YARA EL BARDISI

ENZYME/SHUTTLE/TRAN FUNCTION ACTIVATED BY INHIBITED BY IMPORTANT

SPORTER/RECEPTOR NOTES
NAME

Glucokinase High Km Insulin Present in the

Converts glucose into liver and in the
glucose-6-P pancreatic B-islet
cells
Irreversible
enzyme
Hexokinase Low Km Insulin Glucose-6-P Present in
Converts glucose into peripheral tissues
glucose 6 P Irreversible
(subset of glucokinase) enzyme.
Phosphofructokinase-1 Phosphorylates AMP and ATP and It’s the rate
fructose-6-P into fructose-2,6-bisP citrate. limiting step.
fructose 1,6-bisP Insulin in liver Glucagon in
liver
Phosphofructokinase-2 Produces fructose-2,6- Insulin Glucagon
BisP

Glyceraldehyde-3-P Produces NADH and

dehydrogenase produces 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate

3-phosphoglycerate Substrate level

kinase phosphorylation to
produce ATP and 3-
phosphoglycerate
Pyruvate kinase Substrate level Fructose 1,6-bisP Irreversible
phosphorylation to → feed-forward enzyme.
produce ATP activation

Lactate dehydrogenase Produces NAD+ and Low oxygen No net loss OF

lactate by reducing levels CARBONS.
pyruvate

Bisphosphoglycerate Produces 2,3- PRESENT IN RED

mutase bisphosphoglycerate BLOOD CELLS
from 1,3-BPG → binds ONLY (THEY DO
allosterically to Hb → NOT HAVE
decreases affinity to MITOCHONDRIA)
O2.
 YARA EL BARDISI

Galactokinase Traps galactose by

phosphorylating it

Galactose-1-P Converts galactose-P This is an

uridyltransferase into glucose-1-P epimerase →
turns one epimer
to another.
Fructokinase Traps fructose

Aldolase B Cleaves fructose-P itno

glyceraldehyde and
DHAP

Pyruvate Converts pyruvate to Insulin in liver Acetyl-CoA Cofactors;

dehydrogenase complex acetyl CoA and NADH thiamine
produces CO2. pyrophosphate,
lipoic acid, CoA,
FAD and NAD+.
Pyruvate Oxidizes the pyruvate Requires
dehydrogenase to produce cO2 thiamine
pyrophosphate
and Mg2+
Dihydrolipoyl Oxidizes produce from Requires lipoic
transacetylase pyruvate acid
dehydrogenase suing
lipoic acid and
transfers the acetyl
group to CoA to form
acetyl-CoA
Dihydrolipoyl Reoxidizes lipoic acid Requires FAD
dehydrogenase to form FADH2 which
transfers e- to NAD+ to
form NADH
Pyruvate Phosphorylates the ATP Regulates PDC
dehydrogenase kinase PDH – turn it off Acetyl-CoA

Pyruvate Dephosphorylates PDH ADP Regulates PDC

dehydrogenase to turn it on
phosphatase
 YARA EL BARDISI

Glycogen synthase Creates a-1,4- Insulin in liver Epinephrine This is done in

glycosidic bonds and in muscle and glucagon. both the liver and
Glucose-6-P muscle.
It’s the rate
limiting enzyme.
Branching enzyme Moves a block of
oligoglucose from one
chain and adds it to
growing glycogen via
an a-1,6-glycosidic
bond.

Glycogen phosphorylase Removes 1 glucose-1-P - Glucagon in ATP Rate limiting

by breaking the a-1,4- liver enzyme of
glycosidic bond. - Epinephrine and glycogenolysis.
AMP in muscle
Debranching enzyme Removes block of
oligoglucose from one
branch and connects it
to a chain via an a-1,4-
glycosidic bond.
Pyruvate carboxylase Converts pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA This is a
oxaloacetate mitochondrial
enzyme.

Phosphoenolpyruvate Oxaloacetate Glucagon and This is a

carboxykinase converted to cortisol cytoplasmic
phosphoenolpyruvate enzyme.

Fructose 1,6- Converts fructose 1,6- Directly by ATP AMP directly Rate limiting step
bisphosphatase bisphosphate to Glucagon Insulin of
fructose 6-P indirectly → due indirectly → gluconeogenesis
to decreased increases
levels of levels of
fructose-2,6- fructose 2,6-
bisphosphate. bisphosphate.
Glucose-6-phosphatase Converts glucose-6-P ONLY FOUND IN
into free glucose THE ER OF THE
LIVER

Hexose monophosphate Generates NADPH and Part of the PPP –

shunt sugars for biosynthesis occurs in the
cytoplasm
 YARA EL BARDISI

Glucose-6-P Rate-limiting enzyme NADP+ NADPH Part of the PPP

dehydrogenase insulin

GLUT 2 Low affinity (high Km) IN HEPATOCYTES

transporter which AND PANCREATIC
brings glucose into the CELLS
cell.
GLUT 4 High affinity (low Km) Insulin → causes IN ADIPOSE AND
transporter. more insertion MUSCLE TISSUE
GLUT 4
transporters on
the membrane.
Citrate synthase Couple acetyl-CoA with ATP
OAA and hydrolyses NADH
the product to form Succinyl-CoA
citrate and CoA-SH Citrate
Aconitase Isomerizes citrate to This is a
isocitrate metalloprotein
→requires Fe2+

Isocitrate Oxidizes and ADP ATP Generates 1st

dehydrogenase decarboxylates NAD+ NADH CO2 and NADH of
isocitrate to form a- cycle
ketoglutarate Rate limiting
step.
a-ketoglutarate Metabolizing a- ADP ATP Generates 2nd
dehydrogenase complex ketoglutarate to form Ca2+ NADH CO2 and NADH
succinyl-CoA Succinyl-CoA

Succinyl-CoA synthetase Hydrolyzes thioester Generates 1 GTP.

bond in succinyl-CoA
to form succinate

Nucleosidediphosphate Forms ATP from GTP.

kinase

Succinate Oxidizes succinate to This is a

dehydrogenase form fumarate flavoprotein →
covalently bound
to FAD.
Produces FADH2
 YARA EL BARDISI

It is also part of
the ETC

Fumarase Hydrolyzes fumarate L-malate forms.

to form malate

Malate dehydrogenase Oxidizes malate to Generates the 3rd

OAA and final NADH

Complex 1 – NADH-CoQ Transfers electrons Has an iron-sulfur

oxidoreductase from NADH to Flavin cluster
mononucleotide 4 protons
(FMN) and then to pumped by
CoQ. complex 1
Complex 2 – succinate- Transfers electrons Has an iron-sulfur
CoQ oxidoreductase from succinate → FAD cluster
→ CoQ No protons
pumped
Complex 3 – CoQH2- Transfers electrons Has an iron sulfur
cytochrome c from CoQH2 → heme cluster
oxidoreductase in cyt c 4 protons are
pumped
Complex 4 – Transfers electron 2 protons
cytochrome c oxidase from cyt c → O2 in the pumped.
form of H-
Forms water
Glycerol 3-P shuttle Electrons transferred
from NADH → DHAP
to form glycerol-3-P
Electrons then
transferred to
mitochondrial FAD →
forms FADH2
Malate-aspartate Electrons transferred
shuttle from NADH → OAA to
form malate
Malate crosses IMM
and transfers e- to
mitochondrial NAD+
 YARA EL BARDISI

ATP synthase Generates ATP from 2 portions; F0 and

ADP and inorganic P. F1
F0 = ion channel
F1 =
phosphorylates
ADP.
Hormone-sensitive Lipids mobilized from
lipase adipocytes

Lipoprotein lipase Lipids are mobilized

from lipoproteins

HMG-CoA reductase Synthesizes mevalonic insulin High Key enzyme in

acid in the SER cholesterol cholesterol
biosynthesis.

LCAT – lecithin- Catalyzes formation of HDL Apoproteins

cholesterol cholesteryl esters.
acyltransferase

CETP – cholesteryl ester Catalyzes the

transfer protein. transition of IDL → LDL
by transferring
cholesteryl esters from
HDL to IDL.
Acetyl-CoA carboxylase Adds CO2 to acetyl- Insulin Rate limiting step
CoA to form malonyl- Citrate of fatty acid
CoA biosynthesis
Requires biotin
and ATP
Fatty acid synthase NADPH is required to Insulin in liver Large
(palmitate synthase) reduce the acetyl multienzyme.
groups added to the Contains an ACP
fatty acid. (acyl carrier
8 acetyl-CoA groups protein) →
are used to form requires
palmitate. pantothenic acid.
Fatty-acyl-CoA Activate fatty acids by
synthetase attaching them to CoA
→ form fatty acyl-CoA
 YARA EL BARDISI

Carnitine Transports long FA This is a

acyltransferase I chains (14-20C) into mitochondrial
the mitochondria via a outer membrane
mechanism we barely enzyme.
need to know for the
MCAT
Propionyl-CoA Converts propionyl- Requires biotin
carboxylase CoA into (VitB7)
methylmalonyl-CoA

Methylmalonyl-CoA Converts Requires

Mutase methylmalonyl-CoA cobalmin (vit
into succinyl-CoA B12)

Enoyl-CoA isomerase Rearranges cis bonds This is all that’s

at positions 3&4 in needed if we
unsaturated FA to a have a
trans double bond monounsaturated
positions 2&3 FA
2,4-dienoyl-CoA Converts 2 conjugated This is needed for
reductase double bonds to just polyunsaturated
one double bond at FA.
the 3,4 position. After this step,
enoyl-CoA
isomerase does
its thing.
HMG-CoA synthase Forms HMG-CoA This is involved in
ketogenesis

HMG-CoA lyase Breaks down HMG- This is involved in

CoA into acetoacetate. ketogenesis

Succinyl-CoA 3-hydroxybutyrate is Only present in

acetoacetyl-CoA oxidized to tissues outside
transferase (thiphorase) acetoacetate. the liver

Glucocorticoids Increase blood glucose

by increasing the
impact of glucagon and
catecholamines
 YARA EL BARDISI

Catecholamines Promote
glycogenolysis.

IMP NOTES:
- Liver participates in glycolysis, glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis, processing
of lipids and cholesterol as well as bile, urea and toxins.
- Adipose tissue → stores lipid under influence of insulin.
o Releases lipids under influence of epinephrine.
- Skeletal muscle → resting muscle conserves glycogen and uses energy from free FA in
the blood stream
o Active muscle uses anaerobic metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct
phosphorylation from creatinine P or FA oxidation
o Depends on duration of exercise.
- Cardiac muscle → uses FA oxidation in fed and fasting state.
- Brain and nervous tissue consume glucose in all metabolic states.
o Exception; prolonged fasts → fuel comes from ketone bodies.
-