J. Cent. South Univ.

(2015) 22: 3275−3281

DOI: 10.1007/s11771-015-2866-2

Computational analysis of linear friction welding process and micromechanical

modeling of deformation behavior for medium carbon steel

YANG Xia-wei(杨夏炜), LI Wen-ya(李文亚), MA Tie-jun(马铁军)

State Key Laboratory of Solidification Processing, Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Friction Welding Technologies,
Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
© Central South University Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015

Abstract: Finite element simulation of linear friction welding (LFW) medium carbon steel was carried out using the ABAQUS
software. A two-dimensional (2D) coupled thermo-mechanical model was established. First, the temperature fields of medium carbon
steel during LFW process were investigated. And then, the Mises stress and the 1st, 2nd and 3rd principal stresses fields’ evolution of
the steel during LFW process were studied. The deformation behavior of LFW carbon steel was analyzed by using micromechanics
model based on ABAQUS with Python code. The Lode parameter was expressed using the Mohr stress circle and it was investigated
in detail.

Key words: linear friction welding; finite element method; deformation behavior; micromechanics model

friction welding industry, and is used to strengthen the

1 Introduction
Linear friction welding (LFW) is an efficient
solid-phase joining technique, and the heat is generated
during welding by reciprocal motion between a
stationary component and a moving workpiece [1−4].
LFW has an widely application in the welding of non-
axisymmetric components, which extends the current
applications of rotary friction welding. According to
VAIRIS and FROST [3], LFW occurs in four distinct
stages: the initial stage, the transition stage, the
equilibrium stage, and the forging stage. In the initial
stage, the two workpieces are moving under pressure in a
linear reciprocating manner. Heat is generated due to
solid friction. In the transition stage, large wear particles
are expelled from the sliding interface between the two
workpieces. The heat affected zone expands from the
asperities on roughness surfaces into more materials of
workpieces. In the equilibrium stage, the phenomenon of
axial shortening begins to occur. Material in the heat
affected zone yields due to the friction pressure exerted
on it. And the high temperature occurs in this stage. A
flash will form and it may take different shapes
depending on the performance of material. The
specimens are brought to rest quickly while applying
forging pressure. This last phase is very important for the
weld.
Although LFW technology has been available just
for more than twenty years, it has a bright future for the
development and application in recent years, especially
in the last ten years. It is becoming more frequently
applied in automotive, spacecraft construction, tool
manufacturing, and other industrial fields. It is currently
employed mainly in the manufacture of aircraft engines
[5]. First, the aircraft-engine blades and disks can be
manufactured separately, and then both two parts joined
using LFW. The LFW technology can not only ensure
high quality, but also reduce the cost compared to the
conventional manufacture methods of the blade/disk
produced by integrated operation [6]. Recently, many
researchers have carried out the investigation on LFW. It
has been successfully applied in joining of various metal-
alloy types, such as steel [5, 7], intermetallics [8],
superalloys [9] and titanium alloys [2, 10−13]. The
temperature in the LFW interface has been researched in
recent years because it has a very important influence on
joining process. It can influence the evolution of material
deformation and can also influence the behavior of metal
flow. As for the importance of temperature, many
researchers have investigated the LFW temperature
fields using experimental methods. We all know that
LFW process is quite complicated in a very short space

Foundation item: Project(51405389) supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China; Project(2014003) supported by the Shanghai Key
Laboratory of Digital Manufacture for Thin-walled Structures, China; Projects(3102015ZY024, 3102014JC02010404) supported by the
Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, China; Project(108-QP-2014) supported by the Research Fund of the State Key
Laboratory of Solidification Processing (NPU) China
Received date: 2014−08−25; Accepted date: 2014−11−30
Corresponding author: YANG Xia-wei, Lecturer, PhD; Tel: +86−29−88495226; E-mail: yangxiawei@nwpu.edu.cn
3276
of time. So, investigation on LFW temperature fields
using experimental methods is quite challenging and
brings with great uncertainty. With the development of
computer technology, numerical analysis has become a
powerful and reliable technique for the prediction of
temperature and stress fields during welding process.
The LFW process of Ti6Al2Sn4Cr6Mo under two
conditions (β- and (α+β)-forged) was simulated using the
finite element method (FEM) with a full structural-
thermal coupled model [14]. Two different industry-
relevant geometries of contact area (prismatic and blade
like) were chosen in publication [14]. The residual
stresses distribution in the LFW workpieces were
investigated using FEM simulation and X-ray diffraction
[15]. Fully-coupled thermo-mechanical model with semi-
automatic re-meshing method was carried out in the
publication [15], and the simulation results were
validated by the X-ray experimental data. In the
publication [16], effects of processing parameters on the
temperature evolution and axial shortening of LFW TC4
alloy joints were investigated using ABAQUS/Explicit
with a 2D model. The LFW process of the bladed discs
for the next generation of civil aero engines was modeled
using numerical and analytical methods [17]. In order to
validate the simulation results, experimental work is
conducted on the Ti−6Al−4V alloy using pilot- scale
apparatus [17].
In summary, many research groups have researched
the macro mechanics behaviors of LFW process by using
FEM simulation [14−17]. But the deformation behaviors
of LFW parts by using micromechanics model have not
been found in recent years. In general, the stress state in
isotropic materials is uniquely determined by three
principal stress components or corresponding three stress
invariants. In this work, LFW process in 45 steel was
performed by using ABAQUS CAE software; the Lode
parameters were investigated using ABAQUS with
python; the effects of Lode parameters on the deformation
behavior of LFW steel were investigated in detail.
2 FEM model and micro-mechanic model
2.1 FEM model and mathematical models
2.1.1 FEM model
In this work, the FEM is applied to simulating LFW
process of medium carbon steel (45# in Chinese
classification) block. Figure 1 shows the three-
dimensional graphics, mesh generation of 45 steel block.
Fig. 1 Schematic of LFW process
J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281
Figure 2 shows two-dimensional model of FEM
simulation. As can be shown in Fig. 2, the specimen was
divided into two parts, upper region (10 mm long) and
lower region (30 mm long). The gradient meshes were
adopted when considering the factors of computation
efficiency and accuracy. The total numbers of nodes and
elements of the FE model are 1063 and 1006,
respectively. 1002 linear quadrilateral elements of type
CPE4RT and 4 linear triangular elements of type CPE3T
in ABAQUS based on thermo-mechanical coupling were
adopted in the simulation of LFW process.
The LFW process parameters used in FEM model
are oscillation frequency 40 Hz, amplitude of oscillation
4 mm and welding time 3 s. The initial temperature of
the specimen was set at 25 °C. As shown in Fig. 2, the
external boundary of the lower region was constrained in
x-direction, and freed in y-direction. The type of
interaction of the rigid surface and the top surface of the
specimen was surface to surface contact. The rigid
surface was only allowed to move in X-direction in a
linear motion with a sinusoidal mode. Inelastic heat
fraction was set at 0.9. The heat transfer coefficient
between the specimen and the surroundings was set at
100 W·K/m.
Fig. 2 Two-dimensional model of FEM simulation (Unit: mm)
2.1.2 Mathematical models
The constitutive behavior of materials is usually
expressed by a non-linear equation, which is a
relationship among flow stress, strain, strain rate and
temperature. The Johnson−Cook material model was
used to describe the flow stress () as a function of strain
hardening, strain rate hardening and temperature
softening as follows [16]:
  ( A  B pn )[1  C ln(& )][1  (T  )m ] (1)
where  is flow stress; A, B, n, C and m are the material
constants; p is the effective plastic strain; & can be
J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281 3277

calculated by expression of &  &p / &0 ; &p is the
effective plastic strain rate; &0 is the reference plastic
strain rate; &0 is normally selected as 1 s−1; T* is a
homologous temperature, which can be expressed by
expression of T*=(T−Tr)/(Tm−Tr); Tr is the reference
temperature; Tm is the melting point.
A, B, n, C and m are 507 MPa, 320 MPa, 0.28,
0.064 and 1.06, respectively [18]. The density, elastic
modulus, and Poisson ratio of 45 steel assumed constants
in the model were taken from publications [18−19].
Temperature-dependent conductivity and specific heat of
45 steel were from publication [19].

2.2 Micromechanics model

The stress state will be characterized by use of the
2nd invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor (J2) and the
Lode parameter (μ). The partial stress tensor is related
to Mises yield criterion. The deformation types are
determined by Lode parameter.
The related equations of micromechanics model are
as follows. The von Mises effective value and the
average stress of the macroscopic stress are defined as
[20−21]
1
e  ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2   s (2)
2
where e and s are the von Mises effective stress and
the flow stress, respectively; 1, 2 and 3 (1≥2 ≥3)
are the principal stresses of micro cell in the directions x1,
x2 and x3, respectively.
The 2nd invariant of the deviatoric stress tensor is Fig. 3 Illustration of Lode parameter  using Mohr stress
circle: (a) −1≤<0; (b) =0; (c) 1≥>0
( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2  s2
J2   (3)
6 3 3 Result and discussion
If it is assumed that 1>2>3, then the Lode
parameter is 3.1 FEM simulation results of LFW 45# steel
3.1.1 Temperature field results
2 2   1   3 Figure 4 shows the temperature evolution during
μ  (4)
1   3 LFW of 45# steel. With the increasing of the welding
time, more heat is conducted from the weld interface to
By taking mathematical transformation from Eq. (4),
the following expression could be derived as the specimen interior (Figs. 4(a)−(d)). But when the
friction time is larger than 1.5 s, the heat conduction is
( 1   3 ) not evident because the flash is extruded gradually
μ ( 1   3 )   2  (5)
2 (Figs. 4(d)−(f)), which means the quasi-steady state of
Because 1>3, according to Eq. (5),  is the welding process.
illustrated by use of the Mohr circle in Fig. 3. In the 3.1.2 Stress fields results
stress Mohr circle, the value of intermediate principal Figure 5 shows the von Mises stresses evolution
stress 2 is formed at the point of the arcs of two internal during LFW of 45# steel. It is seen from Fig. 5 that when
circles.  is interpreted as an eccentricity which is the the friction time is 0.5 s, the von Mises stresses field is
intermediate principal stress 2 stray from the large circle. very different from the other cases. But when the friction
The range of  is [−1,1]. And it exists three special time is larger than 0.5 s, the von Mises stresses field has
cases to describe types of plastic strain: tension strain some extent similarity with each other. When the friction
(1≤<0), plane strain (=0) and compress strain time is 2 s, the maximum of von Mises stresses is
(0<≤1). 590 MPa, higher than the other cases. In addition, the
3278 J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281

Fig. 4 Temperature field of LFW 45# steel at different welding time: (a) 0; (b) 0.5 s; (c) 1 s; (d) 1.5 s; (e) 2 s; (f) 2.5 s; (g) 3 s

Fig. 5 Mises stresses field of LFW 45# steel at different welding time: (a) 0; (b) 0.5 s; (c) 1 s; (d) 1.5 s; (e) 2 s; (f) 2.5 s; (g) 3 s
J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281
maximum values of von Mises stresses at the friction
time 0.5 s and 1 s exist in regions A and B, respectively,
but the maximum values of von Mises stresses at the
friction time 1.5, 2, 2.5 and 3 s exist in region C. The
authors predicted that when the friction time is larger
than 1.5 s, the welding process is in the quasi-steady
state, which is in accordance with the analysis of the
temperature field results.
Figure 6 shows the principal stresses field after
LFW 45# steel. It is seen from Fig. 6 that the 1st
principal stress field is very different from the 2nd
principal stress and the 3rd principal stress field. The 2nd
principal stress field is similar with the 3rd principal
stress field. As can be seen from Fig. 6(a), the maximum
positive value of the 1st principal stress is 276 MPa, and
the maximum negative value of the 1st principal stress is
−519 MPa. As can be seen from Fig. 6(b), the maximum
positive value of the 2nd principal stress is 170 MPa, the
maximum negative value of the 2nd principal stress is
−757 MPa. As can be seen from Fig. 6(c), the maximum
positive value of the 3rd principal stress is 128 MPa, the
maximum negative value of the 3rd principal stress is
−795 MPa.
3.2 Micromechanics analysis of LFW 45# steel
Figure 7 shows the schematic of the paths before
Fig. 6 Principal stresses field of LFW 45# steel at different welding times: (a) The 1st principal stress; (b) The 2nd principal stress; (c)
The 3rd principal stress
Fig. 7 Schematic of paths before and after welding: (a) Paths along x-direction before welding; (b) Paths along y-direction before
welding; (c) Paths along x-direction after welding; (d) Paths along y-direction after welding
3279
and after welding. Figures 7(a) and (b) show the
schematics of the paths before welding. It can be seen
from Figs. 7(a) and (b), the directions of path 1, path 2
and path 3 are parallel to the vibration direction; the
directions of path 4 and path 6 are vertical to the
vibration direction; while path 5 has a slight angle with
the vibration direction. Figures 7(c) and (d) show
schematics of the paths after welding process. The paths
consist of path 1', path 2', path 3', path 4', path 5' and
path 6', corresponding to path 1, path 2, path 3, path 4,
path 5 and path 6, respectively, in the initial state of
welding process.
It can be seen from Figs. 7(a) and (c), compared
with the path 2, the displacement of several points that
lie in the two corners of path 2' changed, while other
points on path 2' basically unchanged. It is obvious that
the region surrounded by the lines of AB, BC, CD and
DA deformed after welding, while the region surrounded
by the lines of CD, DE, EF and FC basically did not
deform. It can be seen from Figs. 7(b) and (d), the length
of path 5 decreases after welding. According to the angle
between path 5 and x-axis, between path 5' and x-axis,
the authors can conclude that the deformation during
LFW process is asymmetric.
Figure 8 shows the divisions of the . It can be
3280
Fig. 8 Divisions of Lode parameter : (a)  along path 1',
path 2' and path 3'; (b)  along path 4', path 5' and path 6'.
seen from Fig. 8(a),  along path 1', path 2' and path 3'
does not show a symmetrical distribution, which means
an asymmetric deformation occurring during LFW
process. In addition, the macro-morphology of flash also
shows the phenomenon of asymmetric deformation
during LFW process (Figs. 7(c) and (d)). The trend of 
along path 4' is similar to the case of path 6'. But the
distance between the start and the end points of path 6' is
shorter than the case of path 4'.
4 Conclusions
1) With the increasing the LFW time, more heat is
conducted from the weld interface to the specimen
interior. But when the friction time is larger than 1.5 s,
the heat conduction is not evident because the flash is
extruded gradually, which means the quasi-steady state
of the welding process.
2) The von Mises stresses fields change with the
increasing of the friction time. When the friction time is
0.5 s, the von Mises stresses field is very different from
the other cases of friction time. But when the friction
J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281
time is larger than 0.5 s, the von Mises stresses field
between different friction times has some extent
similarity with each other.
3) After welding, the 1st principal stress field is
very different from the 2nd principal stress and the 3rd
principal stress field. The 2nd principal stress field is
similar with the 3rd principal stress field. In addition, the
deformation during welding process is asymmetric due to
the difference of the angle between path 5 and x-axis,
between path 5' and x-axis.
References
[1] MA Tie-jun, LI Wen-ya, ZHONG Bin, ZHANG Yong, LI Jing-long.
Effect of post-weld heat treatment on microstructure and property of
linear friction welded Ti17 titanium alloy joint [J]. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining, 2012, 17(3): 812−817.
[2] LIU Chuan, DONG Chun-lin. Internal residual stress measurement
on linear friction welding of titanium alloy plates with contour
method [J]. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China,
2014, 24(5): 1387−1392.
[3] VAIRIS A, FROST M. Modelling the linear friction welding of
titanium blocks [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2000,
292(1): 8−17.
[4] YANG Xia-wei, LI Wen-ya, MA Tie-jun. Finite element analysis of
the effect of micro-pore defect on linear friction welding of medium
carbon steel [J]. China Welding, 2014, 23(1): 1−5.
[5] MA Tie-jun, LI Wen-ya, XU Quan-zhou, ZHANG Yong, LI
Jing-long, YANG Si-qian, LIAO Han-lin. Microstructure evolution
and mechanical properties of linear friction welded 45 steel joint [J].
Advanced Engineering Materials, 2007, 9(8): 703−707.
[6] GRUJICIC M, ARAKERE G, PANDURANGAN B, YEN C F,
CHEESEMAN B A. Process modeling of Ti−6Al−4V linear friction
welding (LFW) [J]. Journal of Materials Engineering and
Performance, 2012, 21(10): 2011−2023.
[7] LI Wen-ya, MA Tie-jun, XU Quan-zhou, YANG Si-qian, ZHANG
Yong, LI Jing-long, LIAO Han-lin. Effect of friction time on flash
shape and axial shortening of linear friction welded 45 steel [J].
Materials Letters, 2008, 62(2): 293−296.
[8] THREADGILL P. Linear friction welding, TWI, knowledge
summary [M]. Cambridge: The Welding Institute, 2008.
[9] KARADGE M, PREUSS M, WITHERS P J, BRAY S. Importance
of crystal orientation in linear friction joining of single crystal to
polycrystalline nickel-based superalloys [J]. Materials Science and
Engineering A, 2008, 491(1): 446−453.
[10] LI Wen-ya, MA Tie-jun, ZHANG Yong, XU Quan-zhou, LI
Jing-long, YANG Si-qian, LIAO Han-lin. Microstructure
characterization and mechanical properties of linear friction welded
Ti−6Al−4V Alloy [J]. Advanced Engineering Materials, 2008, 10(2):
89−92.
[11] WANJARA P, JAHAZI M. Linear friction welding of Ti−6Al−4V:
Processing, microstructure, and mechanical-property inter-
relationships [J]. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 2005,
36(8): 2149−2164.
[12] KARADGE M, PREUSS M, LOVELL C, WITHERS P J, BRAY S.
Texture development in Ti−6Al−4V linear friction welds [J].
Materials Science and Engineering A, 2007, 459(2): 182−191.
[13] ZHANG Chuan-chen, ZHANG Tian-cang, JI Ya-juan, HUANG
Ji-hua. Effects of heat treatment on microstructure and microhardness
of linear friction welded dissimilar Ti alloys [J]. Transactions of
Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2013, 23(12): 3540−3544.
J. Cent. South Univ. (2015) 22: 3275−3281
[14] SORINA-MÜLLER J, RETTENMAYR M, SCHNEEFELD D,
RODER O, FRIED W. FEM simulation of the linear friction welding
of titanium alloys [J]. Computational Materials Science, 2010, 48(4):
749−758.
[15] SONG X, XIE M, HOFMANN F. Residual stresses in linear friction
welding of aluminium alloys [J]. Materials and Design, 2013, 50:
360−369.
[16] SENTHILKUMAR V, BALAJI A, ARULKIRUBAKARAN D.
Application of constitutive and neural network models for prediction
of high temperature flow behavior of Al/Mg based nanocomposite [J].
Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2013, 23(6):
1737−1750.
[17] TURNER R, GEBELIN J C , WARD R M, REED R C. Linear
friction welding of Ti−6Al−4V: Modelling and validation [J]. Acta
Materialia, 2011, 59(10): 3792−3803.
3281
[18] TAN Zhen, GUO Guang-wen. Thermophysical properties of
engineering alloys [M]. Beijing: Metallurgical Industry Press, 1994.
(in Chinese)
[19] CHEN Gang, CHEN Zhong-fu, TAO Jun-lin, NIU Wei, ZHANG
Qing-ping, HUANG Xi-cheng. Investigation and validation on
plastic constitutive parameters of 45 steel [J]. Explosion and Shock
Waves, 2005, 25(5): 451−456. (in Chinese)
[20] YANG Xia-wei, ZHU Jing-chuan, LAI Zhong-hong, LIU Yong,
WANG Yang. Metal behavior of hot extrusion deformation and
microstructural analysis of TA15 titanium Alloy [J]. Rare Metal
Materials and Engineering, 2011, 40(5): 797−801.(in Chinese)
[21] YANG Xia-wei. Restricted hot deformation behavior and mechanical
property of TA15 titanium alloy [D]. Harbin: Harbin Institute of
Technology, 2007. (in Chinese)
(Edited by YANG Hua)