Tribology Letters, Vol. 22, No.

1, April 2006 (Ó 2006) 105

DOI: 10.1007/s11249-006-9068-x

Influence of weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance of

polyetherimide composites
R. Rattan and J. Bijwe*
Industrial Tribology Machine Dynamics and Maintenance Engineering Centre (ITMMEC), Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi,
Hauz Khas, New Delhi, 110016, India

Received 23 September 2005; accepted 12 April 2006; published online 10 June 2006

Three composites of Polyetherimide (PEI) reinforced with carbon fabric (CF) of three weaves viz. plain, twill and satin-4 H
were developed keeping the amount of fabric constant (55% by vol.). Studies on mechanical properties confirmed that the twill
weave composite (T) showed the highest strength, modulus (both tensile and flexural) and interlaminar shear strength (ILSS)
followed by satin (S) and plain weave (P) composites. The performance order, however, was reverse in the case of toughness and
elongation to break. Specific wear rate in a single-pass, unidirectional and un-lubricated abrasive wear mode against SiC paper
showed strong influence of weave in mild wear condition (load 10 N). Composite S showed the highest wear resistance (WR)
followed by composites T and P. With increase in load, the difference in performance diminished to the extent that at 40 N, it was
almost similar for all the three composites. This was correlated with the difference in the length of the fibers between crossover
points which, in turn, allowed the microdisplacement of fibers in the composites during abrasion. This was supported by the SEM.
KEY WORDS: bi-directionally (BD) reinforced polymer composites, abrasive wear behavior of BD composites, polyetherimide-
carbon fabric composites, weaves of fabric in tribology

1. Introduction etc. have also been correlated with the wear resistance
WR for such materials. As compared to short fiber
Abrasive wear is the most nefarious type of wear that
reinforced or particulate filled or mixed composites, less
contributes to almost 50% of the total wear. Fiber
is reported on continuous fiber reinforced [13] or fabric
reinforced polymers (FRPs) are currently used in a
reinforced composites [14]. This, despite the fact that,
variety of applications where abrasive wear is a pre-
fabric reinforced or bi-directionally (BD) (as they are
dominant mode of failure such as in conveyor aids,
popularly known) reinforced composites have become
vanes, gears, bearings, pumps handling industrial fluids/
an obvious choice in aircraft construction, automobiles
slurries containing abrasives, sewage, bushes, seals,
and pressure vessels because of their higher specific
chute liners used in machineries in agriculture, earth
strength (high strength to weight ratio) and ease of
moving, mining etc. [1–5]. Subsequently, a lot of atten-
processing as compared to either short fiber or uni-
tion has been paid towards studying the abrasive wear
directionally (UD) reinforced composites; metals and
behaviour of polymers and composites. The efforts are
alloys. The wear performance of BD composites is a
continuously being focused mainly on two aspects in this
complex phenomenon that depends on the type of fabric
research area. Firstly, to enhance the abrasive wear
and matrix, their volume fractions, orientation of warp
resistance (WR) of a polymer and secondly to investigate
and weft fibers with respect to sliding direction and
wear-property correlations. Rajesh et al. [5] have re-
sliding plane, fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion, weave of
ported the state of art on the influence of several physical
the fabric etc. Very few papers are available on this topic
and mechanical properties on the WR of different poly-
and studies are still in their formative stages to a point
mers and composites. The mixed trends in the case of
that the least explored parameter is the influence of
influence of fillers on enhancement or deterioration of
weave of fabric. In case of abrasive wear, a little is re-
WR are reported [6–12]. In some cases, maximum wear
ported in this aspect for BD composites of glass fabric
resistance is reported at particular volume fraction of the
and Polyetherimide (PEI) [15]. The paper could not
filler [7]. Apart from this, various mechanical properties
conclude the effect of weave clearly because the amount
such as ultimate tensile strength (S), elongation to break
of fabric was not identical. Keeping this in view, it was
(e), hardness (H) or their products, cohesive energies,
proposed to develop three BD composites using high
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. performance engineering polymer such as PEI as a
E-mail: jbijwe@hotmail.com matrix and carbon fabric in three different weaves in

1023-8883/06/0400–0105/0 Ó 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

106 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance

identical volume fraction as reinforcement. The objec-

tive was to investigate the influence of weave on wear
resistance in abrasive wear mode. The research findings
are reported in this paper.

2. Experimental
2.1. Fabrication of composites
GE plastic USA supplied the PEI material (ULTEM
1000) in a granular form. The carbon fabric used as
reinforcement was procured from Fibre Glast Ltd.
USA. Three types of weave of carbon fabric (properties
studied in the laboratory and are given in table 1) viz. P
(plain weave), T (twill weave) and S (satin 4-Harness)
(figure 1) were selected for the present study. The car-
bon fabric reinforced composites were prepared by a
prepreg technique (impregnation) followed by com-
pression molding. The plies (280
260 mm2) were cut
from the carbon fabric roll and the open strands from all
the four sides were sealed with a PTFE coated glass
fabric tape to avoid the fiber misalignment. Dichlo-
romethane (CH2Cl2) was used as a solvent to prepare
the solution of PEI (25 wt–wt%). These plies were im-
mersed for 12 h individually in the containers filled with
viscous solution of PEI. The container was sealed to
avoid evaporation of solvent, which was required for
wetting of fiber strands with the PEI solution. The plies
were taken out carefully to avoid the disturbance in
weave and dried in an oven for 2 h at 100 °C in a
stretched condition. These 20 prepregs were then
stacked in the mould carefully to avoid misalignment. A
mould release agent, PTFE coated glass fabric, was
placed on the top and bottom of stacked prepregs. The
mould was then heated so that a temperature of 380–
390 °C was attained within 2 h. The prepregs were then
compression molded at this temperature at an applied
pressure of 7.35 MPa. During the total compression
time of 20 min 4 intermittent breathings (each of 4 s)
were given to expel the possible residual solvent. The
Figure 1. Schematic showing different weave patterns (i) plain (ii) twill
and (iii) satin (4 H).
composites were allowed to cool under ambient tem-
perature and applied pressure (7.35 MPa). It was then
cut with the help of diamond cutter as per requirements.
2.2. Characterization of the composites
The carbon fabric reinforced composites containing
plain, twill and satin weave of carbon fabric (55 vol.%
or 65 wt.%) and designated as P, T and S respectively
were characterized for various properties as per stan-
dards (table 2). Their composition was determined
using Soxhlett apparatus and CH2Cl2 as solvent.
2.3. Abrasive wear studies
Studies in a single-pass and dry condition were con-
ducted on a linear abrasive wear rig (schematic shown in
figure 2) fabricated by Magnum Engineers, Bangalore
(India). Before starting the experiment, polymer pin
(10
10
3 mm3) was abraded against a fine abrasive
paper of grade 800 for uniform contact. Prior to the
experiment, initial weight of pin was measured after
cleaning ultrasonically with acetone followed by drying.
It was abraded against a waterproof silicon carbide
(SiC) abrasive paper of 120 grade (118 lm) fixed on a
movable bed at a constant speed (2 m/min). The total
sliding distance of 1.5 m was achieved by abrading the

Table 1.
Properties of three weaves of carbon fabric measured in the laboratory.

Carbon fabric Plain Twill Satin (4-H)

3
Density (g/cm ) 1.85 1.85 1.85
Area (g/cm2) 196 198 193
Tow* 3K 3K 3K
Tex 20 22 19
Denier 185 198 171
Crimp % 0.64 0.70 0.30
Count 28 26 31
Warp/inch 12 16 14
Weft/inch 12 16 14
Thickness (cm) 0.34 0.34 0.36
Bending length (cm) 7.2 5.9 5.0
Tensile strength (MPa) 0.3 0.147 0.12
Elongation % 1.25 1.85 1.52

* Supplier’s data.
 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance 107

Table 2.
Details of the composition and properties of fabricated composites.

Composites PEI P (Plain) T (Twill) S (Satin)

Density (g/cm3) ASTM D 792 1.27 1.55 1.53 1.54

Contents of fabric, volume % - 55 55 55
Tensile strength (MPa) ASTM 638 105 535 888 575
Tensile modulus (GPa) ASTM 638 03 73 106 76
Elongation at break (%) ASTM 638 60 0.54 0.08 0.32
Toughness (MPa) ASTM 638 - 3.8 2.2 2.8
Flexural strength (MPa) ASTM 790 150 589 951 832
Flexural modulus (MPa) ASTM 790 3.3 40 54 46
ILSS (MPa) ASTM 2344 - 49 66 63

Figure 2. Sketch of linear abrasive wear rig.

pin in 6 tracks where each track measured 0.25 m.1
Experiment was conducted at different loads (10, 20, 30
and 40 N). After the experiment, pin was again cleaned
in a similar fashion, dried and weighed on a weighing
balance with an accuracy of 0.0001 g. The experiment
was repeated for two times and the average value of
weight loss was used for specific wear rate calculations.
The specific wear rate K0 was calculated from the
following equation:
K0 ¼ Dm=qLdðm3 =NmÞ
1
The machine was automated with a program for controlling oper-
ating parameters. After each track, the pin was lifted up (4 cm up in
the air), reverted back to the second track and started abrading on a
new track (5 mm away from the first one) in the same direction. The
distance between two tracks, its length, direction shape (reciprocating
on same track, unidirectional single-pass, circular/oval shape- multi-
pass etc.), speed etc were programmable. For sliding 1.5 m, it took
more than a minute since some time (approximately 5 s) is required to
lift the pin automatically, go back and put it in right position.
where Dm is the weight loss in kg, q the density in kg/
m3, L the load in Newton and d the distance abraded in
m. The fabric was always parallel to abrading plane.
Warp fibers were always parallel to the sliding direction
(figure 2).
3. Results and discussion
Friction coefficient (l) as a function of load for all the
materials is shown in figure 3. The wear volume and
specific wear rates (K0) of Neat PEI and three compos-
ites as a function of load are plotted in figure 4a and 4b
respectively. Figure 5 illustrates the possible wear
mechanisms responsible for the wear behavior of com-
posites with different weaves. Figure 6 shows micro-
graphs at lower magnifications supporting the suggested
mechanisms. Figures 7–9 collect the SEM of worn
surfaces of the composites.
As seen from table 2, all the strength properties of
PEI improved significantly except elongation to break,
108 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance

0.6 3.5
P (a) PEI1
T 3
S PEI2

Wear volume 10 -8 m 3
PEI 2.5
0.5 P1
2 P2
µ

1.5 T1
0.4
1 T2
S1
0.5
0.3 S2
0 10 20 30 40 50 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Load (N) Load (N)
Figure 3. Friction coefficient vs. load for all materials.
12
(b)
P
10
which decreased drastically. Such trends are in tune with

-1
mN m
the literature data on BD composites [15,16]. It is also T

-1
observed that for all properties except toughness and 8

3
S
elongation, the performance order of the composites

-10
was; 6

Kox10
PEI

T > S  P > PEI: 4

In the case of toughness and elongation, it was;
PS>T
Weave of fabric plays a crucial role in controlling the
performance of composites. The properties of compos-
ites are controlled by various factors such as tensile
strength and elongation of fabric, bending strength,
count, crimp etc., (table 1) in a complex way. In the
literature also, no clear relations between properties of
fabrics of different weaves and their composites are
reported [17,18]. Though the strength properties of
composites in the present study followed the same per-
formance order as that of elongation to break, for fabric
(table 1), such relations are not so simple.
As seen from figure 3, l decreased gradually with
load for all the composites. It definitely depended on the
weave pattern. Neat PEI showed lowest l, which
decreased with the increase in load. Composites also
showed similar trend. The twill weave composite showed
lowest l among all the composites. No clear trends,
however, were observed in the case of satin (S) and plain
(P) weave composites. The l of composites, which
contained carbon fabric, though known for its lubri-
cating efficiency, was higher than that of PEI because
the lubricity of CF reflects only in adhesive wear mode.
In abrasive wear situation, when grits start abrading the
surface, meet the fibers in both the directions viz, par-
allel and perpendicular to the sliding. Fibers in perpen-
dicular direction offer more resistance to motion
because grit tries to elongate and then cut the fiber and
hence l is higher than that of unfilled PEI. The reason
why twill composite showed highest l, however, was not
clear.
As seen in figure 4a, wear volume increased with
increasing load. The specific wear rates (figure 4b) for all
2
0 10 20 30 40 50
Load (N)
Figure 4. (a) Wear volume vs. applied load (two readings taken for
each sample were used for plotting graphs; solid legends are for first
reading and hollow legends are for second reading of same sample) and
(b) Specific war rate (calculated from average wear volume) vs. load for
all materials.
the materials were in the range of (3–10)
10)10 m3/Nm
and decreased with increase in load. This is as per the
regular trend reported for abrasive wear of fiber rein-
forced composites and is in tune with the Lyman’s
equation [19]. According to which, when abrading speed
and load are low, specific wear rate is calculated as,
   
VS 1
K0 ¼ K6 VC
EHCf la FNd
where K6 is a proportionality constant, Vs is the sliding
speed, E is the elastic modulus, H is the hardness, Cf is
the wear failure strain, la is the friction coefficient, Vc is
the crack growth velocity and FN is normal the load.
This equation indicates that the wear rate is inversely
d
proportional to the normal load FN .
Neat PEI showed the highest abrasive wear resistance
and fabric reinforcement adversely affected its perfor-
mance. In the case of BD composites, such trends have
been reported in case of CF and glass fabric reinforced
composites in particular orientations. The same com-
posites showed enhanced WR in different fabric orien-
tation [16]. The deterioration in the performance of the
composites in the present study was mainly correlated to
easy damage to the fibers as discussed in SEM studies in
the next section.
 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance
Figure 5. Schematic showing probable wear mechanisms in compos-
ites with weaves (a) plain (b) twill and (c) stain 4H (weft showing the
stain weave).
As seen from figure 4b, weave of fabric has a stronger
influence on the wear performance at lower loads. Fol-
lowing was the performance order under various loads.
10 N : S > T > P
20 N and 30 N : S ¼ T > P
40 N : S ¼ T ¼ P
Thus, with increase in load, the difference in wear
behavior diminished to the extent that at 40 N, the
Figure 6. SEM showing worn surface of composites at lower magnification (
150).
109
performance of all the composites was almost similar.
The wear of composite S was lowest at lowest load be-
cause of arrangement of strands of fibers in satin weave.
Satin weave has maximum fiber length between the two
consecutive crossover points followed by twill weave
while plain weave has the shortest because of its alter-
nate pattern (figures 1 and 5). SEM micrographs (at
lower magnification figure 6a and 6b) of composites S
and P respectively show the pattern of weave responsible
for the difference in the fiber length between rigid
crossover points. During abrasion, the grit slides across
the diameter of the fiber and initiates the process of
micro-cracking or micro-cutting. More the length of fi-
bers between the crossover points more is the flexibility
during shearing across the diameter and less are the
chances of micro cutting of fibers at first instance. If the
fiber length between such points is small, overall extent
of elongation and possibility of absorption of energy
during abrasion by micro-displacement is also less. In
such case grit gets environment fully conducive to fiber
cutting rather than its micro-displacement. This was the
reason why satin weave composite showed highest WR
followed by twill weave and plain weave composites at
lowest load. The extent of difference in flexibility of
fibers in the composite was at micro-scale. At higher
loads, however, this phenomenon was not that effective.
The shearing force was so high that the difference in
tendency of fibers to elongate before fracture did not
matter much and fibers started getting damaged to equal
extents for all the composites at 40 N.
It was of interest if there emerged any correlation
between WR and mechanical properties such as S
(tensile strength, elongation to break or their product
(Ratner–Lancaster plot). Such correlations are mainly
reported for particulate filled or short fiber reinforced
composites. For BD composites, efforts are not re-
ported [14] except in one case where correlation was
observed between tensile strength (S), elongation to
break (e), Se and WR of aramid fabric reinforced
polyethersulphone (PES) composites [16]. Efforts were
made to explore similar correlations in the present
work also. WR of composites was plotted as a function
110 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance

Figure 7. SEM of worn surface of plain weave composite (
400) at (a) 10 N (b) 20N and (c) 40N.

of S, e and (Se). (Values were taken from table 2-fig- 4. SEM studies
ures are not shown). No correlation, however, was
Figures 7–9 show micrographs (with direction of
observed indicating that mechanical properties alone
abrasion marked on each) of abraded pin surfaces under
did not control the wear damage of the CF-BD com-
different conditions. Figure 7 {micrographs 7a (10 N),
posites. This was because of the fact that the WR of
7b (20 N) and 7c (40 N)} (
400) for plain weave com-
UD or BD composites depends mainly on the resis-
posite shows the influence of increase in load on damage
tance of fibers to the breakage, generation of fiber
of fibers and hence wear. Fiber breakage is minimal at
debris and its removal from the surface. This was
10 N, while at 20 N, it has increased significantly. The
supported by the studies on wear mechanisms by SEM
furrows made by grits are marked on the surfaces
of the worn pin surfaces and is discussed in the sub-
showing micro-ploughing and micro-cutting actions.
sequent section.
The most dominating feature of the surfaces is brittle

Figure 8. SEM showing worn surfaces of composites at 20 N (a) CF-satin weave composite and (b) CF-twill composite (
400).
 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance
Figure 9. SEM showing worn surfaces of composites at 40 N (a) CF-satin weave composite and (b) CF-twill composite (
400).
fracture of both fibers and matrix. Top portion of
micrograph 7b (marked as 2) shows some interesting
features. The shearing action of grits cut the fibers,
whose broken pieces are then lifted away and rolled out
of the contact zone in the subsequent actions of fol-
lowing grit. This is a typical intermediate stage between
micro-cutting and removal of fiber as wear debris in
successive stages. Portion marked as (3) shows the cavity
left after complete removal of fiber. In micrograph 7c,
highest load has resulted in maximum damage to the
fibers. Bundles of broken fibers have been removed from
the matrix (marked as 1) which are then pulverized and
converted into wear debris. Uplifted long fibers (marked
as 2) also are seen. The excessive de-bonding between
fibers and matrix as a result of severe shearing action of
the grit can also be seen (Portion marked as 3a-is for
wear damaged, de-bonded fibers- and 3b-for unaffected
fibers with very good bonding with the matrix).
Figures 8 and 9 show the effect of weave at lower
(20 N) and higher loads (40 N) respectively. Micro-
graphs 8a, b are for worn surfaces of composites S and T
at 20 N. When these are compared with 7b, (composites
of plain weave worn under identical load), damage to
the fibers appears to be minimal in composite S, fol-
lowed by T and P. In composite S (figure 8a), which
showed highest WR (barring unfilled PEI), most of the
fibers have retained their length (weave being satin,
length of fibers between crossover points was maximum)
with intermittent cracks initiated perpendicular to the
length (marked as 1). A small portion of fibers is re-
moved after pulverization leaving behind the cavity
(marked as 2). Few large patches of resin covering the
fibers are also apparent in the middle portion of the
micrograph. Such patches of resin were not observed in
other composites. As compared to composite S (fig-
ure 8a), extent of fiber damage is more in composite T
(figure 8b). Fibers between crossover points are easily
broken and peeled off. Such peeled off fibers lying on the
surface (marked as 1 in figure 8b) are easily crushed in
consecutive abrasion cycles contributing to higher wear.
111
The two furrows due to abrasion can also be seen
(marked as 2). Fiber damage is maximum in figure 7b
(composite P-20 N) in the series of composites worn
under 20 N, which supports its poorest performance.
The micrographs of all the composites worn under
40 N are shown in figure 9. As seen in figure 9a for
composite S, array of both weft and warp fibers shows
severe damage because of high load. Similar features are
seen in the case of composites T (figure 9b) and P (fig-
ure 7c) supporting the high wear of composites under
high load. Furrows due to abrasion are deepest in the
case of highest load. Fiber cracking, cutting and fiber–
matrix de-bonding are the most dominating wear
mechanisms along with micro-ploughing of the matrix.
5. Conclusions
Studies on PEI composites reinforced with carbon
fabric of three weaves, in equal amount, led to the
conclusions that the CF reinforcement enhanced all the
properties of PEI significantly except elongation to
break and wear resistance. The weave of carbon fabric
influenced the strength properties significantly. Twill
weave composite exhibited best properties followed by
Satin and plain weave composites (except toughness and
elongation to break). For toughness and elongation to
break the order was reverse. Fabric reinforcement
deteriorated the abrasive wear performance of PEI.
Wear rates decreased with increase in load for all the
materials. Abrasive wear resistance (performance)
highly depended on the weave at low loads. Under high
load (40 N), the performance of three composites was
almost identical. The flexibility of fibers at micro-scale
depends on the length of fibers between the two cross-
over points where they are rigidly held. Higher the
length, higher was the flexibility and lower was the wear
as seen in the case of satin weave composite. WR showed
direct correlation with this feature but at lower and
moderate loads.
112 R. Rattan, J. Bijwe/Weave of carbon fabric on abrasive wear performance
No correlation was observed between WR and
mechanical properties of the composites. The composite,
which showed best mechanical properties was moderate
in wear performance and vice versa. Composite, which
showed poorest strength, was poorest in wear behavior
also but at mild wear conditions only. SEM studies
proved useful to highlight the fact that in BD compos-
ites, nature and extent of fiber damage is the dominant
controlling wear mechanism.
Acknowledgments
Authors are grateful to Council of Science and
Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi India for the
financial grant to carry out this research work.
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