumption that women’s proper sphere is the
“private” sphere. Whereas the “public” domain is one of political authority and
contestation, the “private” realm is associated with the family and the home. By
relegating women to the private sphere, their ability to enter the political arena is
curtailed.
According to ICRW & UN Women (2012), despite the strong need for and
importance of affirmative action to ensure women’s political representation in
democratizing and engendering local governance, it does not guarantee effective
participation or ensure that issues of concern to community and women will
automatically be addressed by local governance structures. Democracy has
historically served men better than women. As a political system from the ancient

17
Greece to the modern times of the 21st century, it has built on the public- private
dichotomy and excluded women from citizenship. Women have been kept outside the
public domain of politics as most of the political thinkers and philosophers such as
Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, John lock, Thomas Hobbes and Hegel considered women
fit only for domestic roles in the private sphere and maintained that there was no place
for women in politics because of their suitability in caring roles as mothers and wives
(Phillips, 1998, Rai, 2000).

Most of the time male are the leader in political structures and dominate the political
parties. Farzana Bari (2005), states the issues that relates with this as ‘male
domination of politics, political parties and culture of formal political structures is the
major factors that hinders women’s political participation. Similarly, Freeman et.al
(2013) underline that the obstacles to women’s leadership as ‘political leadership in
modern democracies remains unconquered territory for women because culture and
gender relations are embedded in political life.

Taylor (1997) as cited in Martin, P., & Barnard, A. (2013) stresses that men have
dominated policy making processes in the history of policy development. In addition,
organizations are still structured and function in ways that do not always support
women’s career patterns and their need to integrate work with family responsibilities
(Cha, 2013; Frome et al., 2006).

In theory, the right to stand for election, to become a candidate and to get elected is
based on the right to vote. The reality is, however, that women’s right to vote remains
restricted, principally because the candidates are mostly male. This is true not only for
partial and developing democracies, but for established democracies as well (Rebecca
A, 2013).

2.2.3.4 Women’s attitude to participate in politics

Akingbade (2010) notes that, for women to take aggressive male characteristics to
become competitive would be disadvantage in that overt and subtle practices show
absence of confidence in women’s competence and their exacerbated negative self-
perceptions, low self-efficacy and low self-esteem. Martin, P., & Barnard, A. (2013)
emphasize that women feel their domestic responsibilities halt the pace of their career

18
progression compared to their male colleagues. Women, even being unmarried or
without having children believe their prominent roles in the household tax their
commitments and vice versa.

According to Damilola Agbalajobi (2010), the length of time that men enjoyed
dominance of power over women is the greatest psychological setback that halt the
attitude of women in politics and continues to stereotype women and justify their
subordination to men. Lack of confidence is one of the main reasons for women’s
under-representation in formal political institutions, whether parliaments, ministries or
political parties. With confidence and determination women can reach the highest
levels in the political process. That is why women should believe in themselves and
should do away with the widespread perception that men have to be their leaders
(Rebecca A, 2013). In addition women perceive politics as a ‘dirty’ game. This has
jarred their confidence in their ability to participate in political processes.

2.3. Empirical Framework

2.3.1 Women & Leadership

This part of the literature review also deals with the empirical facts regarding the
relationships between women and leadership from both the global and African
perspective and the different challenges women face at all levels and walks of life.
According to Ajack, 2013 cited in Blomberg (2010), Gender equality and women’s
political participation is not just a question of academic interest. It holds many aspects
equally important in the political and social sphere for all people. The basic argument
is from one point of view a question of fundamental democratic rights, everyone’s
equal right and possibility to be candidate and exercise political power. Historically,
female leaders were often portrayed as so unconventional in their ideas and agendas
they were ignored or ostracized (Freeman et al, 2001).

According to Bailyn (2006), when it comes to leadership, most cultures suppose the
issue to make the prototypical leader a quintessentially a masculine man: decisive,
assertive, and independent. Contrary to this, Mertell & Simon (1989) state that
women are taken to be communal-friendly, unselfish, care-taking and thus lack the

19
qualities required for succession in leadership roles. Thus, Heilman & Parks-Stamm
(2007) believe this to be a double standard issue. Women who are already in
leadership positions are thought to be too aggressive or not aggressive enough and
what works to be a decent leadership quality for men is regarded as arrogant, abrasive,
or self-promoting for women.
Moreover, women with great leadership ambitions do not get as much support as their
male counterparts in learning leadership qualities from the society. People learn from
role models within the society and there is no much room for women in this regard
(Ibarra, 1999). Despite such challenges, however, women rise to leadership positions
amidst the continued structural obstacles and cultural biases so that they continue to
shape their development and leadership experiences (Kram & McCollm-Hampton,
1998).

According to Moore and Vianello, 2000, p.66 cited in Pateman (1989), the
explanations and justifications for women’s marginalization from public life run from
those rooted in certain ideological-religious beliefs to philosophic theories on
‘natural’(recently, biological) differences and roles. But in the end they can be
narrowed down to deep- rooted ideas, namely that women have their own sphere of
influence, which is the ‘private’, men have to master the ‘public’.

2.3.2 Prior research and research gap

Gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men (IDEA, 2003). UNDP
(2012) notes that gender equality and women’s empowerment are not only human
rights, but also of significant importance for achieving inclusive, equitable and
sustainable development. Even though the right and equality between men and
women is affirmed in international declarations, literature show that women still
possess very small percentage of participation in political decision making and
leadership (Daniel Kasomo, 2012). Public decision making processes are dominated
by men that male values are reflected in the decision making bodies (Olojede, 1990).

According to (UNDP, 2012), women possess only limited number of leadership and
decision-making positions in political parties but rather predominate in positions and
activities that support male leadership roles. Women comprise less than 15% of the

20
members of parliament, and less than 5% of heads of state globally and they are in
control of only a fraction of international and national leadership positions (Daniel
Kasomo, 2012).
As pointed out by Adhiambo (2003), socio-cultural beliefs, attitudes, biases and
stereotypes are the major barriers that degrade women and emphasize the superiority
of men to women. The World Bank (1994) as cited in Charles Gyimah (2008)
remarked that laws and regulatory practices significantly limit women than men when
it comes to obtaining credit, productive inputs, education, training, information and
medical cares. According to ESPS (2008), despite the universality of gender
inequality, women in developing countries are silent and their voices are stifled by
economic, cultural and institutional factors that create gender disparities in many
social, political, cultural and media aspects, unlike women in developed countries.

The challenges are even worse in Sub Saharan countries. 84% of women’s non-
agricultural employment is informal compared to 63% of men’s and this figure is 58%
for women and 48% for men in Latin America (UNFPA, 2005).

Mukuria et al., (2005) as quoted in ESPS (2008) note that women in Sub Saharan
countries are more likely to work for longer hours than men but with less returns. In
18 of the 25 Sub Saharan countries, more than 50% of women are employed but still
face financial difficulties and depend on their male partners. Similarly, these gender
inequality issues are also largely evident in Ethiopia. As mentioned in Haregewoin
and Emebet (2003) and cited in ESPS (2008), Ethiopia is a patriarchal country that
women are considered to be subordinates for men.

Though women in the country have constitutional rights of participation in decision

making, their involvement is limited at all levels. For instance, according to the 2004
report of the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia, among 547 seats of the Federal
Parliament, only 7.7% of them were occupied by women. At regional and district
levels, women constitute only 13% and 14% of council members and elected officials,
respectively (Civil Service Ministry, Ethiopia, 2005).

While dealing with the review of the empirical literature about the factors affecting
the political participation of women both at global and national level, the researcher

21
has witnessed a significant gap when it comes the attitudinal and psychological
factors and political situation hindering women’s participation. This attitudinal factors
are emanating from within the women themselves but are the reflections of cultural
and societal influences.

The gap is even worse when considering the case of Dire Dawa city administration.
The factors affecting women’s political participation is an issue least-discussed. Thus,
the researcher will pay much attention to close this gap in general and the
psychological factor and the existing political and policy environment in particular.

22
2.4 Conceptual Framework on Women’s participation in political
leadership
Figure 1: conceptual framework on women’s political participation

The environments of political participation of Women’s

Socio-cultural factors Policy environment

Economic factors Psychological factors

Political factors

Level of women participation in political leadership

Gender equality in political decision making process

Source: Developed by the author

The implication of the model is that the socio-cultural, economic, political, and
psychological factors will determine the level of women participation in political
leadership. More importantly, the policy environment of the administration can also
determine the level of women’s political leadership participation either to be low or
high based on the circumstance. Basically if the above factors prevented and policy
environment is conducive for women’s to participate in political leadership, gender
equality in political decision making process will be ensured.

23
 Chapter Three: Research Methodology

In this chapter the methods that have been used to assess factors affecting women
participation in political leadership are described.

3.1. Operational definition of independent variables

 Social factors: are things that affect lifestyle, such as religion, family or wealth. It
is the fact and experiences that influence individuals’ personality, attitudes and
lifestyle.

 Cultural factors: are the established beliefs, values, traditions, laws and
languages of a nation or society. These factors also include the artistic values,
marriage customs and religious beliefs that are indigenous to a particular region. It
is a factors such as language, age, gender and others can influence women to
participating in politics.

 Economic factors: the need for money is very high to participate in politics and
women lack access to and ownership of productive resource, limiting the scope of
their political work (farzana Bari, 2005).

 Political factors: is an activity related to government policy and its administrative

practices that can have an effect on something. It is a factor that must be taken
into account when considering political change or transformation.

 Socio-economic: factors are the social and economic experience and realities that
help mold one’s personality, attitudes, and lifestyle. The factors can also define
regions and neighborhoods. Law-enforcement agencies throughout the country,
for example, often cite the socio-economic factor of poverty as being related to
areas with high crime rates (Marc chase, 1999-2014).

24
3.2. Indicators of independent variables

TABLE 3.1: INDICATORS OF INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Variables Indicators
Political - Limited access to political network
- Commitment of political party’s for women
equal participation
- Limited level of awareness of political life
- Strong political commitment required
- Criteria for political appointment
Socio-Cultural - Societies perception/attitudes of men’s superior
over women
- Poor educational background
- Work burden
- Social roles assigned to women and men
- Time spend for religious activities
Economic - Unemployment rate
- Access to financial resource
- Insufficient allocation of budget for women
political education
- Level of income
- Rank in the employment structure
Psychological/Attitude - Lack of confidence/fear of unable
- Self-image/value
- Perception of women political arena
- Attitude to be a political leader/to be led by a
women
Policy environment Constitutional provisions/ women’s policy, affirmative
action’s etc.

3.3. Research Design

Research design is a common approach which is used to triangulate one idea from
different sources. Therefore, this research were used the descriptive type of research

25
design because it help to describe the factors that affect women participation in
political leadership. Descriptive research studies are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of group (Kothari, 1990). So many
researchers used this type of research because it represents or provides accurate
characteristics of phenomenon under investigation. Both qualitative and quantitative
type of research approach was used in this research. The reasons for using both
qualitative and quantitative research approach is to give depth to the findings looking
at the problem from different perspectives and the researcher collect data from
different sources using different techniques. And the researcher also believed that
analyzing the opinions of different officials by using qualitative method can help to
get more information, to get real fact which support the result of quantitative data and
also using the combination of the methods help to integrating, correlating and
comparing results to find the real problem which influence women’s from
participating in political leadership.

3.4. Data Collection Methods and Data Sources

The major aim of this research is to investigate the factors affecting women’s
participation in political leadership in Dire Dawa Administration. Hence, a
descriptive type of research was used to describe the major barriers found to affecting
women’s participation in political leadership. Furthermore, the existence of conducive
policy and political environment were also assessed in the study. Data were collected
from some selected sectoral bureaus and council of the administration by using both
sources (Primary and Secondary) to identify that barriers affecting women’s
participation in political leadership. The study have been also concerning on some
legal institutions whose are related with the issues to be studied like women
organization (federation, league and union), and offices of EPRDF (Ethiopian
People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front) and ESPDP (Ethiopian Somali Peoples
Democratic Party), house speaker and mayor in order to get the important information
that support the study.

The primary data was collected from both the employees and members of the council
selected by simple random sampling and from leaders of three sector bureaus, House
Speaker and standing committees of the council, women organization, head of
EPRDF & ESPDP and MAYOR of the city selected purposively by using

26
questionnaire, interview and focus group discussion. Whereas the secondary data was
gathered from different sources such as both published and unpublished book i.e.
EWLA (Ethiopian Women’s Lawyers Association, NDI, internet and other documents
and existing policies materials, Data from the administrative civil service bureau and
different thesis from library.

3.4.1. Research Instrument/Data Collection Techniques

3.4.1.1. Questionnaire

The questionnaire was used for the purpose of quantitative data. Both Open ended and
Close ended Questionnaires were prepared and distributed to the targeted female
employees in the five selected bureaus and female members of the administrative
council. Close ended questionnaire is common and use to help the researcher to get
the data in short way and at short time. Open ended questionnaire were also used
because the researcher believed that it makes respondent to write freely their opinion
without restriction as a result the researcher gets additional information about the
prepared question and reasons for their answer. Before the questionnaire distributed to
the respondents, the English version of the questions was translated in to Amharic that
is in work language because since the respondents work with this language, it helps
them to understand the question easily and this helps also the researcher in gaining a
reliable information.

3.4.1.2. Interview
Interview were made to the leaders of the three selected bureaus (BOWCYA, Civil
Service and Education bureau), head of EPRDF & ESPDP, House Speaker and the
mayor who are purposively selected assuming that they have much experience about
the issue and also the issues are related with their position or jobs. They are important
persons who are directly with the issue and who can also create a solution for the
identified problems. Therefore, the researcher got more important information from
these officials. The researcher prepared the interview in semi structured form to go
further and to gain additional information that use for interpretation. The researcher
was gain full information because she used different instrument such as tape recorder.

3.4.1.3. Focus Group Discussion

27
The focus group discussion were conducted with the chairman’s of the 6 standing
committee’s of the administrative council and heads of women organization (union,
federation and league) with the aim to share their views and experience on factors
affecting women’s political participation, the prevalence of existent of conducive
policy and political environment, and more importantly to forward the possible
suggestions that help to uplift women’s participation in political leadership. Some
instrument like video recorder was also used in this part.

3.5. Sample Design

3.5.1. Population
The population of the study was conducted with all female employees of the selected
five sectoral bureau’s (BoWCYA, Civil Service, Education, Government
Communication and Finance and Economy Development Bureau) and the total female
members of administrative council of Dire Dawa Administration. There are about 144
female employees in such organizations (Bureau of women, children & youth affairs
has 32, Bureau of education 28, bureau of civil service 29, bureau of finance and
economy development 39 and government communication bureau 16) and 70 female
members in administrative councils which the total becomes 214 peoples.

3.5.2. Sample Frame

Since five sector bureaus and administrative council is purposefully selected for the
study, the number of officials in those six organizations became 214. Therefore, the
sample frame will be the list of 214 workers (female employees and female members
of the councils of the administration).

3.5.3. Sample Size

There are different formulas to determine sample size of a given population based on
some characteristics of the population. The selection of sample size is dependent on
the type of research design used; the desired level of confidence, the level of accuracy
and the characteristics of the population the researcher uses (Kothari, 1990).
However, the sample size was determined by using the following Sloven’s formula,
i.e. n = N/1 + N (e 2) .this formula is preferred because the target population is not as such
large.

28
Where n = the desired sample size
N = the total population and
e = the margin of error
n = 214 n = 139.4 ≈ 139
1 + 214 (0.05)2 n = 139

The total sample size of employees is 139.

In addition to this, to make the study more reliable and effective, the following high
profile officials and concerned personnel were added to the total population i.e.
mayor, house speaker, heads of EPRDF & ESPDP and women’s organization (league,
association, federation), heads of the three selected sectors (BoWCYA, Civil Service
and Education Bureau) and the chair man of the 6 standing committee’s of the
administrative council.
Therefore, the total sample size were 139+12 = 151.

NB: Among the 6 chairman of standing committee 2 are female and the head of
BoWCYA and house speaker are women. So these 4 women are subtracted from the
total sample size because they are already included in the target population.

So the nine (9) officials out of 151 i.e. six members of the standing committee and the
three heads of women organization were conducted for focus group discussion, seven
(7) high concerned personnel i.e, the mayor, house speaker, heads of the three
selected bureau’s, EPRDF and ESPDP were for interview and questionnaire were
distributed to the remaining (135) employees using a systematic simple random
sampling method and conducted for the study.

TABLE 3.2: SUMMARY OF SAMPLE SIZE

Target Population Sample
No. Sectors proportion
Female employees size
1 BOWCYA 32 32/214×135 20
2 Education bureau 28 28/214×135 18

29
 3 Civil service bureau 29 29/214×135 18
4 Finance and Economy 39 39/214×135 25
development
5 Government communication 16 16/214×135 10
bureau
6 Administrative council 70 70/214×135 44
Total 214 135

3.6. Sampling Technique

3.6.1. Probability Sampling

The researcher made sure first that the employees are available in the work place at
the time of data collection for probability sampling technique by discussing with the
human resource manager of each offices, those which didn’t there at that time, the
researcher excludes them from the total population and replacing by others. After
doing this respondents were selected from each offices by using a systematic simple
random sampling. This sampling technique helped the researcher to give the
respondents equal chance during sampling system.

3.6.2. Non Probability Sampling

Since the researcher want to get additional information which could support the
quantitative data result, those respondents which had high experience and directly
related to the given issues i.e. the mayor, house speaker, leaders of EPRDF &
ESPDP, chairman of the standing committee, heads of the sectoral bureau’s and
women organization were selected purposively for interview and focus group
discussion as respondents. Therefore, this research employed both simple random
sampling and purposive sampling.

3.7. Data Analysis

Data were analyzed through two approaches. The Qualitative and Quantitative
approach: In quantitative approach the collected data was coded and entered into
computer using SPSS version 17 and analyzed by it. Based on the research questions
the variables were examined and interpreted using descriptive analysis to analyze the
frequencies of respondents’ perception and their level of agreement or disagreement

30
with the given statement under each questions. The researcher were also used the Chi-
square test to determine if there is a statistical significance difference in perceptions
of respondents through their responses of ‘agreement’ and ‘disagreement’. And
results of the findings were presented using tables, figures and graphs etc. Whereas in
qualitative approach, the researcher used the discussion of the respondents and
personal reflection to interpret the data. The interpretation part was done in
combination with the quantitative part in order to triangulate the concept from
different angles.

Chapter Four

Data Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation

4.1. Introduction

31
In this chapter, the field data gathered through the questionnaires and supported by the
Focus Group Discussion shall be presented, analyzed, and given appropriate
interpretations by the researcher. The chapter deals with the political, economic, and
socio-cultural factors affecting the political participation of women in the
administration under study. It also focuses on the current scenario of policy
environment in line with the issues stated above. The attitudes and opinions of women
on the subject matter are also parts of the chapter.

The researcher has used the standard research questionnaire to survey the factors
affecting women participation in political leadership. This research questionnaire have
38 questions(items) which are some of them ranging on a 5 point scales and others
ranging by ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to measure the elements which can be grouped into 5 broad
categories i.e. socio-cultural, economic, political, psychological factors and policy
environment and it have also some open ended part. The data gathered are classified
into respondent categories of council members and sectoral bureaus. The opinions of
deputy mayor, house speaker of council, standing committees of the council, and the
leaders of political parties, sectoral bureau’s heads are also dealt with in the chapter.
The paper have been used both qualitative and quantitative data and interpreted using
tables, charts, graphs, figures, discussion and Chi-square test.

4.2. Response rate

In this study the researcher has distributed 135 questionnaires. However, only
128(94.8%) of the questionnaires have been collected. The rest 7(5.2%) questionnaire
were not returned. The researcher has conducted an interview with seven different
leaders such as the mayor, house speaker of the administrative council, leaders of
EFDRE and ESPDP, head of BoWCYA, civil service and education bureau. Although
it was initially planned to conduct an interview with the city mayor, it was very
difficult for the researcher to get him. So the researcher conducted the interview with
the deputy mayor. Furthermore, the researcher made focus group discussion with the
chairmen of 6 standing committee of the administrative council and 3 heads of
women organization (i.e. heads of women union, women league, and women
federation). Generally, from a total of 151 respondents planned to be conducted,
143(94.7%) respondents were contacted the rest 8(5.3%) respondents were not
contacted (i.e. 7 questionnaires were not collected and one participants of focus group

32
discussion were not present). The following table shows summary of the response
rate.
TABLE 4.1: RESPONSE RATE
Data collection
instruments
Total Total
Focu
targete conduct
Mis Perce s
No Respondents d ed
sing ntage Questio Intervi grou
respon respond
nnaire ew p
dents ents
discu
ssion
1 Selected bureau’s female 91 89 2 97.8% √
employees
2 Administrative council’s female 44 39 5 88.6% √
members
3 Higher Officials i.e. deputy 7 7 - 100% √
mayor, Speaker house, Heads of
EFDRE & ESPDP, Heads of
BOWCYA, Civil Service and
Education bureau.
4 Heads of the six standing 9 8 1 88.9% √
committee of the administrative
council and women organization
i.e. women federation, league and
union.
Total 151 143 8
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

4.3. Characteristics of Respondents

In this unit, the researcher described the characteristics of the respondents such as
their sex, age, educational qualification, their current position in their work place,
marital status, family size and work experience who were found to fill the
questionnaires during the field survey. The characteristics specified above have been
further described as follows.

TABLE 4.2: RESPONDENTS PROFILE

Frequencies
Item Characteristics
No. %
1 Types of Respondents Staffs 87 68.0
Members of council 41 32.0
Total 128 100
2 Sex Female 128 100
Male - -
Total 128 100
3 Age 18 – 29 45 35.2
30 – 45 71 55.5

33
 46 & above 12 9.4
Total 128 100
4 Educ. Qualification High School & below 14 10.9
Levels 9 7.0
Diploma 36 28.1
First Degree 61 47.7
2nd Degree & above 8 6.3

Total 128 100

5 Current Position Lower Level Employees 15 11.7
Supportive Staffs 47 36.7
Experts 47 36.7
Lower Level Managers 13 10.2
Middle Level Managers 6 4.7

Total 128 100

6 Work Experience Below Five Years 31 24.2

5 – 10 Years 53 41.4
11 – 15 Years 18 14.1
16 Years & above 25 19.5
Missing value 1 0.8
Total 128 100
7 Marital Status Single 33 25.8
Married 80 62.5
Divorced 11 8.6
Other 4 3.1
Total 128 100
8 Family Size 0–2 63 49.2
3-4 44 34.4
5-7 12 9.4
Above 7 6 4.7
Missing value 3 2.3
Total 128 100
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

The above table presents different characteristics of respondents sampled from the
members of council and sectoral bureaus addressed through the questionnaires. As
depicted in the above table, all the 128 respondents who were addressed through the
questionnaires are entirely females. The respondents were asked to choose their age
group, educational background, current work position, work experience, marital status
and their family size. The researcher did this with the intention of associating these
variables with the political, economic, socio-cultural factors, the policy environment
and the attitudes and opinions of women themselves.

As indicated in table 4.2, out of 128 respondents, 45 (35.2%) fall under the years
category of 18 -29 age while 71 out of 128 meaning 55.5% are in the years category
of 30 – 45 age. Only 12 (9.3%) are in the years category of 46 and above age. As far
the educational qualification is concerned, 14 out of 128 respondents accounting
10.9% are the High School and below category whereas 9 out of 128 (7%) are in the
levels category.

34
There are 36 diploma holders in 128 respondents with a 28.1%. 61 in 128 (47.7%)
respondents fall in the First Degree category and only 8 out of 128 (6.3%) do have 2 nd
degrees and above. There are 15 lower level employees in 128 respondents with
11.7%. The number of supportive staffs and experts is 47 in 128 (36.7%) each. 13 out
128 (10.2%) and 6 in 128 (4.7%) are lower level managers and middle level managers
respectively.
As far as the work experience is concerned, 31 in 128 respondents are below five
years whereas 53 out of 128 holding 41.4% are between 5 – 10 years. Respondents
with 11 – 15 years of experience are 18 (14.1%) and 25 in 128 (19.5%) are in 16 years
& above category. One respondent with 1.1% has a missing value. 33 in 128 (25.8%)
are single in their marital status and 80 (62.5%) are married. The number of divorced
respondents is 11 (8.6%) and there are 4 (3.1%) in the category of other.

On the other hand, 63 respondents out of 128 (49.2%) have a family size of 0 – 2 to
support and 44 (34.4%) have 3 – 4. There are 12 (9.4%) with 5 – 7 family size and 6
(4.7%) above 7. There are 3 respondents (2.3%) with missing values.

4.4. Result or Findings on Factors Affecting Women’s Participation

in Political Leadership Positions
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of this study is to investigate the socio-
cultural, economic and political factors affecting women participation in political
leadership, to assess attitudes of women toward politics and to examine the
conduciveness of policy environment for women to participate in political leadership
in Dire Dawa Administration. Therefore, based on this objective the following
findings were found.

4.4.1: Political Factors

TABLE 4.3: POLITICAL FACTORS WHICH HINDERS WOMEN’S

PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
No. Factors Responses/Scales Chi P Value
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Stron
Squa
Agree gly
re
Disag

35
 ree
N % N % N % N % N %
4.3.1 Existence of high 38 29.7 35 27.3 34 26.6 13 10.2 6 4.7 23.803 < 0.0001
commitment of
political parties in
increasing
women’s
participation
4.3.2 Awareness or 25 19.5 41 32.0 43 33.6 13 10.2 5 3.9 20.39 < 0.0001
training about
political activities
are provided for
women
Question Responses Chi Square P Value
Yes No I do not know
N % N % N %
4.3.3 Are the political 46 35.9 44 34.4 13 10.2 0.028 = 0.8671
parties working
strong to get more
women involved
in party
membership?
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

The above table 4.3 shows the perception of respondents on different political factor’s
influences to political participation of women in the city administration. The above
table 4.3.1 reveals that 29.7% of respondents strongly agreed that there is a high level
of commitment by the political parties in the administration to promote the
participation of women in politics while 27.3% of them agreed to the existence of this
level of commitment within those political parties. Those respondents strongly
disagreed and disagreed to this issue of commitment are 4.7% and 10.2%
respectively. On the other hand, 26.6% of the respondents remained neutral.
Therefore, there are a significance difference between the two responses i.e. agree and
disagree which is the agree part is greater. The researcher further go to use the Chi-
square to see whether its p-value is less than 5% and the result is Chi-square=23.803,
P-Value is <0.0001. This results shows the existence of high commitment with in the
political parties of the administration in increasing the number of women in political
leadership position.

Building the capacity of women was another test for the commitment of political
parties. Participants were made to respond to a statement ‘trainings about political

36
activities are provided to women’ on table 4.3.2 above. Consequently, 3.9% of them
strongly disagreed and 10.2% of them disagreed. 33.6% choose to remain neutrals but
32% agreed and 19.5% strongly agreed. One respondent accounting for 0.8% had a
missing value. The frequency and percentage result shows us most of respondents
agree with the statement and the chi-square calculation also shows us 20.39 value and
the P-Value is < 0.0001 mean there are a significant difference between the agreed
and disagreed responses. Therefore, this is implies that political education or training
are given to women’s of the administration in order to aware them about politics
thereby to increase their participation in political leadership.

The other question asked in association of political parties’ commitment was whether
they are working hard to get more women involved in political party membership.
35.9% of respondents says ‘Yes’ the political parties working hard to get more
women involved in party membership and 34.4% of them say ‘No’ for this question.
Therefore, to see if there is a significant difference between the perception of those
respondents who say ‘Yes’ and ‘No’, the researcher use the Chi-square test and the
result was (Chi-square = 0.028, df=1, P-value = 0.8671).Since the P-Value is greater
than 0.05, there is no statistical significance difference between the two responses.
From this, it is possible to say although there response is shows partial agreement, the
mentioned issue is not exist i.e. the political parties of the administration do not work
hard to get more women be involved in party membership. Therefore, this is a factor
behind low participation of women in political leadership from political perspective.

49 33
50 35
42 29 Frequanc
45 38.3 30 25.8 y
40 32.8 Percentage 22.7 23 23
35 25
30 18 18
19 20 16
25
20 14.8 12.5
15
15 79 54.76 10
10 2 3 4
5 1
5
0
Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly 0
agree disagree

Chart 1.1 Women's voice has not properly been

Chart 1.2 Politicl rumor among different parties
heared in the political arena.
discouraged women political participation

37
 Chart 1: Perception on political factors which hindering women’s participation in
political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are 21.029 & 3.718 respectively and its P-
Value are <0.0001 & = 0.0538 respectively.

The other question forwarded to the respondents to test the commitment of political
parties was about the voice of women in political arenas. The responses of
respondents in the above chart 1.1 deals with the above idea 14.8% of respondents
strongly agreed that women’s voices have not been properly heard in political arenas
while 32.8% agreed to this statement. Those who remained neutral accounted for
38.3% whereas 7% and 4.7% disagreed and strongly disagreed to this question
respectively. 2.3% of them had a missing value. Therefore, about 61(47.6%)
respondents are in the ‘agree’ zone to the idea of women’s voice have not been
properly heard in political arena while 15(11.7%) respondents didn’t agree with the
idea. The researcher uses the Chi-square test to know whether there is a significance
difference between the responses of the two categorized respondents i.e. the
respondents who categorized under agree and those who categorized under disagree.
The result was (Chi-square value = 21.029 and P-Value is < 0.0001). According to
the Chi-square test if P-Value is less than or equal to 5% (0.05), there is a significant
difference between the two variable. Therefore, the above result shows us the P-Value
of 0.0001.This value realizes that there is a statistically significant difference between
the two responses i.e. agree and disagree. Based on those responses it can be
concluded that the women’s voice have not been properly heard in political arena in
the administration and this influences them from participating in a political leadership
in the administration and this area is the area that should be considered.

The other question related with political factor is women discouraged to participate in
political leadership because of political rumor among different parties. The result was
33(25.8%) of respondents responds strongly agree, 29(22.7%) were responds agree,
23(18.0%) neutral and 23(18.0%) and 16(12.5%) were responds disagree and strongly
disagree respectively. 4 missing value is there i.e. 3.1%. In addition to this the Chi-
square result of this factor is 3.718 and its P-Value is = 0.0538. If the p-value is less

38
than or equal to 0.05, there are a significant difference between the two variables.
Therefore, since the p-value of the responses of this statement is 0.0538 it is possible
to conclude that the political rumor among different parties discourage women
participation.

TABLE 4.4: PERCEPTION OF RESPONDENTS ON POLITICAL FACTORS

Responses Chi
I do not Squar P Value
Yes No
No. Question know e
N % N % N %
4.4.1 Is the participation of 22 17.2 97 75.8 5 3.9 36.073 < 0.0001
women in political
leadership sufficient in
Dire Dawa town?
4.4.2 Do you think that there is 31 24.2 77 60.2 10 7.8 14.585 = 0.0001
equal opportunity for men
& women to participate in
political leadership?
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015
‘Is the participation of women sufficient?’ was another question forwarded to check
what the respondents had in mind about the current participation scenario of women
in political leadership positions. As indicates on the above table 4.4.1, most
97(75.8%) say ‘No’, the participation of women in political leadership is not
sufficient in the administration. The researcher further ask the reason behind the
insufficient participation of women in political leadership for those respondents who
response ‘no’ for the stated question through open ended questionnaire. According to
the respondents the participation of women in political leadership is insufficient
because only one female is in the cabinet and house speaker and this is mainly
because less effort in working on women’s political empowerment, low educational
background, attitudinal problems towards women, cultural influences, the superiority
of men, influences by their husband and less enhancement/encouragement mechanism
for women to come to political participation are among the major reasons behind
insufficient participation of women. In addition the respondents explain that the
absence of conducive environment for women to use their full knowledge and skills
and also less enhancement even for those women who already in politics are also
plays a major roles in hindering women from participating in politics.

39
The findings indicate that the participation of women especially in a higher political
leadership position in the administration is very low.

The other question posed to the respondents in this regard was whether they thought
there’s equal opportunity for men and women to participate in political leadership.
Table 4.4.2 shows that 24.2% responded ‘Yes’ while 60.2% responded ‘No’. 7.8%
responded ‘I don’t Know’ and 7.8% had a missing value. Further the researcher
operates the Chi-square method to ensure whether the p-value of this result is less
than 5% or no to check the significance difference between the two responses.
Therefore, the p-value is equal to 0.0001 and this mean there is a statistically
significant difference between those respondents who say ‘Yes’ and ‘No’ on the
posed question which are ‘No’ responses exceeds the opposite.

Based on this result it can be concluded that there are no equal opportunities for men
and women to participate in political leadership in the city administration. The
researcher continues to know the reason and ask the respondents what is the major
reason of unequal opportunity for men and women in the administration. According to
the respondents the reasons are presence of negative perception which undermine
women, absence of getting a chance, luck of supportive mechanism, fear of women to
come to politics, unequal treatment of political parties for men and women to
participate in political leadership, social perception on the superiority of men,
negative attitude of men towards women and absence of politically empowered
women are the major reasons behind the unequal opportunity for the sexes.
Respondents further explained that some problems in political parties system of the
administration which hinder women from participating in politics and men who are
already on the position did not want to leave the place and also there is lack of clear
statement/plan which enables to empower women for leadership position.

40
 Working condition of political activities are not convienient for women to
participate in political leadeship
7
18.8 3.9 9.4
Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
Strongly Agree
29.7 Missing

31.3

Chart 2: Respondents perception on the statement of political factors which hinder

women participation in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

NB: The chi-square of the above factor is 16.205 and its P-Value is < 0.0001.

The absence of convenient working conditions for women in political activities was
forwarded to the respondents and the result was 12 (9.4%) strongly disagreed, 9 (7%)
disagreed, 38 (29.7%) remained neutral, 40 (31.3%) agreed, and 24 (18.8%) strongly
agreed to the statement. The missing value is 5 (3.9%). The result of data shows us
that most of respondents agree with the stated statement i.e. working conditions of
political activities are not convenient for women. The results was also checked by
using the chi-square method and its p-value is <0.0001 meaning a significant
difference between the agree and disagree responses.

Therefore, what is found from the above data is that the working condition of the
political parties of the city administration like the work burden (working in the city
and also in rural area) and participating on a meeting which take a long time over
night and so on are not conducive for women and this hinder them to come to political
participation.

41
 Electoral systems helps in awarness creation
100%
90%
80% 32 44.5 15.6 4.7 2.3
70%
60%
50% Percentage
40% Column1
30% 41 57 20 6 3
20%
10%
0%
Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree

Chart 3: Responses on‘ Electoral systems helps in awareness creation to increase

women participation’
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

NB: The chi-square of the above factor is 56.536 and its P-Value is < 0.0001

The respondents were also questioned about whether the electoral system in the city
administration is of any help for women to increase their participation. As a result, the
above chart 3 reveals that 32% responded to have strongly agreed to the question and
44.5% said they agreed. 15.6% chose to remain neutral about the question while 4.7%
disagreed and 2.3% strongly disagreed. There was also a missing value of one
respondent, which equals 0.8%. The chi-square of this factor is 56.536 and its P-
Value is < 0.0001. The finding of this statement indicates that the Ethiopian electoral
system helps in awareness creation of women’s to increase their participation in
political leadership.

In addition to the above statements of political factors, the researcher also posed one
more question through open ended questionnaire called ‘why do you think that
women do not appointed to a higher decision making position relatively to men?’ to
evaluate the respondents opinion. As a result, the perception that women could not
perform political activities, educational background of women, lack of politically
empowerment of women, social influences and less consideration on gender issues,
and negative perception of men leader towards women are presented as a major
reasons which limit the participation of women in political leadership. The other

42
critical point mentioned by the respondents is if a women have no network with others
members of political parties, they couldn’t come to appointment.

4.4.1.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on political factors

In this part, the interviewed result was obtained from those leaders purposively
selected for the interview to address the main research question because they have
close relationship with the issues to be study and have high experience. The findings
of this study were interpreted in line with findings obtained from respondents
participated in quantitative part.

As observed from the interview sessions conducted with the seven participants of high
political leadership positions, all the interviewees responded “very low” to the
question of women’s political participation scenario in the city administration.
Despite the appointment of very few women in high political positions, most of the
appointments appear to be in the lower level political positions. This engagement
itself is apparently very low compared to that of men. Further, as it has been
explained by participants of FGD women’s participation in political leadership is on
the rise despite the difficulties faced. Since its official establishment, the Dire Dawa
Administration council has held popular elections on two rounds. Women accounted
only 20% in the first election of the council while this number grew to 39% (71 out of
189) in the second election as members of the council. Women also represent 53% of
the standing committees and two women (33%) holding leadership positions of the
standing committees. Moreover, the house speaker of the city administrative council
is female.
Women also occupy two higher executive positions of the city administration (head of
BoWCYA at bureau level and head of Disaster Prevention and Control Office).
Women are also there on leadership positions at kebele (second tier of the city
administration) level. However, despite their very much improved representation in
the administrative council, their participation still remains to be poor. Most of the
women in political leadership are on the lower positions. They are hardly present in
the middle and higher political leadership positions.

43
Factors ranging from the political environments and opportunities to less effort of
high political leaders themselves have been found to be among the major factors
hindering the political participation of women in the city administration, as it was said
by the interviewees.

As it was stated by most of the interviewees, the political environment in our

administration is not conducive for women. Even though, women can think and work
as equally as men do, there are socio-cultural problems that make most people think
of women to be otherwise. For example, socially constructed roles for men and
women put extra burden on women that they should be responsible for home work
loads like cleaning, cooking, taking care of children and so on even after office hours.

Therefore, political situation doesn’t consider these women’s burden and

multidimensional responsibilities. There are times when women should work in
office, participate in political meetings till 10 or 11 during the night and then go home
and perform other home work loads. So, these inappropriate political situations limit
them from participating in political leadership. In addition, attitudinal problem of
political parties toward women, limitations in political parties regarding giving
consideration and working towards empowering women’s political knowledge and
skills, shortage of political educations and trainings, placement of women by political
parties in areas distant from their families, less awareness level of women about
politics and negative perception of women themselves about politics influence their
participation in political leadership position. In addition, the FGD participants were
discussed issues which support the above explained idea with interviewees that the
political environment is by far better than the previous ones. The participation of
women in politics is growing and there are further plans to increase women’s
membership in the administrative council to 50%. Nonetheless, women carry the
burdens of workloads and political party missions apart from office hour’s duties.
Women are forced to travel between urban and rural areas and take part in long
meetings including weekends, further derailing the already poor participation of
women in politics.

44
Further, According to the head of the EFDRE, the fact that the city administration is a
joint administration (as per the results of popular elections) EFDRE & ESPDP have
their own quota system in place and the appointment of women, obviously, is part of
this system. Moreover, whenever there’s a quest from the federal government, the
parties are entitled to appoint personnel for those positions. However, the problem is
that, in many cases, these high political leaders prefer men to women for such prolific
political positions despite the presence of skilled and qualified women. Thus, this is
one of the factors pulling women back from gaining high political leadership
positions.

In general, less participation in education, absence of special plan to empower

women, shortage of political education and trainings and inappropriate political
environment, less awareness level of women about politics and negative attitudes of
political party’s leaders influences their participation in political leadership.

These issues were also manifested in the findings of the questionnaires almost in a
similar way to that of the interview sessions. For instance, according to the
questionnaire findings stated on chart 2, more than 50% of the respondents claimed
the political working conditions to be inconvenient for women while only less than
16% said otherwise. Similarly, as revealed on table 4.4.2, about 60% of respondents
said there’s no equal opportunity for men and women to participate in political
leadership while just over 24% of them were on the opposite side of this view.
Moreover, in table 4.4.1 more than 85% responded the political participation of
women to be insufficient. The p-value’s of response rates of all the above three
statements are less than 5% which means that there are statistical significance
difference between the ‘agreement zone’ and ‘disagreement zone’ or ‘Yes’ and ‘No’.

Regarding the issue of providing women with trainings, however, the questionnaires
distributed generated quite contradicting outcomes with the ones in the interview
sessions. It was indicated by the interviewees that not enough political trainings are
provided to women and there’s less effort by personnel on high political leadership
positions. In contrast to this, table 4.3.2 shows that about 51% of questionnaire
responded claimed that political trainings are given to women while only about 14%

45
of respondents opposed this. In addition, in table 4.3.1 about 57% of respondents said
the political parties are highly committed to increase women’s participation in politics
while just about 14.9% of them were against this. But the findings obtained from
interviewees reveal the reverse. This might be because the respondents whose
responses by agreeing the above idea have no idea about the issues or what is going
on within the administration to increase women participation or they might have no
idea about how many women’s are participating in politics or on a decision making
position as most of them are positioned on supportive staffs or on expert position. The
researcher can say this because absence of political parties’ commitment for women’s
participation in political leadership, shortage of political education and training
provided for women, less effort of high political leaders or problem of political parties
system and lack of political awareness of women are the major problems which the
researcher experienced through her working life.

Therefore, from the above ideas/opinions of respondents, interviewees and focus

group discussion except those some respondents whose their ideas contradicting the
ideas of higher political leaders and bureau heads conducted through interview, it is
possible to conclude that the participation of women is very low compared to men
because there is no equal opportunity for men and women. Political parties have an
important role in increasing women’s participation in political leadership positions but
they are not working as they should do because of less consideration to women’s issue
and attitudinal problems of men’s of the party.

4.4.2. Socio-cultural Factors

TABLE 4.5: PERCEPTION OF RESPONDENTS ON SOCIO-CULTURAL

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL
LEADERSHIP
No. Factors Chi
Responses/Scales Squar P Value
e
Strongly Agree Neutral Disag Stron
Agree ree gly
Disag
ree

46
 N % N % N % N % N %
4.5.1 Low 41 32.0 37 28.9 34 26.6 8 6.3 6 4.7 33.69 < 0.0001
educational
background of
women limits
their
participation in
political
leadership
4.5.2 Home work 58 45.3 35 27.3 20 15.6 8 6.3 5 3.9 45.983 < 0.0001
loads load
affects
women’s to
participate in
the political
leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015

As indicated in the above table 4.5.1, the data gathered shows that 32.0% of
respondents strongly agree on “low educational background of women affects their
participation in political leadership position”, 28.9% of them also agreed to this
factor. However, 6.3% and 4.7% of respondents disagree and strongly disagree
respectively on the negative consequences of low educational background of women
in their political participation. The other 26.6% participants’ responses are neutral.
There is also a 1.6% of missing value. The Chi-square value and P-value is 33.69 and
< 0.0001 respectively.
The figures given in frequencies and percentages do show a considerable response
gaps between the agreement and disagreement to the question statement. Same is true
with the Chi Square statistic value and the P-Value given in the table to show a
significant difference between the said responses. Thus, it turns to be worth
concluding that low educational background of women limits their participation in
political leadership.

In addition to the low educational background of women, the work burden performed
by them in their home also affects their participation in higher political position.
Therefore, this question was distributed to the respondents in the form of
questionnaire to know their perception regarding it. As a result, in table 4.5.2, 45.3%

47
of respondents gave their response by strongly agreeing, 27.3% of them by agreeing
and 15.6% are neutral. The rest 6.3% and 3.9% of respondents gave their response by
disagreeing and strongly disagreeing respectively. Two respondents are missing to fill
this question i.e. 1.6%. This factor had a Chi-square value of 45.983 and its P-Value
is < 0.0001. These figures depict the considerable response differences. Therefore,
similar conclusion can be made that the homework load of women undertake in their
day to day lives does come to influence their political leadership participation.

TABLE 4.6 : SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS AFFECTING WOMEN

PARICIPATION IN POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
Chi
Responses/Scales Squar P Value
e
Stron
No. Factors
Strongly gly
Agree Neutral Disagree
Agree Disag
ree
N % N % N % N % N %
4.6.1 The prejudice of 46 35.9 42 32.8 26 20.3 6 4.7 6 4.7 44.157 <0.0001
men over women
affects the
political
participation of
women
4.6.2 Husbands do not 45 35.2 30 23.4 31 24.2 11 8.6 7 5.5 26.288 <0.0001
allow their wives
to engage in
political activities
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015
As the above table 4.6.1 indicates, the surveys result reveals that 35.9% of
respondents are strongly agree on the prejudice of men over women affects the
political participation of women, 32.8% of respondents also agreed on men’s
unfairness over women and 20.3% of them remain neutral. The rest 4.7% and 4.7%
respondents disagreed and strongly disagreed about the issue. 2(1.6%) missing value
is there in this regard and it has Chi-square value of 44.157, P-Value of <0.0001. The
frequency and percentage figures given in the table suggest a considerable difference
between the two opposite responses and so does the P-Value. As a result, it is possible
to conclude that the fact that men are unfair towards women negatively affects the
political participation of the later.

48
The other question forwarded to the respondents in association with the perception of
men over women is ‘husbands do not allow their wives to engage in political
activities. The result was 35.2% respondents strongly agree, while 23.4% responded
agree and 24.2% are neutral. 8.6 % and 5.5% respondents responded disagree and
strongly disagree respectively. 4 (3.1%) respondents miss the response. The Chi-
square value of this response is 26.288 and its P-Value is <0.0001. All the statistics
in the table tell us the presence of a significant difference between the two extremes
of the responses. Thus, the conclusion drawn from this analysis is that men are hard
on their wives that they do not grant them permission to engage in political leadership
activities.

57
60 70 62
Column1
50 44.5 40 Column1 60 48.4 Frequancy
50
40 31.3 34
40
30 26.6
30
20 9.412 7.810 13 9.412
10.2
5.57 20
10 10 3.14
0 0
ee

ee

ee
e

ee

ee

ee
l
e
re

tra

tra
re
gr

gr

gr
ag

gr

gr

gr
eu

ag

ue
isa

sa
A

isa

sa
A
ly

di

N
ly
D

di
ng

D
ng
ly

ly
ro

ng

ro

ng
Chart 4.1: Socially constructed roles such that Chart 4.2: The perception that women's as
St

ro

St

ro
St

women are inferior to men have protected women's supporters rather than main actor s hinder them
St

from participation in political leadership to participate in political activities

Chart 4: Répondants perception on socio-cultural factors

Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015
N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are 42.994 & 43.477 respectively and both
the above factors have similar P-Value of <0.0001.

On the other hand, the socially constructed roles such that women are inferior to men
hinders them from participating in political leadership activities. Only a few
participants i.e. 5.5% and 7.8% are giving their responses by strongly disagreeing and
disagreeing and 9.4% are neutral. The majority of respondents i.e. 31.3% and 44.5%
are agreeing and strongly agreeing that the socially constructed roles influences
women to come to political leadership. Further, the results of Chi-square value is
42.994 and P-Value is <0.0001. There is also two respondents i.e. 1.6% who miss to
give responses. See the following graph. The figures in ‘agree’ and ‘Strongly agree’
are by far superior to the disagreement side showing a significant difference. Hence,

49
this leads to the conclusion that socially constructed roles considering women to be
inferior to men affect the political participation of women in the city administration.

Similarly, the respondents were questioned whether the perception of the society that
women’s as supporters rather than main actors hinder them from participation in a
higher political leadership positions. As a result in chart 4.2, 62(48.4%) strongly
agreed, 34(26.6%) agreed, 13(10.2%) neutral. While 12(9.4%) respondents disagree,
4(3.1%) of them strongly disagree and 3(2.3%) respondents have miss the response.
This responses have a Chi-square value 43.477 and a P-Value of <0.0001. The
resulting P-Value, the frequency distribution and the percentages all suggest high-
margin difference between the responses of the sides in favor of an agreement to the
question statement. As a result, it can be concluded that society’s perception taking
women as supporters instead of main actors significantly affect the political
participation of women.

Spending more time in religious related activities

15.6 12.5
Strongly agree
Agree
Nuetral
20.3 25.8 Disagree
Strongly disagree

23.4

Chart 5: Responses on socio-cultural factors affecting women participation in

political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

NB: The chi-square of the above factor is 0.047and its P-Value is =0.8284

As the above chart indicates, questions forwarded to participants to know their

opinion about the issue that spending more time on religious related and social
activities by women hinders their participation in political leadership. Consequently,
16(12.5%) and 33(25.8%) respondents give their response by strongly agree and agree

50
respectively. On the other hand, 26(20.3%) respondents responded ‘disagree’,
20(15.6%) responded ‘strongly disagree’ and 30(23.4%) responded ‘neutral’, 3(2.3%)
have missing value. In addition to this, the Chi-square value is 0.047, P-Value is
=0.8284. Considering the P-Value, there seems to be no significant difference
between the responses of agreement and disagreement. Similarly, the frequency
distribution and percentages vary very little. Thus, it can be concluded that spending
more time on religious related and social activities is not impediment to women’s
political participation.

4.4.2.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Socio-cultural factors

As far as the socio-cultural factors are concerned, almost all interviewees explain
these factors lack of access to education, poor social attitude towards women in terms
of political leadership, keeping women at bay to go further and get educated, work,
exercise their rights, become a leader, empower and so on to be among the major
factors hindering the political participation of women in the city administration, as it
was said by the interviewees.

They continue in saying there are also social beliefs that consider women have to
work at home, should get married, give children and carry the responsibility of their
children and perceiving the appointment women for leadership positions to be wrong.
In addition, participants of FGD were explained that Socio-cultural factors such as
social perceptions (socially constructed roles), low level of enrollment in education,
negative attitudes towards gender equality are mentioned to be among the core
reasons. The socio-cultural influences that lived in the society for long also
considered women only for indoor roles. Women are there to be married, give birth
and raise a family. They’re responsible for doing whatever the husband instructs.
Such has been the social perception on women and, as a result, women did not go out
and participate in other issues such as politics but remained indoors. Finally, the
interviewees conclude that generally this negative perception of the society towards
women hinders them from participation in political leadership.

Apparently, these responses of high political leaders match with the other responses
given by respondents of the questionnaires. As presented in table 4.5.1 above, more

51
than 60% of respondents agreed (only 11% disagreed) that low educational
background of women limits their participation in political leadership. The
interviewees are also in support of this response as they have mentioned low
educational background of women to be one of the major factors hindering the
political participation of women and the Chi-square test shows that the p-value of the
two responses on the above idea is less than 5% meaning there is statistical
significance difference between the two categorized perception of the respondents
which exceeds the respondents who categorized to support the idea that low
educational background of women affects their participation in political leadership.
From this it could be understand that education have significant impact in increments
or decrements of women participation in different activities. Therefore, educational
background of women are significantly affect their participation in political leadership
position.

The interviewees also pointed out the prejudice of men over women to be hampering
the political participation. When the question of whether the prejudice of men over
women negatively influenced the political participation of women asked, the
respondents responses on table 4.6.1 about 69% of questionnaire respondents agreed
this factor to have that said negative influence on women while only less than 10%
disagreed. In line with this, the questionnaires also generated a finding similar to this
in that more than 58% of respondents claimed husbands do not allow their wives to
engage in political activities. The p-values of these statements also shows us the
statistically significant difference between the two responses which the agree
responses exceeds the disagree one. From the above concepts women’s couldn’t
participation in different political activities because of the prejudice of men over them
and also because their husband do not allow them to engage in political activities.

As far as the homework load is concerned, on the table 4.5.2 above, only 10.2% of
questionnaire respondents disagreed saying the homework load on women does not
affect their political participation while the responses of agreement exceeded the ones
on the opposite ends with such big margins with 72.6% indicating that the homework
loads on women, in fact, negatively affected the political participation of women. In
relation to this the issue of socially constructed roles to hinder women from political

52
participation was also lauded out in the interview sessions as it was the case in the
outcomes of the questionnaire papers. As it was dealt with in chart 4.1 only 13.3% of
respondents disagreed saying socially constructed roles do not negatively affect
women’s political participation while the majority accounting for more than 75%
were in agreement to the statement. From the above idea since women are always
stressed in different home work loads, they doesn’t have time to develop their
potential by reading about different issues or watching different alternatives. As a
result they face difficulties to participate in different political activities.

Nonetheless, there is relatively less level agreement that religious beliefs and practices
is one of the major factors affecting women’s political participation as it was a very
close call to either agree (about 38%) or disagree (about 36%) shown in a chart 5 with
a P-Value of 0.8284 by the respondents of the questionnaires and it’s a factor stated
by only one interviewee. As the two responses are very close to each other, the p-
value result also shows those respondents didn’t have statistical significance
difference on their responses. From this it is possible to conclude that the devotion of
more time on religious and social activities of women is not a major hindrance factor
to women’s participation in political leadership position in the administration.

Generally, from the above different ideas and opinions obtained from responses of
respondents, interviewees and FGD, it can be concluded that social factor is one of the
major factors which protects women’s from participating in different political
activities.

4.4.3. Economic Factors

53
 50 42
45 37
50
45 39.1 40 32.8
40 Frequency 35 28.9 28 Frequency
35 29 30 21.9
30 22.7 23 25
25 18 20 13
20 14 15 10.2
15
10.9 11
8.6 75.5
10
10 5
5
0 0
Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree Agree Disagree
Chart 6.1: Economic dominance of men over Chart 6.2: Women's high unemployment rate
women negatively affect thier participation in affected thier participation in political leadership
political leadership

Chart 6: Respondents perception on economic factors hindering women from

participating in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are 21.342 & 26.671 respectively and both
of them have a P-Value of <0.0001.

As shown in the chart 6.1 above, respondents were asked to give their view on
whether the economic dominance of men over women negatively affected their
participation in political leadership. As a result, 29 out of 128 (22.7%) responded
‘strongly agree’ and 50 (39%) answered ‘agree’. On the other hand, 23 (18%)
remained neutral, 14 (10.9%) disagreed and 11 (8.6%) strongly disagreed. These
responses generated Chi Square statistic value of 21.342 with <0.0001 P Value. Thus,
from the observed frequency distribution, the percentages calculated and the resulting
P Value, it can be said that there’s a significant difference between the response
values of agreement and disagreement to the negative effect economic dominance of
men over women on participation of political leadership of women. The huge gap
between the two sides of the responses observed favoring agreement to the statement
forwarded can lead to conclusion that the said negative effect exists.

Further test was made with a question about the effect of women’s high
unemployment rate on their participation in politics. As revealed in the chart 6.2
above, 37 of 128 respondents (28.9%) shown strong agreement while 42 (32.8%) also
agreed. On the other hand, 13 (10.2%) disagreed and 7 (5.5%) strongly disagreed.

54
Another 28 (21.9%) participants were neutrals. The Chi Square statistic value of these
responses is 26.671 with P Value <0.0001. The frequency and percentage statistic say
much about the varied distribution of the responses. The P- Value also suggests there
is a significant difference between agreeing and disagreeing with the survey
statement. Thus, the conclusion is that the high unemployment rate of women did
affect the participation of women in political leadership.

Women's economic dependence on their husband determined thier participation

57
60
50 44.5
40 31
30 24.2 24
18.8
20
9 7 6 4.7
10
0
Strongly agree Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly
disagree

Chart 7: Respondents perception on economic factors hindering women from

participating in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

NB: The chi-square of the above factor is 39.721and its P-Value is <0.0001.

As shown in the chart 7 above, women’s economic dependence on their husbands and
its effect on their political leadership participation were also surveyed. 57 respondents
(44.5%) strongly agreed that the economic dependence of women on their husbands
in deed affected their participation in political leadership. 31 (24.2%) agreed this to be
the case. 9 (7%), 6 (4.7%) and 24 (18.9%) responded disagreed, strongly disagreed,
and remained neutrals respectively. The Chi Square statistic value is 39.721 with P
Value of <0.0001 suggesting a significant difference between the responses of
agreement and disagreement. As it is understandable from both the frequency
distributions and P-Value, it can be concluded that women’s economic dependence on
their husbands has determined their active participation in political leadership.

55
 60 55 35 34
Percentag 35
50 43 e 27.3 26.6 26
38 30
40 25 20.3
29.7 19
30 20 14.8
19 11
14.8 15
20 8.6
6.38 3.95 10
10
5
0 0
ee

l
e

ee

ee
tra
re

gr

gr

gr
ag

ue

isa

sa
A

N
y

di
Chart 8.1: Women are tied up on how they can
D
gl

ly Chart 8.2: Insufficient allocation of budget by the

n
ro

ng

improve thier live rather than participating in government for women political education limits
St

ro

political leadership
St

thier participation in politics

Chart 8: Respondents perception on economic factors affecting women’s

participation in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are 46.135 & 11.473 respectively and its P-
Value are <0.0001 & =0.0007 respectively.

Another question forwarded to respondents was about if women are tied on how they
can improve their lives rather than participating in political leadership. As indicated in
the above chart 8.1, the resulting responses were strong agreement of 55 (43.0%),
agreement of 38 (29.7%), disagreement of 8 (6.3%), and strong disagreement of 5
(3.9%) respondents. 19 (14.8%) of respondents remained neutral. The Chi- Square
statistic value reads 46.135 and the P Value is <0.0001. This figure, along with the
frequency distributions and percentages, is there to show a significant difference
between the agreement and disagreement responses given to the statement about
women’s main focus. Therefore, it can be concluded that women focus more on how
they can improve their lives rather than participating in political leadership.

Respondents were also surveyed how they would react to a statement “insufficient
allocation of budget by the government for women political education limits their
participation in politics”. As in the chart 8.2, the responses were 35 (27.3%) strongly
agreed, 34 (26.6%) agreed, 19 (14.8%) disagreed, and 11 (8.6%) strongly disagreed.
26 (20.3%) of them are neutrals. This result has also generated a Chi Square statistic
value of 11.473 and a P- Value of =0.0007. This clearly suggests that there’s

56
obviously a significant difference between the agreement and disagreement responses
of the respondents, a case very much highlighted in the frequency distributions and
percentages already. Therefore, the conclusion to be possibly drawn from the above
analysis of the responses given is that the insufficient budget that the government
allocates for women’s political education limits their participation in politics.

4.4.3.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Economic factors

Seven political party and sectoral bureaus leaders were interviewed to further
strengthen the data gathered for the study. According to the opinions of these
interviewees, economic problem has been one of the major factors negatively
affecting the participation of women in political leadership positions of the city
administration. As it was stated by these leaders, economic difficulties force families
to prioritize boys to send to school at the expense of girls indoors. Therefore, the
daughters carry the responsibility to work and help their family. As a result they have
no chance and time to educate equally with men. Therefore, when they come to apply
for job or appointment, men are presented by performing all criteria required. So, this
educational backwardness of women happened because of economic difficulties faced
by their family influences their participation in political leadership. In addition, the
interviewees says that women’s economic dependence on their husband also hinders
them from participation in political leadership in the city administration. The issues
like being unable to own wealth such as land and the fact that men dominated
possessions and women being dependent on their husbands have been mentioned by
FGD’s participants to be reasons from economic perspective.

These leadership opinions also further strengthen that the above presented and
analyzed responses of questionnaire respondents suggest those economic challenges
of women to hamper the participation of women in political leadership positions. The
fact that men economically dominate women, in chart 6.1 for instance, has been
agreed to by about 62% of questionnaire respondents to be negatively affecting the
political participation of women while less than 20% of respondents reacted otherwise
and the p-value of this statement’s responses is less than 0.05 shows that the statistical
significance difference between the two responses.

57
In addition, when it was said that women focus much on how to improve their lives
instead of political participation in chart 8.1, about three fourth of them agreed this to
be the case while in the chart 6.2 more than 61% also said that women’s high
unemployment rate tends to negatively affect women’s political participation. The
Chi-square results of both statement also shows the statistical significance difference
between the respondents responses which the agree zone exceeds the opposite side.
From this it can understand that women covers high degree of unemployment rate and
they are busy and always running to improve their life and as a result they couldn’t
have a time to participate in different activities. Therefore, luck of employment of
women and their focus more of time on improving their live makes them to not come
to political participation.

Moreover, in chart 7 above about 69% of them also stressed that the fact that women
are economically dependent on their husbands do negatively influence the political
participation of women in the city administration and respondents of interviewees also
mention this idea and the Chi-square results of the respondents response shows the
statistical significance differences between the two responses which the agree one
exceeds the disagree zone. From this it is possible to say women’s dependency on
their husbands limits them from participating in political leadership.

Therefore, from the above findings, it is possible to conclude that women’s

economical dependency and their highly un empowerment have a negative impact
towards women participation so that economic factors is a major factors among others
which hinders women’s participation in political leadership position in the city
administration.

4.4.4. Psychological/Attitudinal Factors

58
 50 40
45 35
40 47 36 35
30
35
30 36.7 25 28.1 27.3
25 32 20 23
20 25 15 18 18
15 19 19 10 14.1 15
10 14.8 14.8 11.7
11 5
5 8.6
0 0
Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
Chart 9.1 Most women's didnt have interest to Chart 9.2 Women's luck confidence to stand
be a political leader for election or appointment

Chart 9: Respondents perception on psychological factor which affect women’s

participation in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are 3.848 & 5.258 respectively and its P-
Value are 0.0498 & 0.0218 respectively.

To get opinion of women regarding their interest towards politics was among the
questions posed to respondents. When they were asked to react to statement that reads
‘most women do not have interest to be political leaders’, as the above chart 9,1
shows 14.8% of them strongly agreed while 25% agreed. Those who disagreed and
strongly disagreed are 8.6% and 14.8% respectively. However, 36.7% remained
neutral. These responses generated Chi Square statistic value of 3.848 and P Value of
0.0498. The very fact that the P-Value is still less than 5% and varied frequency
distribution patterns between the values of ‘agreement’ zone and ‘disagreement’ zone
responses indicates the significant difference between those responses. Thus, it can be
concluded that women lack interest to become political leaders in the city
administration. This might be from social and cultural influences accounted to the
believes that women have no potential to make political decision and psychological
problem of themselves and might be because women’s belief of politics is not a
proper work for them or it may be because of un conduciveness of political situation
in the administration as the interviewees explained.

Similarly the issue of women’s confidence was also under the spotlight and
respondents were asked to give their opinion on women’s confidence when it comes
to standing for election or appointment. And chart 9.2 shows 18% were in strong

59
agreement saying women lack the confidence to stand for election or appointment
while 28.1% also agreed. Those who disagreed and strongly disagreed accounted for
14.1% and 11.7% respectively. 27.3% remained neutral. 5.258 is the Chi-Square
statistic value with 0.0218 P-Value indicating a significant difference between the
responses of agreement and disagreement which is the agreement part is greater.
Therefore, it can be concluded that women lack confidence when it comes to standing
for election or appointment and as different officials and higher political leaders
explain this is mainly because of family background and societal perception that
undermine women makes them to lose their self confidence. In addition, the negative
attitudes of women toward themselves in thinking that they couldn’t perform
leadership activities as well as men do and politics is only a job born for men.

Most women believe that politics is not a good job

40
35 38
30
25 29.7
26
20 22
15 20 20.3 20
15.6 17.2 15.6
10
5
0
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
agree disagree

Chart 10: Respondents perception on psychological factor which affect women’s

participation in political leadership
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

NB: The chi-square of the above factor is 0.109 and its P-Value is 0.7413.
The issue of what women believe about politics in terms of job opportunity was also
given to respondents to react to and, as a result in chart 10, 15.6% of them said that
they strongly agree most women believe politics is not a good job while 20.3% agreed
this to be the case. 17.2% and 15.6% said they opposed disagreeing and strongly
disagreeing respectively. 29.7% were neutrals. The calculations tell the Chi-Square
statistic value to be 0.109 with 0.7413 P-Value. This suggests the call for the
responses to be very close suggesting no significant difference between them. Thus,

60
the conclusion is that, despite partial agreement, most women do not believe that
politics is not a good job.

TABLE 4.7: SHOWS RESPONSES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS WHICH

LIMIT THE PATICIPATION OF WOMEN IN POLITICAL LEADRSHIP

Chi
P
Responses/Scales Squa
Value
No. Factors re
Strongly Strongly
Agree Neutral Disagree
Agree Disagree
N % N % N % N % N %
4.7.1 The negative 42 32.8 46 35.9 19 14.8 8 6.3 13 10.2 31.225 <0.0001
attitude of men
on women
limits them
from political
participation
4.7.2 Societies do not 27 21.1 46 35.9 31 24.2 12 9.4 11 8.6 19.253 <0.0001
believes that
women have
the potential to
make political
decision if they
get a chance
4.7.3 The societies 16 12.5 33 25.8 39 30.5 19 14.8 20 15.6 0.707 =0.4004
believe that
equal
participation of
women and
men is not
appropriate
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

The attitude of men towards women was also tested by forwarding ‘negative attitude
of men on women limits women from political participation’ to respondents. Table
4.7.1 shows that 32.8% and 35.9% of the respondents respectively strongly agreed
and agreed while 14.8% were neutrals. In contrast, 6.3% disagreed and 10.2%
strongly disagreed. The Chi-Square statistic value of these responses was calculated
to be 31.225 with P-Value of <0.0001. This value does suggest a significant
difference between the responses of the sides in favor of an agreement prompting a
conclusion that the negative attitude of men on women does limit women from
political participation.

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Respondents were also questioned whether they thought societies believe that women
have the potential to make political decisions. As table 4.7.2 shows a result, 21.1%
strongly agreed and 35.9% agreed. 9.4% went for ‘disagree’, 8.6% for ‘strongly
disagree’, and 24.2% for neutrality. The Chi-Square statistic value reads 19.253 and
the P-Value is <0.0001 suggesting a significant difference between the responses.
This indication leads to a conclusion that societies do not believe in women to pass
political decisions if they are given political responsibilities.

Similarly, in table 4.7.3 above societies’ perception about equal participation of men
and women in politics was also asked. 12.5% of respondents strongly agreed that
societies believe equal participation of women and men is inappropriate and 25.8%
also agreed. Contrary to this, 14.8% of respondents said they disagree that societies
had such a perception or belief and 15.6% even strongly disagreed. 30.5% chose to
remain neutral. It was calculated that the Chi-Square statistic value of these responses
is 0.707 with 0.4004 P-Value. Even though, the frequency distribution and
percentages shows some variation between the ‘agreement’ and ‘disagreement’
responses, the P- Value seems to be no significant difference between them. Thus, it
can be concluded that somewhat societies believe that equal participation of women
and men is not appropriate but it is not as such a significant factor.

Do you believe that there is difference between men and women in political
leadership performance

6.3
Yes
39.1 No
I do not know
46.9

Chart 11: Perceptions on attitudinal factors which influences women political

participation
Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

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N.B: The chi-square of the above factor is 0.556 and its P-Value 0.4559 .

The other question forwarded to respondents regarding the psychological factors was
if they believed there is difference between women and men as far as political
leadership performance is concerned. 39.1% said ‘yes there is a difference’ while
46.9% responded otherwise. 6.3% of respondents said they had no idea about this
question. The Chi-Square value of these responses is 0.556 and the P-Value is 0.4559.
The frequency distributions and percentages shows some variation between the ‘Yes’
and ‘No’ responses. However, the P- Value suggests that there is no significant
difference between the two extremes of responses. Those respondents who responded
“yes” were also asked to explain the reason for their responses and their reason was in
opposite. They say women have a full potential to perform social, economic and
political issues in an effective way than men if they get a chance. However, some of
respondents respond that the difference between men and women in leadership
performance may happen because of absence of enough training about politics for
women and their less experience. Therefore, the findings indicates that with a few
exception there is no significant difference between men and women in their
leadership performance. Otherwise the opposite idea may happen.

4.4.4.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on Psychological or

Attitudinal factors

It was also learnt from the interviewees that psychological problems and attitudinal
challenges of women themselves and from the societies do negatively contribute to
the political participation of women. 57.1% of interviewees responded that women’s
have negative attitudes towards political participation and explained the reasons
behind saying women have negative attitudes towards participation in politics and this
mainly stems from socio-cultural influences, economic factors and shortage of
exemplary women leaders in this regard. Family background and psychological
problem of women, meaning thinking that politics is very hard and it is only for men,
play their parts. There is an idea which helps the above stated socio-cultural
influences explained by interviewees based on the perception of the respondents.
Therefore table 4.7.2 has an idea of societies do not believes that women have the
potential to make political decision if they get a chance, based on this about 57%

63
respondents agree on the idea. From this it could be understood that the negative
perception of the societies towards women ability to lead makes them to have
negative perception towards politics and limits their interest to participate in political
leadership.

The interviewees further explained that women’s have negative attitude towards
politics because of un conducive of political environment such as work burden
(working in cities and rural areas), participating on meeting for long time may be up
to 3 or 4 o’clock over night, and other different situations which do not take in to
account women’s issues.

The other 28.6% of interviewees respond ‘women’s have no negative attitude towards
political participation because politics gives them more opportunities, chance to
participate, encouraging them to exercise their right, to educate, to be able to express
themselves and speak out their concerns in different programs and so on. However,
they lack confidence about themselves. Even if they are in equal status with men by
education level or work experience women tend to perceive that men are more worthy
of those opportunities due to their inferiority complex and psychological fragility.
And in chart 9.2 also about 46% of respondents agree on women’s luck confidence to
stand for election or appointment. So, the above idea shows that the issue is not about
having negative attitude towards political participation or not, it is about the fear of
women and less confidence to come to political leadership position. Therefore, their
negative attitude toward themselves affect them from participating in political
leadership. On the other hand, one of the interviewees explained this issue from two
different perspectives:
1. Those who get a chance and come to the leadership, they have positive attitude
toward politics. This is mainly because they think that they get an opportunity
to support themselves, their family and the society and also they can help and
solve women’s multidimensional problems.
2. But the majority is those who could not get the chance of political leadership
and who have no awareness about politics. Those women have socio-cultural
influences so that they have a negative attitude toward political participation.

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 This is because they think that politics is very difficult and they cannot
participate and perform the jobs as well as men do.

Tracing back the responses of the questionnaires, however, there appear to be

similarities. For instance, in chart 9.1 about 40% of respondents suggested that most
women do not have interest to become political leaders while only about 23% had
different view. In addition, in table 4.7.1 more than 68% of respondents said the
negative attitude of men on women have hampered the political participation of
women, while only 16% of them disagree with the idea. Contrary to this, in chart 10
about 36% of respondents claimed that most women believe politics is not a decent
job for them while about 33% said the opposite suggesting almost have women
believe politics is a good job for them. the above respondents’ and interviewees’
concept shows that women’s have negative attitude toward politics and have not
interest to be a political leader and they believe that politics is not a well-mannered
job for them because of the un conduciveness of political environment. These
negative opinion limits their participation in political leadership positions. Moreover,
It was said by the participants of FGD that women are not well empowered to the
desired level and still have negative attitudes towards themselves. They undermine
themselves thinking that politics is too hard for them and it is men’s job. The social
perceptions and unfair gender inequalities also influence women to believe the indoor
responsibilities theirs for the taking. The fact that women are less aware of politics is
also making them hate it and have less participation as a result.

Despite those negative attitudes of women themselves and others’ towards women,
however, four out of seven higher political leaders, including the EPRDF & ESPDP
heads and the deputy mayor, have much praise for women when asked if they
believed that there’s a leadership performance difference between men and women.
They responded ‘No’ explaining that women can perform as well as men do. They
further explain that women can even have better efficiency in political leadership
performances given that they get fair accesses and opportunities. The deputy mayor
has strengthened this argument taking the successful performances of women higher
political leaders as exemplary ones.

65
According to the head of ESPDP, sex difference, basically, is not the factor to be
either weak or strong in political leadership. You may have a man with poor/ weak
political leadership quality or a strong woman in this regard and vice versa. Women
can deliver quality political leadership given that they consistently capacitate
themselves through education and trainings. We also have some women that surpass
men in political leadership.

The rest three interviewees (42.9%) give their responses by saying ‘Yes’, there is
leadership difference between men and women. One of them was head of BOWCYA,
who believes that women are more productive in political leadership than men. She
also mentioned that women presumably bear higher commitment and sprit levels in
fighting mal administrations. Women are stronger than men in this regard.

The other interviewee who say ‘Yes’ there are difference between men and women in
leadership performance was the house speaker. According to her, women are more
responsible than men. They have ability to lead specially, carrying for government’s
properties and resources, working for good governance. Generally, on major issues
women have a unique ability to lead.

The third interviewee was head of education bureau. He explained this issue saying
women are effective than men in leadership activities. He supported his argument
with his practical experience as evidence in this regard. According to him, the schools
led by women directors are more effective than the schools led by men. This is
because leadership needs commitment, trust and devotion and women possess those
extra qualities. They have the ability to make others follow them. Generally, women
have leadership quality than men.

Seeing this in line with the questionnaires above in chart 11, about 39% respondents
said they believed there’s a difference between men and women in political leadership
performance while about 47% stressed no difference. The Chi-square result of this
statement’s response shows statistically insignificance difference between the two
responses. However, all interviewees explain that women have no leadership
performance problem rather they can perform efficiently and effectively more than
men, but they luck positive attitudes towards themselves. So what is understood from

66
this women’s have a potential to perform political leadership activities as well as men
do and in an efficient manner more than men do and at the same time they luck self
confidence.

From the above concept of different respondents, FGD and interviewees’ responses,
attitudinal/psychological factors is one of the most hindering factors that have high
influences on the participation of women in political leadership in the administration.

4.4.5. Policy environment

34 Frequanc
75
80
35 29 y
Column1
30 26.6 70 58.6
23 23 22.7 60
25
18 18 18 50 37
20 14.1 40 28.9
15 30
10 20
5 53.9 43.1 64.7
10
0 0
Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly Strongly Agree Nuetral Disagree Strongly
Agree Disagree Agree Disagree
Chart 12.1 There are not adquate policies and Chart 12.2 Women's Policy encourage them to
strategies that support women's political participate in political leadership
participation

Chart 12: Perception of respondents on the conduciveness of policy environment

Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.
N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are respectively 3.242 & 65.908. And its
P-Value are =0.0718 & <0.0001.

The researcher also interested to examine the opinion of the respondents about the
adequacy of policies and strategies that support women’s political participation.
Therefore, in the above chart 12.1 the result were 14.1% of respondents strongly agree
on the statement ‘government policies and strategies that supports women’s political
participation are not adequate’ and 18% also agree on the idea. 18% also remain
neutral but the majority of respondents i.e. 22.7% and 26.6% are disagree and
strongly disagree respectively to the absence of adequate policies and strategies. The
Chi-square result and P-Value of this responses also 3.242 and equal to 0.0718
respectively. Based on the above result since the p-value is greater than 5% the
difference between the two responses are not significant. Thus, the conclusion is that,
despite partial agreement, the government policies and strategies that support
women’s to participate in political leadership are adequate.

67
Other similar question regarding policy and strategy were forwarded to respondents to
evaluate their responses towards whether the women policy encourages them to
participate in political leadership. As shown in chart 12.2, 58.6% of respondents
strongly agree that women policy encourage them to participate in political leadership
and 28.9% respondents also agree on the idea. 3.9% respondents choose to remain in
between and the rest 3.1% and 4.7% respondents disagree and strongly disagree with
the idea mention above. Further, the researcher checked the Chi-square value of this
statement and found 65.908 with P-Value of less than 0.0001. The frequency and
percentage statistic and the P-Value also suggests there is a significant difference
between agreeing and disagreeing with the survey statement. This indication leads to
a conclusion that women’s policy encourage women to participate in political
leadership.

Chart 13.1 Affirmative action has not properly Chart 13.2 Women's should get additional
implemented to increase women particiation in chance to increase thier participation in
political leadership politics

10.9 17.2 1.6 4.7

10.9 Strongly Strong
agree 23.4 ly
Agree agree
25.8 34.4 Neutral 68.8 Agree
Neutra
Disagree l
Strongly Disagr
disagree ee

Chart 13: Perception of respondents on the conduciveness of policy environment

Source: Compiled by the author from the field survey, May 2015.

N.B: The chi-square of the above factors are respectively 11.547 & 77.949 and its
P-Value are =0.0007 & <0.0001.

In Addition to women policy the respondents also asked whether the affirmative
action is not properly implemented to increase women participation. As a result as
shown in chart 13.1, 17.2% respondents are strongly agree that affirmative action is
not properly implemented in the administration to increase women participation and

68
34.4% also agreed.25.8% of respondents remain neutral. However, the rest 10.9% and
10.9% respondents disagree and strongly disagree respectively with the mentioned
idea. The researcher further investigate the percentage found above by using Chi-
square and the result were 11.547 with the P-Value of ‘equal to 0.0007’. All these
results gained from frequency distribution, percentage and P-Value suggests that the
two responses are significantly different in which the agreeing zone is higher than that
of disagree. Therefore, based on the results it is possible to conclude that affirmative
action is not properly implemented to increase women participation in political
leadership in the administration.

Finally, to study the opinion of participants towards what should be performed to

increase the participation of women in political leadership, the researcher forward
question to respondents called ‘women’s should get additional chance to increase
their participation in politics. As indicated in chart 13.2, the result is that the majority
of 68.8% and 23.4% respondents give their response by strongly agreeing and
agreeing respectively, while only 4.7% respondents forward their disagreement and
the rest 1.6% remain neutral. The Chi-square result and P-Value of this responses are
77.949 and less than 0.0001 respectively. This data shows us the statistically
significance difference between the two responses which is almost all respondents
agree with the importance of additional chance women should get to increase their
participation in political leadership. Therefore, the findings indicates that women have
to get different additional chance to increase their participation in political leadership.

4.4.5.1. Analysis and Interpretation of qualitative data on policy environment

Government establish different policies which facilitate conditions conducive to

encourage women to participate in different political and other social and economic
issues. Women policy emphasizes condition to reduce the supremacy of men and
enabling women to participate in decision making process. To evaluate the policy
environment of the city administration, the researcher were conduct survey and collect
data from respondents and interviewees.

69
Accordingly, all of the interviewees responded ‘Yes’ to the question of if the policy
environment conducive enough to promote women’s political participation in
leadership. This is ensured in the supreme law, the constitution of the country.

There are also different conducive packages, such as women development package,
programs, policies dealing with affirmative action for women, strategies, manuals etc
that enhance and ensure the participation and empowerment of women in political
leadership. However, there are major problems in implementing the stated policies
and strategies into action and less follow up mechanisms.

One of interviewees further explained the detailed established policies and programs:
There is women development package, programs dealing with
women’s social, economic and political problems and how they
can be solved. There are also civil service proclamations in
hiring, upgrading, transferring civil servants, which give the
chance for women for education, and etc. These all are
enhancing women to have participations in many aspects
especially education policy provides a great enhancement to
women’s political participation.

The conducive environment for promoting women’s political participation in the city
administration as a result of women policies already in place are much discussed in
the interview sessions as it was the case in the responses of the questionnaire
respondents. For example, in chart 12.2 when respondents were told that women
policy encourage them to participate to participate in political leadership, more than
87% of the respondents said that women policy encouraging to bring about that
desired effect on women.

In addition, when respondents were asked whether those policies and strategies
encourage women to participate in political leadership in chart 12.1, about 49%
disagreed confirming that there are adequate policies and strategies to enhance
women’s political participation while about 32% agreed claiming the policies and
strategies to be inadequate. The above two ideas shows that government’s policies
and strategies are adequate in enhancing women to participate in political leadership

70
and more over women policy have a great role in supporting and encouraging women
to come and participate in different activities. Therefore, a conducive policies and
strategies which have important role toward empowering women are exists in the
administration.

The implementation problems of those policies were also echoed by questionnaire

respondents. Respondents were given a statement reading “affirmative action is not
properly implemented to increase women participation in the political leadership”
chart 13.1 shows more than 51% agreed confirming the affirmative action is not being
properly implemented to increase women’s participation in political leadership while
only less than 22% thought the opposite. From this it could be understood that even
though, there are different conducive policy environment for women which enable
them to participate in different activities, but the implementation systems is very poor.

Therefore, the above different opinions of interviewees and different ideas of

respondents shows that the administration have different conducive policy
environment which are sated by government to encourage women to participate in
political issues and decision making position and the less implementation of the
policy to the ground. As a result the participation of the administrative’ women are
insufficient and especially in the higher level leadership position their participation is
very low because of improper implementation of the established policy. Therefore,
the proper implementation of the policy have a great value for women participation in
political activities.

Furthermore, respondents were mention some additional factors behind low

representation of women in political leadership position. Such factors are ignoring
women decision, absence of women to support each other, absence of awareness of
women about their rights and in acceptance on equality of nation and nationality are
other additional factors that affect women’s participation in political leadership. Apart
for this, some participants believe biological issues like giving birth to be another
factor negatively affecting women’s participation in politics. Others argue this not to
be a factor in this regard. Eventually, it was agreed that this is not a factor by itself but
a cause to instigate social misconception. For example, women could miss some

71
decent job opportunities with the perception that they will still give birth at some
point of time and ask for leave. Thus, the employing organization may not afford to
lose that employee. Therefore, biological issue could still play its part in hindering the
participation of women in political leadership.

Finally, the researcher like to accept the suggestion from respondents on improvement
of women’s participation in political leadership and ask them by using open ended
questionnaire. The suggestion are as follows:
 Creating awareness on women, providing a chance to educate and empowering
them in political skill.
 Giving special support to women
 Participating women on different political issues and empowering them on
economic, social and political issues
 Ensuring gender equality and implementing affirmative action effectively.
 Solving women’s problem and reducing the work burden of women.
 Solving attitudinal problem and placing women on higher position and evaluating
their skill and performance.
 Effectively distributing the technology which may save women’s time and reduce
their work burden.
 More work should be done to change negative attitudes of men leaders.
 Giving equal chance of appointment for men and women and enhancing women
by presenting model women on a media.
 Creating a conducive environment which enhance women to participate in
political leadership and implementing the policies and strategies effectively.

4.5. Discussion of Findings

In this section, the researcher tries to interpret and discuss the result of findings
obtained from field survey by comparing and contradicting with other researchers’
works and findings and thereby creating a link with literature review used.

72
4.5.1. Factors Affecting Women’s Participation in Political Leadership Positions
in Dire Dawa administration

Women’s presence in parliaments around the world is a reality that is impacting on

the social, political and economic fabric of nations and of the world. Yet, their access
to these important legislative structures, learning how to work within them, and the
extent to which they impact on and through them, remain serious challenges (Julie
Ballington, 2005).

As the 2011 UN general assembly resolution on women’s political participation noted

that women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the
political sphere, often as a result of discriminatory laws, practices, attitudes and
gender stereotypes, low levels of education, lack of access to health care and the
disproportionate effect of poverty on women (UN Women, 2012).

4.5.1.1. Political Factors

From the local to the global level, women leadership and political participation are
restricted. Women are underrepresented as voters, as well as in leading positions,
whether in elected office, the civil service, the private sector or academia. This occurs
despite their proven abilities as leaders and agents of change, and their right to
participate equally in democratic governance (UN women, n.d). According to the
Ministry of Civil Service, Ethiopia (2005), despite being granted constitutional rights
of participation in decision making process, the involvement of women is very limited
at levels. In 2004, the National Electoral Board of Ethiopia reported that among 547
seats of the Federal Parliament, only 7.7% of them were occupied by women. At
regional and district levels, women constitute only 13% and 14% of council members
and elected officials, respectively.

Moreover, Farzana Bari (2005), states the issues that relates with this as ‘male
domination of politics, political parties and culture of formal political structures is the
major factors that hinders women’s political participation.

73
The findings of Ajack (2013), shows that lack of women’s voice hearing, failure to
get more women involved in existing party membership, lack of women’s access to
political education, appointed women’s leaders reluctance for involvement of new
women in political leadership, their placement into weaker political positions and
absence of many model women are the political constraints to impeding women’s
participation in Gambella regional state political leadership. Therefore, the findings of
this study also have a similarity with the above research findings in which failure of
political parties in working strong to get more women involved in party membership,
lack of women’s voice hearing, unequal opportunity for men and women to
participate in political leadership, incontinent working condition in the
administrations’ political activities for women participation in leadership position and
political rumor among different parties are the major impeding factors for women
participation in political leadership position among political factors found by this
research.

Further, some ideas like the cause of unequal opportunity for men and women to
participate in political leadership, insufficient number women in political participation
of the administration and the absence of women to be appointed to a higher political
decision making position through open ended questionnaire. As a result, respondents
were mention that only one female in the cabinet and house speaker of the
administrative council is female and this is mainly because less effort in working on
women’s political empowerment, low educational background, attitudinal problems
towards women, cultural influences, the superiority of men, influences by their
husband and less enhancement/encouragement mechanism for women to come to
political participation, absence of conducive environment for women to use their full
knowledge and skills and also less enhancement even for those women who already in
politics are among the major reasons behind insufficient participation of women.

Moreover, presence of negative perception which undermine women, absence of

getting a chance, luck of supportive mechanism, fear of women to come to politics,
unequal treatment of political parties for men and women to participate in political
leadership, social perception on the superiority of men and absence of politically

74
empowered women and some problems in political parties system of the
administration which hinder women from participating in politics and men who are
already on the position did not want to leave the place are the major reasons behind
the unequal opportunity for the sexes. In addition, the perception that women could
not perform political activities, less consideration on gender issues, and negative
perception of men leader towards women are presented as a major reasons for absence
of women appointed to higher political decision making position relatively to men.
The other critical finding is that if a women have no network with others members of
political parties, they couldn’t come to appointment.

On the other hand, Gebremedhin (2013) study on factors affecting women’s

participation in political leadership. In his study, he analyze about a political party’s
role towards increasing women participation in political leadership by taking a
political party as a promoting factor. He states that political party is among the
promoting factors which helps women’s to participate in different political leadership
activities. As a result, he found that although political parties have crucial value in
determining the number of women’s participating in leadership positions but all
parties have no equal intention and implementing on the equal participation of women
and men in different public activities some of them give women priorities and other
didn’t have this. However, in this study the results shows that the majority of
respondents conducted through questionnaire argue that the political parities of the
administration are highly committed to increase women’s participation in political
leadership and training and education about politics is provided to women to empower
them. On the other hand, the result obtained from interview and focus group
discussion and what the researcher experienced is that the higher political leaders of
the administration have negative attitude towards women and they lack commitment
and do not work hard towards women’s political empowerment and do not encourage
women to come to higher political position.

4.5.1.2. Socio-cultural factors

According to Cheingina (2008) study cited in (Ajack Ochalla, 2013), the finding
shows that the household tasks, family background, sexual harassment, gender gap in
quality, and religion were the major factors for women’s lower participation in

75
political leadership. However, the findings of this study shows that low level of
educational background of women, home work loads, socially constructed roles of
perceiving women are inferior to men, and societal perception that women’s as
supporters rather than main actors, the prejudice of men over women and
unwillingness of men to allow their wives to engage in political activities are the
major challenges found from socio-cultural perspective which protects women from
participating in political leadership position. But focusing more time in religious and
social activities by women is not found in this study as one of the major hindering
factor for women participation in political leadership. The supporting idea for the
above statement is the obstacles to women’s leadership as ‘political leadership in
modern democracies remains unconquered territory for women because culture and
gender relations are embedded in political life (Freeman et.al, 2013).

Different researches which focus on assessment of factors affecting women

participation in political leadership have a similar findings. For example; results of the
study made by Gebremedhin (2013), showed that low level of women’s education,
high house hold tasks and low family commitment, poor social relation because
women are restricted on indoor works and in private outdoor works, shortage of time
for women to develop their potential by watching or reading different alternatives
since they are always stressed in different home tasks, different unsolved health
problems of women’s specially harmful traditional practices like rape, early marriage,
etc. are factors which hinder women from participating political leadership. Similarly,
Ajack O. (2013), in its study found that low level of women’s education, the
prevalence of traditional division of labor between men and women, the traditional
customary that considers home as proper place for women, lack of women’s time due
to work overload at home, unwillingness of men to allow their wives to involve in
political activities, societal perception that considers women as inferior to men and
women’s leaders silence for the involvement of other women in political domain are
the social and cultural factors responsible for lower women’s participation in the
regional political leadership.

Furthermore, Farzana Bari (2005) states ‘Women also find it hard to participate in
politics due to limited time available to them because of their dual roles in the

76
productive and reproductive spheres. With their primary roles as mothers and wives
and competing domestic responsibilities and care work, they are left with little time to
participate in politics’. Further, According to Gebremedhin (2013), as stated in DAW
(2005), as mother and wives and work in their domestic activities so, they are left
with little time to participate in politics.

Despite of some similarities in the findings with the study of such researchers, this
study also shows the findings obtained from interview and focus group discussion
which support the survey conduct through questionnaire that lack of access to
education, poor social attitude towards women in terms of political leadership and
gender equality, societal beliefs that consider women have to work at home, should
get married, give children and carry the responsibility of their children and perceiving
the appointment of women for leadership positions to be wrong. Further, women are
responsible for doing whatever the husband instructs. Such social perceptions on
women embedding them to not go out and participate in other political issues. In
addition to this, some participants of focus group discussion also mention that
biological factor/issues could play it role in hindering the participation of women in
political leadership. However, this issues were not assessed in the above mentioned
research studies.

4.5.1.3. Economic factors

The complex nature of economic Challenge of women and its all-rounded

consequences are discussed by the Canadian Women’s Foundation as follows:
...you can’t move a woman out of poverty just by teaching her to write
a resume, as some other programs try. She might first need help
meeting basic needs like food and shelter for her children. Before
accepting a job, she will likely need help finding affordable childcare.
Some women find their families are hostile to the idea of them
becoming more financially independent, and need help learning to
negotiate these tensions. Living with domestic violence can destroy
women’s self-esteem—they often need help learning to believe they are
capable of success.

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In most countries women carry a disproportionate share of domestic work. Their
participation in politics is further constrained by poverty and lack of education and
access to information. It must be recognized that it is difficult for women to
participate in political life when their major concern is survival and they have no
choice but to spend much of their time trying to meet the basic needs of families
(Rebecca A, 2013). In addition, As to Ajack (2013), poverty is seen as a major
impediment largely because it means that women are, or become, more concerned
with earning their daily living than following any specific political development.

Similarly, the findings of this study shows that economic dominance of men over
women, high unemployment rate of women, their economic dependency on their
husband, and insufficient allocation of budget by the government for women political
education have been the major economic factors which protects women from political
participation in the administration. Moreover, because of their economic weaknesses,
women are tied up on how they can improve their live rather than participating in
politics. such challenges also the reason behind the low participation of women in
politics. however, as cited in Ajack (2013), the study of Aviel (1981) on ‘ political
participation of women in Latin America’ shows the researcher find that there has
been no correlation between the level of economic development and women’s
political participation because low political participation of women can be found in
countries at all stages of development. This is contradicting with the findings of this
research study because this paper finds that the economic weakness or dependency of
women is the major hindering factors of political participation of women.

On the other hand, the condition of unemployment and underemployment to be more

sever to women and consequently affecting their participation in political leadership
directly or indirectly, as the government at a time views the problems in terms of
developing fobs for men are the finding obtained by Aviel (1981) in the study on
political participation of women in Latin America cited in Ajack, O., (2013) which
have similarity with this study findings that high unemployment rate of women’s of
the administration affects their participation in political leadership position.

78
Moreover, this study found some economic factors which hinder women’s
participation in political leadership from qualitative survey. Such findings is that
educational backwardness of women happened because of economic difficulties faced
by their family in which boy get priority for education influences their participation in
political leadership and the issues like being unable to own wealth such as land and
the fact that men dominated possessions have been mentioned as a major economic
factor hindering women participation in political leadership in the administration.

Besides, Meron (2003), states that different researches identified that globally 70% of
the world’s women are considered as poor, due to this they didn’t get a chance to
participate in different election campaigns and in public activities (cited in
Geberemedhin Tewelde, 2013 ). In relation to this According to farzana Bari (2005),
the need for money is very high to participate in politics and women lack access to
and ownership of productive resource, limiting the scope of their political work.

4.5.2. Attitudes of women/ Psychological factors

Attitudinal problem is one of the major factors affecting women from participating in
political leadership. Akingbade (2010) notes that, for women to take aggressive male
characteristics to become competitive would be disadvantage in that overt and subtle
practices show absence of confidence in women’s competence and their exacerbated
negative self-perceptions, low self-efficacy and low self-esteem. Martin, P., &
Barnard, A. (2013) emphasize that women feel their domestic responsibilities halt the
pace of their career progression compared to their male colleagues. Women, even
being unmarried or without having children believe their prominent roles in the
household tax their commitments and vice versa.

In relation to the above idea, as cited in Gebremedhin (2013), Mehreen (2008) states
that in the day to day activities different effective and influential leaders were created
but due to their belief and other attitude toward women their activities didn’t seen as
what they done and this causes for under confidence for women and results
underrepresentation of women in different public leadership activities.

79
Therefore, in this study also some ideas found from the questionnaire survey which
help to understand the attitudinal factors. Such findings are most of respondent agree
with the idea of most women’s didn’t have interest to be a political leader and most
respondents have an idea that women’s luck confidence to stand for election or
appointment and also they believe that politics is not a good job. This idea supported
by (Rebecca A, 2013), stating that lack of confidence is one of the main reasons for
women’s under-representation in formal political institutions, whether parliaments,
ministries or political parties. With confidence and determination women can reach
the highest levels in the political process. That is why women should believe in
themselves and should do away with the widespread perception that men have to be
their leaders. In addition women perceive politics as a ‘dirty’ game. This has jarred
their confidence in their ability to participate in political processes. Moreover,
According to Damilola Agbalajobi (2010), the length of time that men enjoyed
dominance of power over women is the greatest psychological setback that halt the
attitude of women in politics and continues to stereotype women and justify their
subordination to men.

On the other hand, the study also shows the opinion of respondents on the idea that
the negative attitude of men on women, the societies perception that equal
participation of women and men is not appropriate are the idea which are accepted by
the respondents. Moreover, most respondents accept the idea that societies do not
believe that women have the potential t make political decision making if they get a
chance. In addition to this idea, the interviewees also explain that family background
and psychological problem of women, meaning thinking that politics is very hard and
it is only for men, play their parts in hampering the political participation of women.
Moreover, the findings from FGD shows that women are not well empowered to the
desired level and still have negative attitudes towards themselves. They undermine
themselves thinking that politics is too hard for them and it is men’s job and the social
perceptions and unfair gender inequalities also influence women to believe the indoor
responsibilities theirs for the taking.

4.5.3. Conduciveness of policy environment for women’s participation in political

leadership

80
Government establish different policies which facilitate conditions conducive to
encourage women to participate in different political and other social and economic
issues. This is ensured in the supreme law, the constitution of the country. Women
policy emphasizes condition to reduce the supremacy of men and enabling women to
participate in decision making process.

In the last two decades, a number of legal and administrative policies that promote
gender-equality have created conducive environment for women to have political
representations at different institutional levels. The 1995 Constitution of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (FDRE) is the most notable amongst these policies,
recognizing the rights of women that include the right to equality and the entitlement
to affirmative measures.
The historical legacy of inequality and discrimination suffered by
women in Ethiopia taken into account, women, in order to remedy this
legacy, are entitled to affirmative measures. The purpose of such
measures shall be to provide special attention to women so as to
enable them compete and participate on the basis of equality with men
in political, social and economic life as well as in public and private
institutions (FDRE Constitution, 1995, Art. 35).

Policy measures such as the Ethiopian Women Development and Change Package
(2006), National Policy on Women (1993), Revised Family Law (2000), and the
Revised Criminal Code (2005) are all there to institutionalize the political and socio-
economic rights of women and create conducive environment for them.

Moreover, Ethiopian is a signatory to most international instruments, conventions and

declarations, including the Discrimination Against Women /CEDAW (1979). The
Ministry of Women, Youth and Children Affairs (MoWYCA) is also an institution
established to address socio-economic and political rights women at federal level
while this structure is decentralized to the Dire Dawa Administration at bureau level.

In line with this, the researcher has discovered that the policy environment is
conducive enough to promote women’s political participation in leadership in the
administration and the policy documents mentioned above are used as guiding

81
frameworks as the issues of women in the administration is concerned. Moreover, the
national women’s policy encourages them to participate in political leadership
position. However, the study has also revealed that the implementation of these policy
documents is rather poor. Similarly, Ajack Ochalla, (2013) revealed similar findings
that the policy environment is conducive in promoting women participation in
political leadership in Gambella Regional State. Despite its conduciveness, however,
the policy implementation has not met the expectations in the regional state.
It is not the use of Affirmative Action that seems to be the problem
but the practical effects and its linkage to fundamental ideas of
fairness and justice. The greatest psychological weapon available
to man is the length of time they have enjoyed dominance over
women, who have taken it for granted especially in the area of
politics that often continue to stereotype women and justify their
subordination (Damilola T. Agbalajobi, 2010).

Moreover, the results of findings gained from the interview and FGD conducted with
different officials reveals that a conducive policies and strategies which have
important role toward empowering women to come to decision making position are
exists in the administration. And besides its improper and poor implementation of the
policy to the ground. Thus, this has dragged women back from participating in
politics as a result the number of women high political leaders kept in its minimal. In
addition, less care of the executive organ, the unfair treatment of women on justice
grounds, ill perceptions like women should not be entitled for birth (delivery) leave,
all added up make political participation so difficult for women.

Therefore, based on the findings of this study, other researches referred and the policy
documents presented, it can be concluded that there is, of course, conducive policy
environment for the promotion and enhancement of women’s participation in political
leadership in the administration but poor and improper implementation of these
policies in place is hampering the achievement of the desired goals of these policies,
amongst which their political participation is one of them.

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 Chapter 5

Summary of findings, Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1. Introduction

In this chapter, summary of findings, conclusion and recommendation part of the

research were addressed. The finding part consisted of summary findings of the
analysis, the conclusion part answers to the research question which is drown from the
discussion of qualitative part and findings/results from quantitative part and the
recommendation part consists what should have to done for the future by different
concerned bodies in order to solve the existing problems.

5.2. Findings

 With regards to personal characteristics of respondents the study reveals that the
majority respondents lie on middle age i.e. between 30-45 and some are also fall
under lower age group between 18-29. The study also indicates that majority of
respondents about 61(47.7%) are Bachelor Degree holder while 36(28.1%)

83
 diploma holder. 14(10.9%) also hold high school and below the rest 9(7.0%) and
8(6.3%) are levels and masters degree holders respectively.
 The study findings show that most of participants accounts to 47(36.7%) and
47(36.7%)are on supportive staffs and experts respectively. while only 13(10.2%)
and 6(4.7%) hold lower and middle level manager position respectively. The rest
15(11.7%) respondents are lower level employee.
 In an attempt to assess the political factors which hinder women’s political
participation, most (57%) respondents confirmed that there is high commitment of
political parties and in similar way majority (51%) of respondents also confirmed
that training and awareness about political activities are provided to women to
increase their participation in political leadership. However, the interview result
attests that less effort of high political leaders and lack of political training and
awareness to women are among the major factors hindering women from
participating in political leadership.
 Furthermore, because of absence of full information or other reasons, the study
shows that respondents have almost relative responses with regards to the political
parties working strong to get more women involved in party membership.
 Besides this, majority about 61(47.6%) of respondents agreed that women’s voice
has not properly been heard in the political arena and about 62(51.5%) of
respondents also give their agreement in which political rumor among different
parties discouraged women’s political participation.
 Moreover, the study reveals that as more than 75% of respondents confirmed the
insufficient of women participation in political leadership in the administration
and the reason behind this is only one female is in the cabinet and one women is
house speaker this mainly because of less effort in working on women’s political
empowerment, low educational background, attitudinal problem towards women,
cultural influence, superiority of men, influences by their husband, lack of
encouragement mechanism and absence of conducive political environment. The
dey official interview and focus group discussion surveyed also attests the
insufficiency/low participation of women in political leadership in the
administration.

84
 Besides this, majority about 64(50.1%) respondents agreed that the political
environment is not convenient for women to come to political participation and
the interview and FGD survey also confirm the presence of the said idea.
 Similarly, the majority 77(60.2%) of respondents confirmed that there is no equal
opportunity for men and women to participate in political leadership and all
interviewee are also realize this and both respondents and the interviewee explain
that lack of self confidence of women, negative perception about politics by
women themselves, educational background, social influences, absence of
supportive mechanism, less effort of higher political leader, unequal treatment of
political parties for men and women to participate in political leadership and
problems in political parties system are the main reason behind unequal
opportunity for men and women to participate in political leadership.
 Furthermore, the study shows that most 98(77%) respondents confirmed that
Ethiopian electoral system helps in awareness creation of women’s to increase
their participation in political activities.
The socio-cultural influences on women’s participation in political leadership
have been survey with the administration. Thus the following key findings
obtained from the study:
 Accordingly, more than 60% of respondents asserts that low educational
background of women limits their participation in political leadership.
Besides, about 72% respondents confirms that home work loads affects
women’s to participate in the political leadership. From the interview and
FGD session also the educational backwardness of women and work burden
on women which are born from socio-cultural perception and economic
difficulties are mentioned.
 Further, the study tried to see the extent at which the prejudice of men over
women affect the political participation of women. As a result the study
discovered that out of surveyed respondent’s accounts to 88(68.7%) explain
their agreement. While some 12(9.4%) of them disagreeing by confirming the
said idea is not exist. On the other hand, 75(58.6%) respondents asserts that
husbands do not allow their wives to engage in political activities and only
18(14.1%) respondents response otherwise and the p-value of both statements

85
 shows that there is a statistical significance difference between the two
response zone i.e. ‘agreement’ zone and ‘disagreement’ zone.
 Moreover, survey are continue to know whether the socially constructed roles
such that women are inferior to men have protected women from participating
in politics. Accordingly majority of respondents 75.8% confirm that the
socially constructed roles are protect women’s participation in political
leadership. Similarly, the study also reveals that more than 74% respondents
confirmed the perception that women’s as supporters rather than main actors
hinders women from political participation. The p-value of both statements
also reveals that there is a statistical significant difference between the two
responses which is the agreement zone responses exceeds the reverse one. The
interview conducted with the higher political leaders and bureau’s head and
the FGD conducted with chair man’s of standing committee and women’s
organization also reveals the existence of the above factors and its influences
on women’s political participation.
 Besides this, the surveys conducts to assess whether spending or focusing
more time in religious and social related activities of women affects their
political participation shows that about 38% of respondents agree with the idea
and 35.9% are not. The p-value of this statement’s respondent responses also
shows the statistically insignificance difference which mean spending more
time on religious related and social activities may partially hinder women’s
political participation but is not as such a significant factor.
In addition to the above factors, efforts have been made to assess factors affecting
women’s participation in political leadership from economic perspectives
 Accordingly, the study revealed that a great deal majority about 68% of
respondents have witnessed that women’s economic dependence on their
husband determine their active participation in political leadership. The same
thing with the idea ‘economic dominance of men over women negatively
affect their political participation’ in which more than 61% respondents agreed
on it. Further, about 61% of respondents asserts that women’s high
unemployment rate in the administration affected their participation in
political leadership. The p-value of all these statement shows the statistically
significance difference between the responses of the respondents in which the

86
 agreement part is exceeding the disagreement part. The opinion of those
higher political leaders and standing committees also reveals the said elements
of economic factors are significantly affecting the participation of women in
political leadership in the administration.
 The other issues observed by this study which are related with economic factor
is concerned with whether the insufficiency allocation of budget by the
government for women political education limits their participation in politics.
Thus, the study shows that about 54% of respondents reach consensus that
there are insufficient allocation of budget by the government for women
political education and this affects them to participate in politics. In addition
the other issues surveyed from economical perspective is whether women are
tied up on how they can improve their live rather than participating in political
leadership. Therefore the majority 72% respondents confirm that women busy
on improving their live rather than participating in politics.
 The attitudinal factors also assessed by the researcher to evaluate the
perception of women toward their political participation and to analyze the
attitudes of the society towards women political leadership. Accordingly the
study revealed that majority about 40% respondents have witnessed that most
women didn’t have interest to be a political leader while about 23% of
respondents response otherwise.
 The other issue related with psychological problem observed by this study is
concerned with women’s confidence to stand for election or appointment.
Thus the study revealed that 46.1% respondents confirm that women’s luck
confidence to stand for election and to be appointed while 25.8% respondents
disagree and confirm that women have a confidence to stand for election or
appointment. The p-value of this statement also shows the statistical
significance difference between the respondents response which is the
agreement part is greater. Further, the opinion of the interviewee and
participants who participate on focus group discussion asserts on the
respondents response that is women give less value for themselves.
 Similarly, the study reflected about 36% of respondents said that they agree on
most women believe politics is not a good job while 32.8% of them said the
opposed. The researcher were use the Chi-square value to check whether the

87
 difference between the two responses are significantly different or not. As a
result the p-value of the above statement reveal statistical insignificance
difference between the ‘agree’ responses zone and the ‘disagree’ responses
zone. Thus this shows that despite partial agreement the mentioned factor is
the existed case in the administration. The result of interview session also
confirm that women have a negative attitude toward politics.
 Furthermore, the study revealed that the majority of respondents’ accounted to
68% confirmed that negative attitude of men over women limits the political
participation of women while about 16% of respondent disagreeing saying that
is not the case. The p-value of this idea shows statistically significance
difference between the provided responses which is the agreement part is
higher. Results gained from interview and FGD revealed that the above stated
problem is significantly affecting the participation of women in political
leadership in the administration.
 With regard to the societal perception the study revealed that most of the
respondents’ accounted to 57% reflect their responses by saying the societies
do not believe in women to pass political decision if they are given political
responsibilities. The result of p-value revealed that there is statistically
significance difference between the responses and the interview and FGD
results also confirm that this to be the case.
 Similarly, the study revealed about 38% respondents agreed that societies
believe equal participation of women and men is inappropriate while 30.4% of
respondents said they disagree that societies had such a perception. Further,
the p-value of the different responses on this idea has statistically
insignificance difference. However, the interviewees and participants of FGD
explain that the societies believe that the participation of women in a political
leadership position equally with men is not a good idea.
 Besides, because of attitudinal problems or less understanding of the question,
the study shows that respondents have different perception on the leadership
performance difference between men and women about 46% of respondents
say ‘No’ there is no any difference between men and women in a political
leadership performance. Similarly, about 39% of respondents give their
responses confirming that there is a leadership performance difference

88
 between men and women and this is mainly because of absence of enough
training about politics for women and less experience. Some of the
respondents among those who say ‘Yes’ there is a difference in political
leadership performance between men and women give their reasons in
opposite i.e. women have a full potential to perform different activities in an
effective and efficient manner than men if they get a chance. The interview
and FGD results also asserts that no performance difference between the two
sexes rather women have leadership quality than men and can perform and
manage things from different perspective.
 With regard to policy environment of the administration, although it is not up
to the required level, opinion survey of respondents which accounts to 49.3%
proclaim that there is adequate policies and strategies that supports women’s
to come to political participation. The opinion of interviewee and FGD’s
participant’s result also confirm the existence of conducive policies and
strategies in the administration.
 Besides, the study reflected that women policy encourages them to participate
in political leadership. Hence, majority respondents which are accounted to
87.5% proclaimed the presence of this situation. Moreover, the study revealed
that the interview result and FGD confirmed that the said policy is
encouraging women to participate in different issues and to come to political
leadership position.
 In spite of the fact that there is a conducive policies, strategies, programs,
packages and manuals which encourage women to participate in political
leadership, the study revealed that the responses of respondents and the
opinion of the interviewee and participant of FGD confirm that there is a lack
of proper implementation. With regard to this, respondents about 51.6%
expressed that affirmative action has not properly implemented to increase
women’s participation in political leadership.
 The study revealed that women’s should get additional chance to increase their
participation in poetics. Thus, most respondents about 92% confirmed it.
 The study revealed that most respondents mansion some additional factors
which affect women’s participation in political leadership. Such factors are
ignoring women decision, absence of women to support each other, absence of

89
 awareness of women about their rights and in acceptance on equality of nation
and nationality. Biological issue could play in hindering the participation of
women in political leadership is the statement mentioned by the FGD
participants.

5.3. Conclusion

Women comprise just more than half of the population globally. They are also the
main force in ensuring the socio-economic development of a nation. Africa, and
particularly Ethiopia, has large population that need to be effectively and efficiently
utilized in order to ensure its development. It is hardly possible to realize this without
the genuine participation of the critical portion of the population, women. Despite
women constituting the larger share of the population, however, there representation
especially in political arenas is inadequate and their contributions are overlooked.
The same thing is true in the study area because there are different factors that affects
women's participation in political leadership activities and even though, there are
different government policies and strategies that helps to increase the participation of
women in politics, but the participation of women specially their representation on
higher political leadership position comparing with men is very low. This study has
revealed that women in Dire Dawa Administration take half the population share but
have a very low level of participation in political leadership positions in the
administration. Most of the women in leadership positions are relegated to the lower
levels and peripheries political leadership positions. This is possibly due to various
and multiple reasons that have lived within the society for long.
The objective of this study is to assess the factors that affect women’s participation in
political leadership: a case of Dire Dawa Administration.

The socio-cultural factors such as women’s lack of access to education, the socially
constructed roles of men and women, household workloads, and negative societal
attitudes towards gender equality are amongst challenges hindering their participation
in political leadership. Moreover, the economic difficulties of women further prevent
them from to schools or running in political election campaigns, only to aggravate the
damage. The fact that, women are financially inferior and dependent on men in most
cases is also affects their participation in political leadership. Political factors also

90
play their part in keeping women away from participation of political leadership in the
administration. The un-conduciveness of political environment, attitudinal problem of
political parties, lack of political knowledge and skills, less effort of high political
leaders, and scarcity of exemplary women in political leadership positions have all
been found to be factors influencing their participation in political leadership. In
addition, the poor implementation of the ample policies designed to enhance the
political participation of women has played a key part in this regard. Last but not
least, the attitude of women towards themselves perceiving politics to be a difficult
and dirty job and only for men added to their biological factors have all impinged the
political participation of women in Dire Dawa Administration.

5.4. Recommendation

Based on the findings of the study, the researcher recommends the following to the
administration and other concerned bodies:

 The administration should establish different women associations at the grass root
levels within the communities (schools) that coordinate the support and advocacy
of aspirant women to change negative societal attitudes.
 The administration, in cooperation with other financial institutions have to put a
big consideration on women economic empowerment through organizing them on
micro and small enterprise and creating access to loan to outing them from
dependency on their husband where by ensuring their freedom to participate in
political leadership.
 Intensive awareness creation trainings should be given to both males and females
so as to enable them re-direct their negative attitudes and begin to see women as
equally important partners as men in the development process of the
administration.
 Political leadership capacities of women should be built through intensive
trainings and practical manifestations by the administration.

91
 Politically influential and aspirant women in the administration should be
identified and paired with other women to work as role models and mentor their
fellow women.
 Preparing a rewarding system for those women who are already on the position
and effective on their job to enhance others to come to political leadership.
 The administration should create a favorable condition whereby the political
parties in the administration introduce and implement quota systems for fair
representation of women in political leadership arenas, providing special
supportive mechanism and creating awareness on civic associations to play their
part on this regard.
 The administration should create conducive political environment whereby
socially constructed roles of men and women putting extra pressure, burdens and
responsibilities on women are well considered and appropriately dealt with in
order to ease negative effects of those roles and encourage their political
participation.
 The administration should strive to ensure the effective implementation of the
policy guide lines in place to realize the socio-economic and political participation
of women.
 The administration and every concerned bodies should set the plan in their
respective which enable to implement stated policies, strategies, programs and
lows effectively. In addition, the enforcement mechanisms should be created and
the evaluation and follow up of the activities of the political parties in selecting
system of person’s for appointment should be undertaken.
 The researcher also recommend that since this study limited only on the urban
area of the administration, it needs further research which include the rural area of
the administration.

92
93
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Tigistz, (2005). The political participation of women in Ethiopia: challenges and prospects.
Addis Ababa: EWLA

UN Women, (n.d), Global Norms and Standards: Leadership and Political Participation,
URL: www.unwomen.org., Accessed on Dec 19, 2014.

UN Women, (n.d). Women's Leadership & Political Participation, URL:

www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/, Accessed December 19, 2014.

World Forum, (2013), International Women's Day, http://skollworldforum.org.,

Accessed Nov28, 2014.

www.bussinessdictionary.com/article/724/basics-of-the-situational-leadership-model/

(www.un.org/womenwalch/osagi/wps/publication/chapter 3. htm), (n.d), Accessed on

December 19, 2014.
 Annex I

Ethiopian Civil Service University

INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT

Questionnaire (to be filled by respondents)

The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect data that is used to assess the factors that affect
women’s participation in political leadership in Dire Dawa Town. The information you
provide in this questionnaire will be kept confidential and the researcher would like to assure
you that data will only be used for academic purposes. Therefore, I would kindly request you
to carefully read the questions and give your valuable answer to each question. Your genuine
and frank response to the questionnaire is highly important for the achievement of the
objectives of this research. Please provide your response as per the instruction. Tick (√) in the
given box and write your answer on the blank space for open ended questions. Do not write
your name on this questionnaire.

Thank You for Your Cooperation!!!

Suad Mohammed

Part one: Characteristics of the respondents

1. Sex : Male Female

2. Age: 18 – 29 30 – 45 46 & above

3. Qualification: High school and below levels (10 plus)

Diploma First degree Second degree and above

4. Current position: --------------------------------------------------

 5. Work experience: less than 5 years 5 – 10 years

11 – 15 years 15 & above

6. Current marital status: Single Married Divorce

Widowed Other

7. Family size (number of dependents): 0-2 3-4 5-7

above 7

Part Two: Questions related to socio-cultural, economic and political factors

To what extent do you agree or disagree to the following factors that determining women’s
participation in political leadership

Strongly agree: 5 Agree: 4 Neutral: 3 Disagreed: 2 Strongly disagree: 1

No. Factors Scales

2.1 Political factors 5 4 3 2 1
2.1.1. Women’s voice has not properly been heard in the
political Arena.
2.1.2. Ethiopian electoral system helps in awareness creation
of women’s to increase their participation in political
activities.
2.1.3. There is high commitment of political parties to increase
participation of women’s in political leadership
2.1.4. Awareness or training about political activities are
provided for women
2.1.5. Working conditions of the political activities (time,
burden etc) are not convenient for women to participate
in the political leadership
2.1.6. Political rumor among different parties discouraged
women political participation
 2.1.7. Do you think that there is equal opportunity for men and women to participate in
political leadership in the Dire Dawa town?

Yes No I do not know

2.1.8. If your answer for question number 2.1.7. is “No”, please explain your reason
a. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1.9. Is the participation of women in political leadership sufficient in Dire Dawa town?

Yes No I do not know

2.1.10. If your answer for question number 2.1.9. is “No”, please mention the reason
a. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1.11. Why do you think that women do not appointed to a higher decision making position
relatively to men?
a. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1.12. Do you think that the political parties of the Dire Dawa Administration are working
strong to get more women to involve in party membership?
Yes No I do not know

No. Factors Scales

2.2. Socio-cultural factors 5 4 3 2 1
2.2.1. Low educational background of women limits their
 participation in political leadership
2.2.2. Home work load affects women’s to participate in
the political leadership
2.2.3. Socially constructed roles such that women are
inferior to men have protected women’s from
participating in political leadership
2.2.4. Husbands do not allow their wives to engage in
political activities
2.2.5. The prejudice of men over women affects the
political participation of women
2.2.6. The perception that women’s as supporters rather
than main actors hinder them to participate in
political activities
2.2.7. Spending more time on religious related and social
activities by women hinders their participation in
political leadership

Part Three: Questions related to the existence of conducive policy

environment

To what extent do you agree or disagree to the following factors that determining women’s
participation in political leadership.

Strongly agree: 5 Agree: 4 Neutral: 3 Disagreed: 2 Strongly disagree: 1

No. Factors Scales

Policy environment 5 4 3 2 1
3.1. Government policies and strategies that supports
women’s political participation are not adequate
3.2. Women’s should get additional chance to increase
their participation in politics
3.3. Women’s policy encourage them to participate in
political leadership
2.4. Affirmative action is not properly implemented to increase
women participation in the political leadership
 Part Four:- Questions related to the attitude/opinion of women to assume
some political leadership

To what extent do you agree or disagree to the following factors that determining women’s
participation in political leadership.

Strongly agree: 5 Agree: 4 Neutral: 3 Disagreed: 2 Strongly disagree: 1

No. Factors Scales

Psychological/Attitudinal Factors 5 4 3 2 1
4.1 Most women’s didn’t have interest to be a political
leader
4.2 The negative attitude of men on women limits them
from political participation
4.3 Societies do not believes that women have the potential
to make political decision if they get a chance
4.4 The societies believe that equal participation of
women and men is not appropriate
4.5 Women’s lack confidence to stand for election or
appointment
4.6 Most women believe that politics is not a good job

4.7. Do you believe that there is difference between women and men in political
leadership performance?

Yes No I do not know

4.8. If your answer to question number 4.7. is “Yes”, please give your reason:
a. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.9. In general, what are other additional factors which can hinder women’s from
participating in political leadership of the administration?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------

4.10. What do you suggest to improve women’s participation in political

leadership?----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

Annex II
Semi structured interview on the factors that affect women’s participation in political
leadership: To the mayor, speaker house, heads of three selected bureaus (BOWCYA,
Education and Civil Service), EPRDF and ESPDP

The purpose of this interview question is to collect data that is used to assess the factors that
affect women’s participation in political leadership in Dire Dawa Administration. The
information you provide in this questionnaire will be kept confidential and the researcher
would like to assure you that data will only be used for academic purposes. Therefore, I
would kindly request you to carefully read and understand the questions provided and give
relevant answer to each question without any bias. Your genuine and frank response to the
questions is highly valuable for the achievement of the objectives of this research.

Thank you in advance for your commitment!!!

Suad Mohammed

1. How do you observe the participation of women’s in political leadership in the

administration?
2. Do you think that there is equal/ fair representation between men & women in political
leadership in the administration? Why/why not?
3. Do you observe leadership difference between being a male and female in the
administration? Explain
4. What are the major factors that hinder women’s from participating in political leadership
in your administration? Discuss your opinion from the socio-cultural, economic and
political perspectives
5. Do you think that women’s themselves have negative attitudes towards political
participation? Why?
6. Do you think that a policy environment is conducive for enhancing women to participate
in political leadership? How?
7. What do you suggest to improve women’s participation in political leadership?

Annex III
Focus group discussion for standing committees and women’s organization (federation,
union and league)
The focus group discussion is designed by a student at Ethiopian Civil Service University in
order to collect information on factors affecting women’s participation in political leadership
in Dire Dawa Administration for fulfillment of master’s degree in public management.
Therefore, I would kindly request you to carefully read and understand the questions
provided, and discuss by sharing your experience and forward your possible suggestions and
that may help me to prepare good analysis which may benefits the administration.
1. From your experience, how do you see/ observe the participation of women in
political leadership between men and women in your administration in terms of their
appointment, being a higher political decision maker, holding key political positions,
etc?
2. If we believe in low women’s participation in the administration’s political leadership,
what do you think are the major factors for the problem? Would you please discuss
such factors from socio-cultural and economic perspective?
3. How do you observe the existing political environment of the administration to
women’s participation in political leadership?
4. Do you think that there are other additional factors which can hinder women’s from
participating in political leadership in the administration? If there are others , please
mention them
5. Do you think that women themselves have psychological problem to participate in
political leadership? Please discuss the attitude, perception and interest of women
regarding political activities.
6. In general, what do you think could be the solution to raise women’s participation in
the administration’s political leadership?

Thank you very much for your kind contribution in this discussion!!!

Annex IV
Amharic Translation of Questionnaire
የኢትዮጵያ ሲቪል ሰርቪስ ዩኒቨርሲቲ

በህዝብ አስተዳደርና ልማት ኢንስቲትዩት የህዝብ አስተዳደር ዲፓርትመንት

በድሬ ዳዋ አስተዳደር የሴቶች ፖለቲካዊ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ላይ ተፅእኖ የሚፈጥሩ

ምክንያቶች ዙሪያ መረጃ ለመሰብሰብ የተዘጋጀ መጠይቅ
 ይህ መጠይቅ በድሬ ዳዋ አስተዳደር በሴቶች ፖለቲካዊ አመራር ተሳትፎ ላይ ተጽእኖ የሚፈጥሩ
ምክንያቶችን ለመዳሰስ የተዘጋጀ ሲሆን ይህም አጠኚዋ ለትምህርት ነክ ዓላማና በተጠቀሰው ዩኒቨርሲቲ
የማስተርስ ዲግሪን ለማግኘት የሚረዳ ነው፡፡ እርስዎ ለዚህ መጠይቅ የሚሰጡት መልስ የጥናቱን ዓላማ
ለማሳካት እጅግ ጠቃሚ እንደሚሆን ይታመናል፡፡ መልሶትም በሚስጥራዊነት የሚጠበቅ መሆኑን አጥኚዋ
ታረጋግጣለች፡፡ ስለዘህ ውድ መላሾች ለዚህ ጥናት ስኬት ይህን መጠይቅ በጥንቃቄ በመሙላት እንዲተባበሩ
በአክብሮት ይጠየቃሉ፡፡ እባክዎትን መልስ ሲሰጡ መመሪያውን በመከተል በባዶ ሳጥኖች ውስጥ የ (√)
ምልክት በማድረግ ወይንም አስፈላጊ ሲሆን የክፍት ጥያቄዎች መልስዎን በፅሁፍ ያስፍሩ፡፡

ስለ ትብብሮ በቅድሚያ አመሰግናለሁ ሱዓድ መሐመድ

ክፍል አንድ፡ የመላሾች የግል መረጃ

1. ፆታ፡ ወንድ ሴት
2. እድሜ፡ ከ 18 – 29 ከ 30 – 45 46 እና ከዚያ በላይ
3. የትምህርት ደረጃ፡ ሐይስኩል እና ከዚያ በታች ሌቪል (10+)

ዲፕሎማ የመጀመሪያ ዲግሪ ሁለተኛ ዲግሪ እና ከዚያ በላይ

4. አሁን ያሉበት የስራ መደብ፡ --------------------------------------------------------

5. ያሎት የስራ ልምድ፡ ከ 5 ዓመት በታች ከ 5 – 10 ዓመት
ከ 11 – 15 ዓመት 16 እና ከዚያ በላይ
6. የጋብቻ ሁኔታ ፡ ያገባ ያላገባ የፈታ ሌላ
7. የቤተሰብ መጠን (የተጧሪዎች ብዛት)፡ 0-2 3-4 5-7 ከ 7 በላይ

ክፍል ሁለት፡ የሚከተለው ሰንጠረዥ ማህበራዊ፤ በህላዊ፤ ኢኮኖሚያዊና ፖለቲካዊ ምክንያቶች ላይ ያተኮሩ ጥያቄዎችን
ያቀፈ ነው፡፡ እባክዎ ከተሰጡት መግለጫዎች ፊት ለፊት ከተሰጡት አማራጮች የ(√) ምልክት በማድረግ
የመስማማት ወይም አለመስማማት መጠኖን ለማሳየት ትክክለኛ የሚሉትን ይምረጡ፡፡

በጣም እስማማለሁ፡5 እስማማለሁ፡4 መካከለኛ፡3 አልስማማም፡2 በጣም አልስማማም፡1

ተ.ቁ. ምክንያቶች መጠን/ደረጃ

2.1 ፖለቲካዊ ምክንያቶች 5 4 3 2 1

2.1.1 በአስተዳደሩ ፖለቲካዊ ጉዳዮች የሴቶች ድምፅ ጎልቶ

አልተሰማም
2.1.2 የኢትዮጵያ የምርጫ ስርዓት ለሴቶች ግንዛቤ በመፍጠር
የፖለቲካ ተሳትፎኣቸው እንዲጎለብት ይረዳል
 2.1.3 የሴቶችን የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ለማሳደግ
የፖለቲካ ፓርቲዎች ቁርጠኝነት ከፍተኛ ነው
2.1.4 በአስተዳደሩ ፖለቲካዊ እንቅስቃሴዎች ዙሪያ ለሴቶች
የግንዛቤ ማስጨበጫዎችና ስልጠናዎች ይሰጣሉ

2.1.5 በአስተዳደሩ ያለው የፖለቲካ ነባራዊ ሁኔታ(የሥራ ሰዓት፡

የሥራ ጫና ወዘተ) ለሴቶች ፖሊቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ምቹ
አይደለም
2.1.6 በተለያዩ ፓርቲዎች መሀል የሚሰሙ ፖሊቲካዊ ሽኩቻ
ሴቶች ወደ ፖለቲካዊ አመራርነት እንዳይመጡ እንቅፋት
ይሆንባቸዋል

2.1.7. በድሬ ዳዋ አስተዳደር ሴቶችና ወንዶች እኩል የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ አላቸው ብለው
ያምናሉ?
አዎን አይደለም አላውቅም

2.1.8. የጥያቄ ቁጥር 2.1.7. መልስዎ "አይደለም" ከሆነ እባክዎትን ምክንያቶን ያብራሩ፡፡

ሀ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ለ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ሐ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

መ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1.9. በድሬ ዳዋ አስተዳደር ያለው የሴቶች ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ በቂ ነው ብለው ያምናሉ?

አዎን አይደለም አላውቅም
2.1.10. የጥያቄ ቁጥር 2.1.9. መልስዎ "አይደለም" ከሆነ እባክዎትን ምክንያቶን ያብራሩ፡፡

ሀ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ለ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ሐ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

መ.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ተ.ቁ ምክንያቶች መጠን/ደረጃ

2.2 ማህበራዊና ባህላዊ ምክንያቶች 5 4 3 2 1

2.2.1 ሴቶች የነበራቸው የትምህርት ተሳትፎ አነስተኛ መሆን አሁን

ያላቸውን ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ገድቦታል
2.2.2 በሴቶች ላይ ያለው የቤት ውስጥ ስራ ጫና በፖለቲካዊ
ተሳትፎኣቸው ላይ ጫና አሳድሯል
2.2.3 በማህበረሰቡ የተፈጠሩ የወንድና የሴት ሚናዎች(ለምሳሌ፡
ወንዶችን የበላይ/ሴቶችን የበታች የማድረግ ባህል) የሴቶችን
የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ገድቦታል
2.2.4 ባሎች ሚስቶቻቸው በፖለቲካዊ እንቅስቃሴዎች ውስጥ
ተሳትፎ እንዲያደርጉ ፍቃደኞች አይደሉም
2.2.5 ወንዶች በሴቶች ላይ ያላቸው ፍትሃዊ ያልሆነ አመለካከት
የሴቶች ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ላይ ተፅእኖ አሳድሯል

2.2.6 ሴቶችን እንደ ዋና ተዋናይ ሳይሆን እንደ ደጋፊ መመልከቱ

የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎኣቸውን ገድቦታል
2.2.7 ሴቶች አብዛኛውን ጊዜ ማህበራዊና ሐይማኖታዊ ጉዳዮች ላይ
ማትኮራቸው ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎኣቸውን ይገድበዋል

2.1.11. ሴቶች ከወንዶች በንፅፅር በከፍተኛ የአመራር ሰጪነት ቦታዎች ላይ የማይሾሙት ለምን
ይመስሎታል?
ሀ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ለ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ሐ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

መ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.1.12. በድሬ ዳዋ አስተዳደር የፖለቲካ ፓርቲዎች ሴቶች ወደ ድርጅት አባልነት በብዛት

እንዲመጡ ጠንክረው እየሰሩ ነው ብለው ያምናሉ?

አዎን አይደለም አላውቅም

ተ.ቁ ምክንያቶች መጠን/ደረጃ

2.3 ኢኮኖሚያዊ ምክንያቶች 5 4 3 2 1
2.3.1 ወንዶች በብዙ ሀብቶች የበላይ መሆናቸው የሴቶችን ፖለቲካዊ
አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ገድቦታል

2.3.2 ሴቶች ከፖለቲካዊ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ይልቅ የሚጠመዱት

ህይወታቸውን ማሸነፍ ላይ ነው
2.3.3 መንግስት ለሴቶች ፖለቲካዊ ትምህርት የሚመድበው በጀት
በቂ አለመሆኑ የሴቶችን ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ወስኖታል
2.3.4 የሴቶች የስራ አጥነት ደረጃ ከወንዶች አንፃር ከፍተኛ መሆኑ
የፖለቲካዊ አማራርነት ተሳትፎኣቸውን ወስኖታል

2.3.5 ሴቶች የባሎቻቸው የኢኮኖሚ ጥገኛ መሆናቸው ያላቸውን

ንቁ የፖለቲካ ተሳትፎኣቸውን ይገድበዋል

ክፍል ሶስት፡ የሚከተለው ሰንጠረዥ የተመቻቸ የፖሊሲ ስርዓት መኖሩ እና አለመኖሩ ላይ ያተኮሩ ጥያቄቆችን ያቀፈ
ነው፡፡

በጣም እስማማለሁ፡5 እስማማለሁ፡4 መካከለኛ፡3 አልስማማም፡2 በጣም አልስማማም፡1

ተ.ቁ ምክንያቶች መጠን/ደረጃ

የፖሊሲ ሁኔታ 5 4 3 2 1
3.1 የሴቶችን ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ሊያበረታታ የሚችል በቂ
የመንግስት ፖሊሲና እስትራቴጂ የለም
3.2 ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎኣቸው እንዲያድግ ሴቶች ተጨማሪ
እድሎችን ማግኘት አለባቸው
3.3 የሴቶች ፖሊሲ ሴቶች በፖለቲካ አመራርነት ላይ ኢንዲሳተፉ
ይደግፋል
3.4 አፈርማቲቭ አክሽን (Affirmative Action) የሴቶችን
የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ በማሳደግ ረገድ በትክክል
እየተተገበረ አይደለም

ክፍል አራት፡ የሚከተለው ሰንጠረዥ ስነ ልቦናዊ/የአመለካከት ጉዳዮች ላይ ያተኮሩ ጥያቄዎችን ያቀፈ ነው፡፡

በጣም እስማማለሁ፡5 እስማማለሁ፡4 መካከለኛ፡3 አልስማማም፡2 በጣም አልስማማም፡1

ተ.ቁ ምክንያቶች መጠን/ደረጃ

ስነ ልቦናዊ/የአመለካከት ጉዳዮች 5 4 3 2 1
4.1 አብዛኞቹ ሴቶች የፖለቲካ አመራር ለመሆን ፍላጎቱ
የላቸውም
4.2 ወንዶች ለሴቶች ያላቸው የተዛባ አመለካከት የሴቶችን
ፖለቲካዊ ተሳትፎ ወስኖታል
4.3 ህብረተሰቡ ሴቶች የፖለቲካ አመራር ቦታዎች ላይ
ከተቀመጡ ውሳኔዎችን የማሳለፍ አቅሙ አላቸው ብሎ
አያምንም
4.4 ህብረተሰቡ ሴቶችና ወንዶች በፖለቲካ ዘርፍ እኩል
መሳተፋቸው ትክክል አይደለም ብለው ያምናሉ
4.5 ሴቶች በፖለቲካዊ ምርጫዎች ላይ ለመወዳደርና
ለማሸነፍም ሆነ ለመሾም የራስ መተማመን ይጎላቸዋል
4.6 አብዛኞቹ ሴቶች ፖለቲካ ጥሩ አይደለም ብለው ያምናሉ

4.7. በፖለቲካዊ አመራርነት/የውሳኔ ሰጪነት አቅምን በተመለከተ በሴቶችና ወንዶች መሃል ልዩነት አለ ብለው
ያምናሉ?
አዎን አይደለም አላውቅም

4.8. የጥያቄ ቁጥር 4.7. መልስዎ "አዎን" ከሆነ እባክዎትን ምክንያቶን ያብራሩ፡፡

ሀ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ለ.----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ሐ.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
መ.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4.9. ባጠቃላይ ከላይ ከተገለፁት ምክንያቶች በተጨማሪ በአስተዳደሩ የሴቶችን የፖለቲካ አመራርነት
ተሳትፎ ይገድባሉ የሚሏቸው ምክንያት ካሉ እባክዎትን
ይዘርዝሩ፡፡--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4.10. የሴቶችን የፖለቲካ አመራርነት ተሳትፎ ለማሳደግ ምን መደረግ አለበት ብለው ያምናሉ?

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Annex V

Budget break down

No Item description Measurement Quantity Unit price Total price

1. Stationary cost
 1.1 A4 paper Packet 6 150 Birr 900.00

1.2 Pen Packet 3 60 Birr 180.00

1.3 Pencil number 12 2 Birr 24.00

1.4 Stapler Pieces 2 70 Birr 140.00

1.5 Writing pad Pieces 4 45 Birr 180.00
1.6 Correction fluid Pieces 4 18 Birr 72.00
1.7 Flash disc (4GB) Pieces 1 450 Birr 450.00
1.8 CD RW Pieces 18 20 Birr 360.00
1.9 Staples Packet 5 7 Birr 35.00
Sub-total 2,341.00
2. Secretarial service fee

2.1 Typing Page 400 3 Birr 1,200.00

2.2 Photocopy Page 2,400 0.75 cent 1,800.00
2.3 Print out from the Page 1000 1 Birr 1,000.00
Internet
2.4 Internet service Hour 60 10 Birr 600.00
Sub-total 4,600.00
2.5 Camera Number 1 3,000 Birr 3,000.00
2.6 Mobile card Number 15 100 Birr 1,500.00
2.7 Bag Number 2 350 Birr 700.00
2.8 Scientific Number 1 180 Birr 180.00
Calculator
Sub-total 5,380.00
3. Others costs

3.1 Transportation cost 3,500.00

Total Cost 15,821.00

4. Miscellaneous 1,582.10
(10%)

Total Amount 17,403.10

Annex VI
Activity Schedules
No. Tasks to be Months 2013/14
Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April May Jun Rem
performed
ark
1 Reviewing related 
literature
2 Developing 
questionnaire
3 Presentation √
questionnaire
4 Revise the item 
for flows
5 Conduct data √
gathering
6 Editing and 
tabulating data
7 Data analysis 

8 Preparation of √
first draft
9 Submission of 
first draft
10 Preparing of final √
draft
11 Final submission √
of the paper
12 Presentation 

Annex VII

Location Map of the study area