Micro Engineering

L. Alting’ ( I ) , F. Kimura2 ( I ) , H.N. Hansen’ (2), G. Bissacco’

1
Department of Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Technical University of Denmark
2
Department of Precision Machinery Engineering, The University of Tokyo, Japan

Abstract
The paper addresses the questions of how micro products are designed and how they are manufactured.
Definitions of micro products and micro engineering are discussed and the presentation is aimed at
describing typical issues, possibilities and tools regarding design of micro products. The implications of the
decisions in the design phase on the subsequent manufacturing processes are considered vital. Finally,
manufacturing and assembly of micro products as well as the philosophy of micro factories are presented
and discussed.

Keywords:
Micro Engineering, Product Design and Development, Process and Production Development

1 INTRODUCTION in the presence of multi-disciplinary competences. One

The use of micro products and micro components has
been strongly increasing through the past 5 years.
Market surveys predict that the world market will
increase from approximately 30 billion USD in 2000 to 60
billion USD in 2005 [I]-[2]. The most important product
groups are IT components (ink jet printers, reading caps
for hard disks etc.) as well as medical and biomedical
products (pacemakers, analysis equipment, sensors
etc.). Furthermore motion sensors for the automotive
industry represent an industrial application of micro
systems. These product groups also represent the
highest growth rates. Other driving markets are the
auto motive industry and the telecommunication area [ 11.
On the technological side the development has moved
very fast, primarily driven by the need of the electronics
industry to create still smaller chips with still larger
capacity. Therefore the manufacturing technologies
connected with microhano products in silicon are
relatively highly developed compared to the technologies
used for manufacturing products in metals, polymers and
ceramics [3]. Different key technologies have been the
subject for a series of ClRP keynote papers on the
subject during the last few years [4]-[8]. For all
technologies, however, it is a continuously increasing
challenge to create the operational basis for an industrial
production of micro products. As the products through
product development processes are made applicable to
a large number of customers, the pressure in regard to
developing production technologies that make it possible
to produce the products at a reasonable price and in
large numbers is growing. These two demands further
point at the use of metals, polymers and ceramics (or
combinations of these) as materials to be used for micro
components and products.
Innovation within the field of micro and nano technology
is to a great extent characterized by cross-disciplinary
factors. The traditional disciplines like e.g. physics,
biology, medicine and engineering are united in a
common development process that can only take place
example is sensors for chemical analysis of fluids, where
chemistry, biology and flow mechanics all influence the
design of the product and thereby the industrial
fabrication of the product.
Product development and design of new products will be
the core competence of the companies in future. This
includes the ability to see and use the possibilities
brought about by nano and micro technology. This
includes the ability to integrate into the product
development phase considerations regarding materials,
processes and production technology so that it will
become possible to manufacture the product. This
involves the development of new design principles and
methodologies integrating the necessary professional
disciplines. For products with dimensions in the
micrometer and nanometer range, it is no longer trivial to
define how the components for these products are
created, handled, assembled, controlled and measured.
If micro products are to be introduced to a large market it
is necessary to develop materials, processes and
production technologies that can support an industrial
production. Thus it is not only a question of downscaling
existing processes and technologies to comprise smaller
sizes of components, but in some cases development of
totally new production technologies to replace the
conventional processes is necessary. New product
concepts must consider that the components are not
easily handled in a multi-step process but should be built
in consecutive steps and levels and may have to be
produced in clean rooms. These new manufacturing
paradigms must be developed in order to support the
product develop ment.
The current keynote paper will focus on the following
questions:
How do you design micro products?
How do you design processes and production
systems to produce micro components and
products?
The paper builds on the achievements made by the
preceding ClRP keynotes in this field [4]-[8], as well as
other relevant material. The scope of the paper is to
describe state-of-the-art in product development and
design as well as production of micro products. The
paper will identify and discuss problems and important
issues related to the development and fabrication of
micro products. From a material’s point of view both
silicon based micro products and micro products in
metals, polymers and ceramics are considered due to
the large differences in maturity of production
technologies.
Section 2 contains a discussion on the definition of the
concept of micro engineering and its relations to both the
macro and nano worlds. Section 3 deals with the
principles and methodologies related to design and
development of micro products and section 4 discusses
potentials and capabilities of production technologies for
micro products. In section 5 the realisation of a
production system in terms of sequences of
manufacturing processes is discussed.
2 MICRO ENGINEERING
2.1 Definition of micro engineering
In the previous ClRP keynote papers on micro
technology different definitions of the micro concept
were applied. Masuzawa gave in [4] an overview of
state-of-the-art in micromachining. The paper was
intended to discuss micromachining of structures with
dimensions less than 500 pm. Corbett et al [5] defined
nano technology and thereby the scope of their paper to
be “the study, development and processing of materials,
devices and systems in which structures on a dimension
of less than 100 nm is essential to obtain the required
functional performance”. In [6] Geiger et al describe
forming technologies applied to “the production of parts
or structures with at least two dimensions in the sub-
millimetre range”. Van Brussel et al describe micro
assembly in [7] and MacGeough et al [8] introduce the
use of electroforming processes for production of micro
products. These two references use the fabrication of
micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) as illustration
of the different problems connected to the technologies.
In all the above mentioned papers the discipline of
“moving borders” in terms of achievable dimensions,
accuracy or surface texture is emphasized. They all deal
with the issues emerging from scaling down conventional
processes and materials and they discuss possible
solutions to these problems.
In the current paper the discussion of product
development and production technologies requires a
definition of the concept of micro engineering. Micro
engineering, as seen by the authors, is closely related to
the whole process of conception, design and
manufacture of micro products and thus cannot be fully
expressed without a definition of the concept of micro
product itself.
It can be difficult to give an exact definition of a term that
seems to be only size-related in a rapidly changing
environment . As the manufacturing capabilities overtake
the lower limit of the range, it makes little sense only to
define a micro product in terms of size. The definition
should therefore contain the philosophy and the
characteristics of a micro product. Of course a micro
product is characterized by small dimensions, either of
the product itself or of functional features or structures
on the product. This viewpoint itself makes a clear-cut
definition hard, since features by nature can be one or
more orders of magnitude smaller than the dimensions
of the products. In this respect the obtainable
manufacturing accuracy is important and often this is the
limiting factor. It is often only possible to move this limit
downwards by choosing alternative manufacturing
strategies. From a geometrical point of view micro
products can be organised into three groups:
Two-dimensional structures (2D), such as optical
gratings .
2D-structures with a third dimension (2%D), for
example fluid sensors (the structure of the channel
system itself is two-dimensional, but since the
channels have a finite depth they can be
characterised as 2%D).
Real three-dimensional structures (3D), for example
components for hearing aids.
The geometry affects the possible manufacturing
methods and the associated production support in terms
of handling, assembly and metrology.
Another important characteristic of micro products is
integration: integration of functions, integration of
different functioning principles (physical , chemical,
biological etc.) and integration of intelligence into
products in terms of information processing and control
(sensors and actuators). From a philosophical point of
view and related to the functionality, a look into the
reason for miniaturization has to be taken in order to
distinguish between those products that need to be
“small” in order to reach a more compact and portable
version, and those products whose functionality is
achievable only in virtue of their small dimensions.
Integration of different functional principles is often seen
in applications like fluidic sensors (lab-on-a-chip
systems), tools for micro surgery (non-invasive surgery)
etc. Here the functionality can only be obtained if the
product is “smal I”.
Finally a micro product is usually constituted by several
components that have to be assembled in order to
obtain the desired functionality (as is the case in a so-
called hybrid system). Thus it is apparent to distinguish
between a micro product and a micro component. The
realization of a micro product requires reduction of size
of the constituting components. This creates challenges
in terms of handling and assembly of components into a
product and therefore the integration of different
functions is desirable, so that the same component can
fulfil different purposes. In this way, specific mechanical,
thermal, electrical, magnetic and chemical properties are
required to the constituting material in order to obtain the
performance level required for a component.
Micro engineering deals with the product development
and manufacture of micro products in general as
illustrated in figure 1, and it is not restricted to specific
materials and processes. In product development,
principles and methodologies for design of micro
products taking into account functionality as well as
manufacturability is the key area of interest. For the
production step, industrial mass production of micro
products is a key issue. Many micro products have
successfully been developed as prototypes in research
labs by use of expensive techniques, mostly suitable for
prototyping, but most of the times the mass production is
delayed due to the difficulty in developing a cost-
effective manufacturing process, with reasonably low
variation. In this case the relationship between product
design and production system design has not been
properly considered. In fact, developing a micro product
is not only a matter of downscaling a macro product and
process, but it is a question of a different way of thinking
using different principles and methodologies. The
definition of micro engineering adopted in this paper is:
Micro engineering deals with development and
manufacture of products, whose functional features or at
least one dimension are in the order of pm. The products
are usually characterized by a high degree of integration
of functionalities and components.
One possible way of looking at the development and
manufacture of micro products is to discuss the process
chain. The entire chain comprises all aspects of the
industrialisation of a product. Masuzawa introduced in [4]
a description of relationship among technologies and
objects in production (see figure 2). Figure 2 describes
the process chain related to development and
manufacture of products. Material, partslcom ponents
and product are all physical objects whereas design,
processing, assembly and controllmeasurement all are
technologies. The process chain opens up the possibility
to discuss in detail specific characteristics of each
technology and each physical object. One of the main
challenges in micro engineering is to connect the
individual steps of the process chain into a continuous
flow. The multi-disciplinary origin of many product ideas
and concepts combined with a large diversity of
technologies creates difficulties in establishing a
continuous micro process chain.
Figure 1: Definition of the micro engineering concept.
Figure 2: Relationship between technologies and objects
in the process chain [4].
One important discussion regarding micro products is
the relative position of ‘micro’ with respect to ‘macro’ and
‘nano’. It is clear from our adapted definition that a
product (no matter the physical dimensions), whose
main functional features are in the pm-range, fall under
our definition of a micro product. This would be the case
for inkjet printer cartridges, where the functional features
are constituted by a series of holes with diameters of
approximately 25 pm [9]. Other examples are given in
table 1. This underlines the importance of
interconnection: it is a necessary condition for a micro
product that it can be interfaced with the macro world in
order to function. The interface may be in terms of for
example physical, electrical or optical connections.
Another perspective is to regard a micro product as built
up by nano-structures. If carbon nanotubes are
combined into functional units for electronic devices (e.g.
[lo]) this would be an illustration of this perspective.
Indeed one might also argue that electroforming is a
process whereby layers of metals are ‘grown’ atom by
atom. However, the relationships both upwards and
downwards with respect to the dimensional scale are
important perspectives for micro engineering.
2.2 Micro product development
The realization of functionality, understood in its
broadest sense, is the main goal of the product develop-
ment process. The expected benefits of the product are
expressed in terms of functional requirements and later
translated into specifications. Besides the main goal,
many other important objectives have to be achieved as
low cost, easy manufacturability, overall performance,
high product reliability, low environmental impact etc.
Many design solutions and alternatives are therefore
possible. The order of priority of the goals together with
the background of the designer sets the basis for the
product-process lay out.
The very broad definition of micro products opens up the
possibility to discuss design issues of totally different
origin. When reviewing literature in the field of micro
products it is clear that products can be categorized into
a limited number of product groups and further divided
according to their working principle. Some of the product
groups are closely connected to the associated sector
(e.g. IT components and the computer industry) whereas
other product groups cover a much larger portion of
industry sectors (e.g. sensors).
The description of the main product architecture
(functionality and main working principle) is the starting
point for the following product design and development
and its realisation. For one specific product described in
terms of functionality and working principles usually
many feasible ways of realisation exist. Micro
engineering, being a new and very broad technological
playground, therefore makes it adequate to propose an
overview and illustrate the many possibilities of
realisation via an example.
A good illustration of this particular phenomenon is
gyroscopes. Many physical interpretations of this
functionality exist as micro products. In [ I l l a silicon
based product is described, in [I21 an electroplated
nickel comb resonator is described (see also figure 3)
and in [I31 a sensor is realised using glass and a
different functioning principle. These examples illustrate
the diversity of possib es for realisation of micro
products and underline the importance of taking
materials and processes into consideration on an early
stage of the product development.
Table 1 shows a proposed categorization containing few
examples of micro products mentioned in literature. It is
clearly seen from the table that the same type of
product, resulting in the same main functionality, can be
realized based on different working principles, leading
thus to a completely different design.
The process of coming from the first idea to an
industrially manufactured product is long and must
eventually include engineering skills. The ideas for
functionalities to be obtained via micro products stem
from many scientific areas. This will challenge the ability
of engineers to create functional products and to choose
between the many possible solutions. Some common
mistakes during concept development encompass the
following points:
Consideration of few alternatives and failure to
consider other concepts employed
Ineffective integration of promising partial solutions
Failure to consider entire categories of solutions
These points are valid for macro products but become
particularly relevant in micro product development since
the designer often is limited by a specific scientific
background. The integration of semiconductor
technologies with conventional manufacturing tech-
nologies and material science represents the biggest
challenge to micro product development but also the
most promising trend in terms of innovation and value
creation.
 Figure 3: Left: SEM picture of released, electroplated nickel comb resonator. Right: Close-up of comb-drive fingers (nickel),
before dissolution of the sacrificial laver (copper), The fingers for this comb drive have a slightly different (rounded) shape
Product group
I
I
ITlcomputers
I Sensors
Actuators
I Optical communication X
X X X
X Ink jet printer nozzles [9] [28], Colour printing [29], Hearing
X X
Watches X X
Table 1: Micro product categories.
2.3 Micro production technologies
The design of micro products has to take into account
their manufacturability and therefore the limitations, as
well as the potentials connected with production
technologies. On one hand miniaturization constitutes a
limitation for the applicability of most of the conventional
manufacturing technologies as cutting, forming etc. On
fhe other hand it opens up the possibility to employ
technologies like for instance etching, focused ion beam
and laser beam machining etc., characterized by a low
material removal rate.
The number and diversity of technologies used to
produce micro components and micro products is
enormous. Development of new technologies follows
three main paths:
Downscaling of existing manufacturing processes
(mainly from the precision engineering field).
Use and up scaling of MEMS processes (from the
micro-electronics sector).
Development of new technologies in the cross field
of existing technologies (e.g. new combinations of
processes and materials).
Holographic memories [23], Lenses [24], Micro optics [8],
Optical switching devices [25], Optical network, Connectors
Micro mirror [26]-[27], Display devices [9]
aids, Micro parts on circuit boards
Implants [30], Surgery devices [31]-[32]
Gear wheels [33], Micro transmissions
Both up-scaling and down-scaling creates challenges for
process stability and materials behaviour. Entirely new
processes are usually developed on a prototype stage
and remain yet to be developed for industrial use. The
diversity of existing manufacturing processes is therefore
very large. Masuzawa classified micromachining
processes according to their working principle [4]. If
these considerations are combined with a description of
the processlmaterial interaction a picture as illustrated in
table 2 emerges. The ability of the different processes to
create 2D, 2%D and 3D micro products of course varies
as does the obtainable material removal rate.
Moreover, the realization of a product often requires
different processes, with complementary capabilities,
that have to be arranged together in a process chain.
The close interaction of micromachining processes then
requires attention, and the process sequence must be
carefully considered in order to predict the possible
problems when combining different processes.
Handling and assembly become particularly challenging
when dealing with micro products. A natural approach is
then to try to reduce as much as possible the
manipulation of micro components, through a higher
level of integration as compared to conventional size
products.
 Material
interaction I

Workin principle Meth ds

Subtractive: cutting, grinding, blasting, ultrasonic machining
x x X Mass containing: rolling, deep drawing, forging, punching
Joining: ultrasound, cold pressure welding
Subtractive: EDM, LBM, EBM
(Thermal)
X x x -Additive: CVD, PVD
Joining: welding (resistance, laser), soldering (resistance, laser,
vacuum), bonding
I
Ablation X LBM (excimer, short pulse)
Dissolution X ECM, isotropic and anisotropic etching, reactive ion etching
Solidification X Casting, injection moulding
Recomposition X Electroforming, chemical deposition
Polymerisation I lamination Additive: Stereolithography, photoforming, polymer deposition
=gluing
Sintering X Combination of mechanical and thermal principles

Table 2: Overview of technologies for manufacture of micro products. Inspired by [4].

3.1 Approaches to development of micro products

Quality control is an issue regarding any kind of
production. When part dimensions are reduced,
conventional equipment might not be suitable anymore
and special instrumentation must be developed. Even
though the importance of metrology is widely recognized
on all steps of the product and process development
chain, the development of instruments for effective and
reliable quality control of micro components and
products has not received much attention so far.
All the issues outlined in this introductory chapter will be
discussed in details in the next chapters where a deeper
look into the product development process as well as
manufacturing as applied to micro products is given.
Product development is a key step in micro engineering.
Traditional methods for development of products in the
macro scale have been described intensively [34]-[36].
This section will describe and discuss different
approaches applied to development of micro products.
Generic product development approaches
A generic top-down approach to product development
can be found in [34]. It consists of a series of steps
leading to a final production as illustrated in figure 4.

Figure 4: Generic development process [34].

3 PRODUCT DESIGN FOR MICRO PRODUCTS
The development and design of micro products becomes
a more and more challenging task. The large number of
both futuristic and realistic applications in connection
with a very fast growing number of associated
technologies makes it very difficult to keep an overview.
Generally speaking the design of a micro product should
take into consideration the following important points:
Design for optimal functionality.
Design for mass production.
Design for minimum cost in manufacturing,
assembly and packaging.
Design for testability.
Design for environmental effects.
Design with optimum choice of materials.
This chapter contains a description of approaches to
micro product development and discusses design issues
related to specifications and tolerancing. Methods for
modelling and analysis of micro products are presented
and discussed.
The product concept is an approximate description of the
technology, working principle and form of the product. It
should give a concise description of how the product will
satisfy customer needs [34]. The activities involved in the
concept development phase comprise investigation of
product concept feasibility and experimental prototyping
as well as first analysis of production feasibility. This will
eventually result in a decision regarding preferred
manufacturing methods. The system level design should
result in the definition of major subsystems and
interfaces. Design issues coming from the manufacturing
side include assembly strategies, make-buy analysis etc.
In the detailed design stage choice of materials,
definition of part geometry and tolerancing is determined
together with production processes, tooling and quality
assurance methods. The prototypes developed are
tested and refined before the production is initiated.
A supplementary description of the detailed design is
given in [35]. Here the product design emerges on the
basis of the desired function via the principle structure
resulting in quantitative descriptions of elements and
total system (figure 5).

Problem
analysis
I Main
function I very important, and not only an issue for silicon-based
1 Sub-function
and means
Principle
Quantitative
Figure 5: Generic product development process [35].
Product development can be characterised as the
transformation of ideas into a functionality of a product.
In mechanical engineering, product development is
supported by well-known disciplines such as materials
science, mechanics, tolerancing, production technology
etc. Usually, the step from a principle structure to a
quantitative structure is supported by the definition of
functional elements in the product [36]. The
requirements to the functional elements are determined
on the basis of expected load, operating conditions and
performance requirements for the final product.
Functional elements can be characterized in terms of
dimension, geometry and surface texture, but also
physical, chemical or optical properties can be used in
the description. The mating of different functional
elements, whether it be under static or dynamic
operating conditions, is a key issue in product design
that determines the final functionality of the product.
The generic product development process can be
adapted to micro products with some modifications.
Early in the process special considerations have to be
given to material choice and the subsequent
manufacturing technology. If the principle structure is
based on a fixed combination of materials and related
production technologies (e.g. silicon and etching
technologies) the subsequent development becomes an
optimization of this combination. In this case no real
possibilities exist for changing materials, processes and
thereby influencing product performance and cost. A
premature choice of materials and processes also limits
the possibilities as to possible geometries to be used for
the single partslcomponents (2D-2XD-3D). Therefore
the designer and product developer have to possess
knowledge about alternative materials and production
technologies to be able to develop the most optimal
product for a given situation.
The use of standard construction elements as in
traditional mechanical engineering has until now not
been adapted intensively although some commercial
MEMS CAD tools contain standard elements such as
beams and canti levers. Specifically developed elements
are seen for most products. The fundamental issues of
scale effects when trying to apply macro rules to micro
products and components will be discussed later.
However, no uniform approach exists in this field, the
consequence being that product developers run the risk
of being limited to 'known traditional solutions' only.
One major concern related to product development of
micro products is the assembly issue. It is not trivial to
handle, position and join different components of very
small dimensions as already described in [4]. However,
the intelligent design of the product and the choice of
appropriate manufacturing methods at an early stage of
the product design may solve this problem. Instead of
constructing a micro product using 5-10 separate
components, the product may be built layer by layer as is
the case in the manufacture of chips for integrated
circuits (monolithic structures). Furthermore packaging is
products. Many micro products require packaging in
order to protect functional elements from environmental
influences. The design of the product (choice of
functioning principles, materials etc.) affects dramatically
the need for packaging, and the packaging affects the
performance of the micro product.
Micro system development process
An example of a design process applied to micro
systems (or MEMS) is given in [37]. Figure 6 gives a
schematic overview of the approach. The approach
divides the product into four levels: system, device,
physical and process level. At the bottom is the process
m. Here the process sequence and photo mask
designs for device manufacture are created. Process
modelling at this level involves sophisticated CAD tools
in order to predict device geometry from the masks and
process sequence. The physical level addresses the
behaviour of real 3D objects. At this level the governing
equations are typically partial differential equations
implemented into various numerical modelling tools. At
the device level for example macro models are created
in order to capture the essential physical behaviour of a
component of the system and simultaneously assure
compatibility with the svstem level description. Designers
may according to [37] choose to start the process on
whatever level appropriate depending on the level of
maturity of the design.
The approach is iterative in terms of the simulation and
verification of functionality and manufacturing processes
and consequently it is not necessarily top-down driven.
The process is based on the assumption of silicon
technologies. An important point in this development
process is the decision whether to integrate electrical
and non-electrical components into a so-called
monolithic system (system level decision). This decision
affects everything in the design and especially the
packaging issues. Not only technical considerations
affect this decision, but cost considerations are also
important at this stage since the major cost component
is said to be the packaging [37]-[38].
Figure 6: Principle sketch of micro system development
process [37].
Drivers of micro product development
The generic development process will vary according to
the specific context of each company [34]. The main
variations are:
Market pull I Product driven: this approach is based on
the existence of a market opportunity. The product and
its functionality is defined on the basis of market needs
and an appropriate technology is found to
customer needs.
Technology push: the starting point here is a core
technology that is mastered. Productslapplications for
this particular technology are then found.
Platform products: here different products are defined
on the basis of the same technology. In the concept
development, one specific technology is assumed.
Process intensive products: characteristics of the
product are highly constrained by the production
process.
Customized products: new products are slight
variations of existing configurations.
Silicon based products can be characterized as primarily
process intensive and platform products. The MEMS
developments are also based on the same technology
pIatfo rm.
It is imperative to introduce into the product development
of micro products the product driven approach. This is
necessary in order to secure market focus but also to
show the direction of development of technology over a
longer period. Technology driven approaches are
especially useful for short and medium term
developments and improvements, whereas the long term
perspective in technology development has to come
from a market pull approach (figure 7).
Technology Known technology , Trends
.
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, plu""L.m j
~ products
Short
term
Figure 7: Interaction between market pull and technology
push.
3.2 Principles for micro product design
The relationship between required functionality of a
micro product and the specifications and final tolerancing
of the components as well as the entire system is a key
step in micro product development. As already illustrated
different approaches in product development can be
found originating from different traditions within different
scientific fields. This also has large consequences
related to design principles.
Functionality
In traditional engineering different design methodologies
exist as for example described in [36] and [39]. Common
to the approaches is that a desired functionality of a
product is analyzed into a logical structure. Functional
models may be defined by decomposing functions into
sub-functions thus relating parts of the functionality to
specific sub-systems (top-down approach). Another
approach would be to compose single parts into an
assembly (bottom-up approach) [40].
In macro sized products, different functionalities
generally are related to different components, which can
therefore be optimized for the specific function with
respect to shape, dimensions, material, etc. When
dealing with micro products the number of components
is often reduced to a minimum and therefore single
components often possess different functionalities. The
extreme case in functionality integration is the monolithic
design, where the micro product is constituted of only
one component, having all the functionalities, with
displacements obtained only through the flexibility of its
features. The integration of different functions on a
meet single component means that the material used for
producing the part has to possess adequate mechanical,
electrical and thermal properties that are often difficult to
obtain in a single material. This leads usually to a
compromise in the choice of materials and to limitations
of the achievable performances and also partially
explains why silicon is widespread as material for micro
products .
When dealing with micro products in general and MEMS
in particular the issue of packaging is central. Packaging
refers to the aspects of physical encapsulation of the
product, its interconnection with the macro world and the
environment in general as well as the actual positioning
and 'stacking' of components. Packaging is of course
central in terms of specifications of the product and the
associated processes, but also in terms of functionality.
If the product cannot be connected to the outside world
(e.g. electrical or mechanical connections) or if it cannot
be used in the intended environments due to lack of
encapsulation the product is not usable. Therefore the
issue of packaging is to be considered already at the
stage of defining the functionality of the micro product.
As stated for example in [37] and [38] the cost of
packaging can be as high as 70% of the total cost of a
MEMS product.
Processlproduct interaction
In any micro manufacturing technology and particularly
in silicon micromachining, the manufacturing sequence
influences the technical performances and quality of the
1, ??? product. Therefore, several constraints due to
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have to be considered while defining a manufacturing
I Product strategies
sequence [41]. Since each process step influences, in
principle, the results of both the previous and the
following process steps the process sequence has to be
Medium Long checked for consistency and incompatibilities must be
term term identified. Eventually this will influence the design
parameters. Accord to [42], the possible constraints
due to incompatib s can be grouped into three
classes.
First the properties of material or functional elements
may be affected by succeeding processes as for
instance twisting or destruction of delicate mechanical
structures due to thermally induced mechanical stresses
or the attack of thin film material by subsequent etching
processes. Solution to these problems might be the use
of alternative materials, the insertion of an additive
process for the creation of a protective coating etc.
The second class comprises the possible negative
influence of the properties of materials and device
geometry processed so far on the quality of succeeding
technology steps. Again, examples are insufficient
adhesion of adjacent thin film layers or inadequate
planarity of layers deposited on top of 3D micro
structures. Possible solutions could be the deposition of
special adhesive layers and application of appropriate
planarization materials respectively.
The third kind of constraints concerns the feasibility of
generating the intended device geometry using the
specified fabrication processes, referring in particular to
the problems related to silicon anisotropic chemical
etching (under-etching of the mask).
In micro products manufacturing, and particularly in
silicon micromachining, the result of a present action
consists not only in its main objective, but reflects also
on the whole process sequence and eventually on the
overall product performances. Thus it becomes difficult
to predict the result of a process sequence due to the
interaction between the process steps, and the
develop ment of micro products becomes excessively
costly. This also is described in [43].
A way to reduce development time and cost is through a
systematic design approach to reach a decoupled
design solution (axiomatic design). In fact, depending on
the sequence of processes and process steps, a MEMS
design can be coupled or decoupled. In many cases
designers are not conscious of the coupled nature of
their design and thus it becomes difficult to identify the
correct changes in the process variables to improve (or
even to obtain) the product performances [26]. Often the
process variables to fabricate MEMS devices are
“randomly optimized”.
The inherent coupling natures of the MEMS processes
would generate many problems in implementing the
design unless a micro product is properly designed by
identifying the forward and backward couplings of the
micromachining processes [26]. Here forward coupling
means the effects of the process variables in the
previous process steps on the design parameters of a
following process step, likewise, backward coupling
refers to the effect of process variables in the following
process steps on the design parameters of a previous
process step. For example, the polarization
characteristics of a thin piezoelectric layer are affected
by the temperatures of the following processes
exceeding 150°C [26].
In their work [26], [27] Kim and Koo present a systematic
approach to the problem of the coupling nature of MEMS
through a design equation between the physical domain
and the process domain like the following:
In equation 1 DPi are design parameters, PVj are
process variables, X and 0 are symbols meaning
dependence and independence respectively of DPi on
PVj. This type of representation of the relations between
design parameters and process variables helps the
designer to be aware of the coupling degree of the
design, distinguishing between forward and backward
coupling, and helping in the decision sequence for the
design parameters.
A decoupled design is characterized by a triangular
matrix. In fact if a triangular matrix is obtained, a decision
sequence about the process variables PVj can be
executed starting from the first process equation (see
equation 2). Then, in the second process equation, only
the value for one process variable has to be determined
to obtain the desired value for the DP2, and no backward
coupling is present since this decision does not affect
the DP of the previous process equation. The decision
sequence continues this way through all process steps
reserving, in each decision step, at least one degree of
freedom for the optimization.
Tolerancing
In the macro world the most frequently occurring
functions of construction elements are the mating
capability, the sliding and rolling capability, the load
rating and different surface finishes. To ensure these
functions the specifications are given in terms of
maximum deviations from an ideal geometric form.
Various I S 0 standards regulate this field in terms of
geometrical product specifications (GPS), e.g . [44]-[46].
Moreover, in conventional machining processes the
specifications of the parts as well as the variables for
adjusting the dimensions and geometry of the
manufactured part are linear dimensions (for instance
the correction to compensate for deflections or tool
wear), which means that the primary closed loop control
is based on linear dimensions. The use and extension of
I S 0 GPS standards to micro components and products
is an important area of research in the future.
In most cases, the technologies used for manufacturing
micro components are quite different than those for
conventional (or macro) components and the integration
of parts in assemblies is obtained in different ways. In
macro mechanics the final product is usually constituted
of several different parts assembled together, requiring
thus that the surfaces of the single parts have to be
manufactured according to the requirements for high
mating capabilities. The production processes in micro
manufacturing are mostly derived from production
methods for micro electronics and precision mechanics
and the integration methods differ substantially from that
for macro mechanics. According to [47] and [48], three
different integration techniques can be distinguished in
micro and nano technology:
Hetero integration: the integration is based on the
same concept as for the macro mechanical assemblies,
and the mating abilities of the surfaces is the higher-level
function of the components. Therefore, geometric
tolerances are required to achieve the functionality of the
assembly.
Hybrid integration: in this category micro components
are placed, fixed and assembled on a substrate,
resulting in fully functioning micro systems. For the
hybrid integration technique, the positional accuracy of
the components on the substrate is the most important
control parameter.
Monolithic integration: in this case, all the process
steps are integrated on one single substrate. This means
that the mating capabilities are no longer required since
there are no components to be mated. According to [47]-
[48] using this approach geometric measurements are
not of primary importance, neither to achieve the
functionality of the product nor to control the production
process .
For monolithic micro products and to some extent also
for hetero integrated micro products, the manipulated
variables and the functionality parameters are no longer
linear or geometric dimensions. In the case of etching
processes the primary manipulated variables for the
approximation to the ideal geometric form are not
geometrical dimensions ([47]-[48]), but process
parameters as for instance composition of the etchant,
etching time etc.
Based on these observations, Weckenmann et al.
suggest a function-oriented tolerancing concept.
According to this concept, a tolerance is associated to
the overall function of the micro component. As the
manufacturing process takes place through the process
steps, the deviation of the characteristics influencing the
functionality from the process target values are detected
and, using the target process values for the process
steps that still have to be realized, the expected
performance data for the final product are calculated. If
the calculated performance deviations are larger than
the product tolerances, the parameters of the currently
active manufacturing step will be corrected, so that the
final product is situated within the expected product
tolerances [47]-[48]. This of course requires that a robust
model of the micro product can be made and applied on
each step of the production.
Packaging of MEMS products
Because of the importance of packaging both in terms of
costs and technological challenges a short discussion on
this issue will be given separately. [37] suggests some
guidelines regarding a systematic approach to
packaging:
Design the MEMS product and the package at the
same time.
Partition the system wisely (how much of the system
electronics is built as a part of the MEMS device?).
Define system interfaces (operating environment,
connections to the outside world etc.).
Create formal design specifications for the overall
device and package concept.
Specify detailed design of device, package and
production processes.
The proposed approach does not guarantee a
successful MEMS product but helps the designer
remember important steps during product development.
3.3 Micro product modelling and analysis
In traditional engineering, product development is
supported by a broad range of tools (CAD, CAE, CAM
etc.). When going into the micro domain, several
challenges appear as to the use of traditional support
tools. These issues comprise size effects of material
micro structure and surface topography [49], integration
of multiple functionalities into one single component and
process conditions (friction, heat etc.).
Design of micro products and micro systems
encompasses several different areas and unlike the
case for VLSI-design, systematic design methods for
micro systems encompassing all design aspects are
lacking. Some of the important aspects include
modelling of functionality, geometrical design, material
selection as well as process selection and sequence. In
the following, examples are given related to these topics.
Modelling of functionality and behaviour
In micro systems technology [37] various modelling
approaches are used. The lumped modelling with circuit
elements uses small sets of electric circuit elements to
represent the behaviour of MEMS devices. Actual
devices of course exist as three-dimensional physical
objects, but their behaviour can often be analysed using
electrical circuits. Simplified device representations can
be extracted and optimisation of the interaction between
electronic and non-electronic components of the micro
system is possible. Modelling of the dynamic behaviour
is done for both linear and non-linear systems. Dynamic
behaviour is also modelled for mechanical systems (e.g.
spring-mass systems). FEM modelling of device
behaviour of course is used and often integrated into
CAD environments.
For other complex systems such as micro fluidics and
micro optics dedicated software for modelling and
optimisation exist.
Topology optimization (geometrical design)
Design of micro system geometries has typically been
based on intuition, scaling of existing designs or trial and
error approaches. A method for the systematic design of
micro system geometries that has gained in popularity in
recent years is the topology optimization method (see
[50]-[53] for an overview). The efficiency of the method is
demonstrated with an example.
A typical MEMS synthesis problem is to come up with a
two-degree-of-freedom device with zero cross-axis
sensitivity for scanning purposes. A possible actuation
principle is electrothermal expansion, i.e. the structure is
heated by Joule's heating in turn causing thermal
expansion. The design problem is sketched in Figure 8a.
The synthesis problem here consists of finding a
scanning mechanism where the scanning head (output
point) moves in the horizontal direction for one electric
input and in the vertical direction for another electrical
input. The optimization problem consists of distributing a
limited amount of material in the design domain such
that the output displacements are maximized, the cross-
sensitivity is smaller than a certain value and the
currents are limited. The optimization problem involves 8
constraints and 8000 design variables (element
densities). The iteration history is shown in Figure 8b.
The two modes of actuation are shown in Figure 8c, and
an actuator built in Nickel (size 500 pm by 400 pm)
which was fabricated and tested at the Technical
University of Denmark is shown in Figure 8d.
CAD tools
Traditional CAD tools used in mechanical engineering
can of course be used for micro products. However, if
these CAD tools are used in combination with FEM tools
various problems arise (se also section 3.4).
The most common technology for micro system
production is silicon micromachining, derived from the
microelectronics industry, which is well known and quite
highly developed. As a process technology matures,
there is need for CAD tools which support the rapid
design of complex devices and at the same time easily
permits non-specialists to get acquainted with their
capabilities. The increasing demand on these
instruments can be compared with the evolution in the
field of digital VLSl systems [54]. Effective CAD tools
should save the designer the numerous time consuming
design iterations, generally needed for developing a new
micro component from the very beginning. Various
commercially available CAD tools exist, but we will try to
describe the characteristics of a CAD tool used for
silicon micro machining.
Buttgenbach et al. [41] have described a CAD
environment for wet chemical etching of silicon, which is
a key technology in silicon micromachining. This tool is
aimed at solving one of the major difficulties of wet
chemical etching of silicon, namely to generate etch
masks which provide a correct transformation of the 2D
layout into the appropriate 2%D or 3D structure. Under-
etching of the mask at convex corners is in fact a
common problem and mask compensation structures
have to be added to the basic mask layout in order to
obtain well defined shapes. For simple geometries,
design rules support the proper dimensioning of
compensation structures. For 3D shapes, in which
complex mask layout have to be derived, the layout
procedure evolves in a time and cost consuming process
based on trial and error [54]. Hence, the integration of a
tool into the CAD environment that automatically derives
the layout from a proposed 3D device description has an
extremely valuable effect on the design process.
The CAD environment described in [41] is based on a
workflow system which integrates the appropriate
software tools and assists the designer through the
product development phase, from the initial design
concept to the realization of the optimized prototype. It
comprises commercially available 3D CAD modeller and
FEM software, a unique mask generation software
based on genetic algorithms and an etch simulator. The
workflow is as follows: A 3D reference model resembling
the intended silicon geometry is generated using the 3D
modeller, and its functional properties are checked with
the FEM software in the multi-physics environment. In
most cases the reference model will need some
modification and again further analysis until an optimal
design is found. Once this is achieved, the mask layout
for the etch process is generated and the mask design is
verified using an etch simulator to reveal the resulting 3D
structure. Again, finite element analysis is carried out to
make sure the functional properties are as requested.
The mask layout synthesis is obtained searching in a
database containing design solutions (mask layouts) by
mean of a 2D genetic algorithm (GA), generating a
population of etching processes (mask layouts and
process parameters) based on a 3D geometric
comparison between the reference model and the
population members. The shape is derived by multiple
Figure 8: Two degree-of-freedom electro-thermo-mechanical actuator synthesis. a) design problem with two electrical
inputs, b) iteration history, c) actuation modes and d) micro fabricated actuator from [50].
3.4 Materials for micro products
The origin of micro technology is the microelectronics
area. Preferred materials therefore are the semi-
conducting materials with silicon as the clear favourite.
As mentioned before the market pull of the IT-sector has
driven the development of both materials and
technologies related to semiconductors in general and to
silicon in particular. On the other hand the more
traditional materials, such as polymers, metals and
ceramics, and their associated manufacturing processes
are well suited for mass production although their use in
micro products today is not so widespread (figure 9).
application of the etch simulator and the iteration
continues until a convergence criteria is fulfilled.
Other CAD tools coupled to specific manufacturing
processes have been reported. In [55] a CAD tool
specifically aimed at products and components
manufactured via electro discharge machining (EDM) is
described. The design environment is parametric and
feature based. Another CAD/CAM tool is described in
[56]. The CAD/CAM tool generates tool paths for simple
shaped tools for the manufacture of complex 3D micro
components taking electrode wear into account.
One of the main criteria regarding a product is the cost
per component or product. Even though a material may
be expensive, the amount of material to be used in a
micro product is usually very small. This opens up new
possibilities in application of materials that would
normally not be an appropriate choice. Combinations of
materials (e.g. multi-layer thin films) furthermore expand
the broad range of material possibilities.
An example of material combinations used for micro
products is metallization of polymers. The realisation of
metallic circuits on polymer bases is crucial to printed
circuit boards (PCBs) and moulded interconnect devices
(MIDs). Consisting of duroplastic or thermoplastic
materials and therefore being isolators themselves, they
can only be metallised by a time and material consuming
process with high environmental impact. Laser activation
for additive metallization is a promising approach that
has been reported in [57]-[58].
cn
F
I I I I
..
3
Silicon Polymers Metals Ceramics
Figure 9: Materials for micro products.
The specific properties of traditional materials often set
limits as to their direct use in micro products. Material
behaviour is often affected by scale effects as a result of
the reduction of dimensions. For instance, the material
micro structure remains unchanged as well as the
surface topography and therefore the response of the
components to external interactions (e.g. mechanical
and thermal loads, electrical inputs, etc.) is affected. In
the following the FEM modelling of MEMS and thereby
the material behaviour is described. Special attention is
given to the size effects.
FEM modelling of MEMS
When products are miniaturized a higher level of
functional integration is often requested, and this may
lead to monolithic solutions. Even though monolithic
integration is not always the only possibility for
realization of micro products it is an important issue to
reduce the number of assembly steps. This means that a
single component might have to incorporate structural
functions, as well as thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical and biological ones. An analysis and
verification of the component cannot be carried out with
a separation of the physical fields covering the different
aspects of its functionality. It has to deal with this
coupled-field multiphysics nature inherent in MEMS. For
this purpose, some FEM codes available on the market
are valuable tools during the design phase of such micro
components (e.g. [41]). Nevertheless, the correctness of
the simulation results is subordinated to the correct
implementation of the material model, which can be
quite different for reduced dimensions due to the so-
called size effects that occur.
Size effects - finite element modelling of materials
behaviour in micro product processing
As regards the mechanical behaviour of metallic
materials, it has been demonstrated extensively by
Geiger et al in [59]-[60] that for copper alloys, the flow
stress is reduced by decreasing specimen dimensions.
This has been proven by tensile and upsetting tests and
it was furthermore noticed that the size effect depends
on the micro structure of the material: the smaller the
grain size the smaller the difference in the flow stress for
fixed ratios of the specimen geometry. In [59] the size
effect on the flow stress is attributed to the increasing
portion of grains lying on the free surface of the
specimen, when the specimen dimensions are reduced.
The assumption made in [59] is that the deformation
behaviour of the surface grains can be approached by
that of single crystals, while the behaviour of the internal
crystals resembles that of polycrystals. Through
comparisons of the FE-simulations with experiments the
reliability of such an approach is proven. The approach
proposed by Geiger is aimed at FE-simulation of forming
processes, but it shows clearly the effect of
miniaturization on the resistance of metallic parts against
the applied loads when plasticization occurs.
4 TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT FOR MICRO
I PRODUCTS
The need for technology in its broadest sense is
imperative in order to support an industrial mass
production of micro products. Manufacturing processes
have to be integrated into a coherent process chain and
special considerations have to be given with respect to
handling, assembly, packaging, quality assurance and
metrology. The development of the microfactory of the
future is a key issue in the discussion of manufacturing
technologies. This chapter describes and discusses a
possible categorisation of technology. Furthermore a
short description of selected different technologies will
be given. Not all technologies can be covered in detail
but it is intended to give an overview of existing
technologies. Joining of materials will not be discussed
in this paper.
Brinksmeier suggests a classification of the different
manufacturing technologies in [30]. The machining of
precision parts and micro structures is subdivided into
two general types of technologies having different origins
(figure 10): Microsystem technologies (MST) and micro-
engineering technologies (MET). MST are qualified for
the manufacture of products of Micro Electro Mechanical
Systems (MEMS) and Micro Opto Electro Mechanical
Systems (MOEMS) including UV-lithography, silicon-
micromachining and LIGA. Micro engineering
technologies (MET) comprise the production of highly
precise mechanical components, moulds and
microstructured surfaces. Typical mechanical processes
employed in this field are diamond machining (e.g.
diamond turning, diamond milling and precision
grinding). Furthermore, manufacturing processes like
Laser Beam Machining, Focused Ion Beam Machining,
Electron Beam Machining and Micro Electro Discharge
Machining are classified as energy assisted processes
[30]. Finally replication methods (e.g. forming, injection
moulding etc.) are suggested in a class of their own.
Figure 10 shows the main groupings of [30]. [30] also
underlines that there can also be an overlap between the
categories.
In the following sections we will describe processes and
production systems based on this categorisation. Each
category will contain an overview of capabilities and
limitations as well as application examples.
Figure 10: Process technologies for machining of
precision parts and micro structures. Inspired by [30].
4.1 Mechanical processes based on material
removal
Cutting processes
Microcutting processes are characterized by mechanical
interaction of a sharp tool with the workpiece material,
causing breakage inside the material along defined
paths, eventually leading to removal of the useless part
of the workpiece in the form of chips. In order to realize
such a process, the tool material must be harder than
the workpiece material and no thermally activated
diffusion has to take place between tool and workpiece
material. Moreover, the tool edge radius must be in the
order of the dimension of the cut thickness or smaller.
Considering dimensions of the machined features in the
order of the tens of pm, desired values for the chip
thickness and consequently the tool edge radius, are in
the order of hundreds of nanometers. Recently, by use
of the molecular dynamics simulation [61]-[64], the
minimum possible thickness of cut has been estimated
to be less than 1 nm for copper and aluminium with a
diamond tool having an edge radius of less than 10 nm.
In these simulations, perfect cutting conditions were
assumed. Monocrystalline diamond is therefore the most
suitable tool material but it implies a limitation as regards
the workpiece materials because of its high chemical
affinity with steel which causes diffusion and
unacceptable wear. Another necessary condition for
microcutting processes is the availability of ultraprecision
machines in order to realize sub-micrometer tolerances
and chip thicknesses. Computer numerically controlled
ultraprecision machines with 5 nm positional accuracy in
different directions have been reported [65], enabling the
manufacturing of micro parts by microcutting.
A major implication of microcutting processes is the
relatively high machining force which influences the
machining accuracy and the practical limit of the
machinable size, due to deflections of tool and
workpiece. Sharpness of the tool edge, namely the value
of the edge radius, critically influences the cutting force.
Tool fabrication is another important issue for the
application of microcutting technology. Sintered carbide
two flutes end mills and drills of 100 pm in diameter are
commercially available, while smaller sizes are still at the
research phase. Adams et al [65]-[66] have produced
micro end mills with 2, 4 and 5 cutting edges of less than
25 pm in diameter and grooving and threading micro
tools with cutting widths of 13 pm in cobalt M42 high
speed steel and C2 micrograin tungsten carbide, using
focused ion beam sputtering. Shaller et al [67] have
produced single edge end mills in hard metal I S 0 K10
by grinding process (diameters 35-120 pm).
Despite some drawbacks, cutting processes show high
flexibility. The electrical properties of the workpiece do
not influence the process, thus plastics and metallic
materials as well as composite materials can be
machined. A typical example is the drilling of holes in
laminated printed circuit boards [4]. On the other hand,
very hard or brittle materials are difficult to machine and
brittle chipping of the workpiece cannot be suppressed
completely. Nevertheless, brittle materials can be cut in
the ductile regime when very small depths of cut are
used, in the order of one tenth of a pm for silicon. Based
on this phenomenon, called ductile-regime cutting,
microdrilling of 6.7 pm in diameter and 10 pm deep
holes as well as 22 pm diameter holes with an aspect
ratio of four in monocrystalline silicon have been
reported by Egashira [68] using an on-the-machine
fabricated tool in cemented carbide. In another work
[69], the same author has reported microdrilling of holes
with a diameter of 10 pm and depth of 20 pm in
borosilicate glass with and without workpiece ultrasonic
vibration. Takeuchi [70] succeeded in machining a 3D
human face in glass of 1 mm in diameter with a surface
roughness (Rmax) of 50 nm.
The most attractive advantage of microcutting
technologies is the possibility to machine 3D micro
structures characterized by high aspect ratios and high
geometric complexity. In [66] machining of linear grooves
in PMMA, brass and aluminium alloy 6061 (width 15 - 20
pm) and 30 pm wide concentric grooves in aluminium
6061 on planar surfaces has been reported. In the same
work also machining of 13 pm helical grooves on
cylindrical workpieces of Al 6061 and PMMA is reported.
The obtained grooves show an average roughness Ra of
less than 0.30 pm for all materials tested. Micromilling of
25 pm width grooves in Al 6061, brass, steel and PMMA
by means of 2, 4 and 5 cutting edges end mills is
described in [65]. Microcutting of steel using tungsten
carbide tools has been investigated in [71] leading to the
fabrication of a complete 3D micro mould for plastics
made of SAE H13, achieving a surface roughness Rz of
0.5 pm (see figure 11).
An important issue in microcutting is burrs removal.
Since the dimensions of the machined parts make
handling after machining difficult, conventional methods
for burr removal are impossible to apply. Therefore
special techniques for burr removal as well as burr free
machining strategies have to be developed. In [67]
methods for removal of burrs from micro structures cut in
brass and stainless steel are described.
Figure 11: Micromilled mould in tool steel SAE H I 3 (left)
and detail of moulded plastic part with ball pen point
(right) [71].
As mentioned above, the applicability of diamond tools is
limited to non-ferrous materials. A promising technique
for machining of steel by diamond tools is the Elliptical
Vibration Cutting [72] which makes use of superimposed
vibrations in two directions with a frequency of
approximately 20 kHz. As the maximum vibrating speed
is set to be higher than the cutting speed, the cutting
takes place intermittently in each cycle of vibration. With
this technique the cutting force is reduced significantly
as for the thermal energy generated and the contact time
between tool and workpiece, leading to less diffusion of
the carbon from the tool into the workpiece.
Grinding
Microgrinding is a material removal technique by means
of mechanical force used both for machining pins and
grooves with small dimensions and for obtaining flat
surfaces with very fine finishing. Due to the very small
obtainable depth of cut, microgrinding is particularly
advantageous for brittle materials which can be mirror
finished. The tool, generally in the form of a wheel, is
constituted of an abrasive and a matrix. As reported by
[73], in order to accomplish smooth surfaces of less than
10 nm peak to valley, the grain depth of cut has to be
kept to less than 100 nm. Two possible approaches to
achieve a very small grain depth of cut are described:
maintaining a small wheel depth of cut using coarse
abrasives or using grinding wheels consisting of very fine
abrasives. The first method requires high precision
machine tools and an accurate dressing of the grinding
wheel. Ultra-precision 4-axes grinding machines with a
maximum resolution of 1 nm for 3-axis linear feeding are
reported in [74] and a prototype ultra-stiff machine tool,
Tetraform C, which produced a repeatable surface finish
of less than 10 nm using 76 pm CBN grit on hardened
bearing steel is reported in [75]. Special techniques for
wheel dressing, as electrolytic in-process dressing
(ELID), have been developed for controlling and
maintaining the desired protrusion of the grains on the
surface of the wheel, enabling mirror finishing of silicon
wafers and other materials as ceramics, ferrite, glass,
steel [76]. As regards the second method, abrasive
pellets composed of ultrafine silica particles of 10 to 20
nm have been obtained applying electrophoretic
deposition [73]. A particular technique is referred to as
Nanogrinding in [77], where diamond abrasive grains are
embedded in a soft tin plate, resulting in a very minimal
grain protrusion. The average surface roughness
obtained with this technique was Ra=l . I 4 nm for A1203-
TIC and Ra=0.79 nm for SIC.
Among the limitations of grinding is the minimum
obtainable tip radius of the tool which is strongly
influenced by the grit size [74]. It determines the
rounding radius when machining concave shapes as V
grooves. Ultrasonic vibrations have been applied to
grinding in order to reduce the grinding force. This has
led to manufacturing of pins in cemented carbides of 11
pm in diameter and 160 pm in length, as well as micro
flat drills of 17 pm in diameter and 100 pm in length [78].
Microgrinding is also applied to surface finish of
thermally sprayed hard coatings [79]. However,
considerably high values of compressive biaxial
subsurface stresses are generated, with a large gradient
in the thickness direction.
Ultrasonic machining
Micro ultrasonic machining (MUSM) is a method derived
from conventional ultrasonic machining, in which a tool
and free abrasives are used. The tool that is vibrated at
ultrasonic frequency drives the abrasive to create a
brittle breakage on the workpiece surface. The shape
and the dimensions of the workpiece depend on those of
the tool. Since the material removal is based on brittle
breakage, this method is suitable for machining brittle
materials such as glass, ceramics, silicon and graphite
[4]. In the earliest works, the vibrations were applied to
the tool, resulting in problems in tool holding and in
machining accuracy. In order to overcome tool holding
problems, the on-the-machine tool preparation was
introduced. In this approach the tool was soldered to the
machine head prior to its preparation, then machined by
wire electro discharge grinding (WEDG) to the desired
dimensions and the subsequent machining of the
workpiece took place on the same machine tool.
However this method prevents measurement of the size
and the shape of the fabricated tool. By means of the on-
the-machine fabrication of the tool, holes in silicon with
20 pm in diameter have been produced [80]. A further
development was the introduction of vibrations applied to
the workpiece instead of to the tool [80]. This has
enabled a better tool holding and the use of a high-
precision spindle mechanism. With this technique, micro
holes of 5 pm in diameter were machined in quartz glass
and silicon, using a tool with diameter of 4 pm and an
abrasive with average grain size of 0.2 pm. Furthermore
a micro hole with diameter 9 pm and an aspect ratio of 4
was realized in quartz glass. A major problem in MUSM
is the high tool wear ratio (referred to in [80] as the ratio
between the length tool wear to the depth of the hole).
Tungsten carbide is used for tool fabrication because it
can be machined into small tools of approximately 0 5
pm and is tough enough to withstand machining load.
However a wear ratio always higher than 0.5 leads to
limitations of the machining efficiency with the
impossibility of machining deep holes or multiple holes
with the same tool. The introduction of sintered diamond
(SD) tools has enabled to overcome the problem, giving
a wear ratio of 0.01 when machining soda glass. A
sequence of 48 micro holes with 22 pm in diameter and
10 pm deep in silicon, as well as machining of 21 pm
diameter 150 pm deep through-holes in soda glass is
reported in [80] using SD tools, achieving an aspect ratio
of up to 7. However, tools in SD are limited to a minimum
diameter of 15 Urn since they are fragile and tend to
break during machining.
4.2 Thermal processes
Laser beam machining
The use of laser technology in processing of materials
for micro products has been reported over the last
decade [9], [24], [81]-[86]. Laser beams are used both to
remove material and to join components. The use of
lasers in micro manufacturing is closely connected to the
characteristics of the laser. The parameters wavelength,
power, pulse duration and pulse repetition rates are the
main parameters to be chosen and controlled. The types
of lasers currently being used for micromachining
applications include C02-lasers, solid state lasers (e.g.
Nd:YAG h=1.06 pm and Titanium Sapphire h=775 nm),
copper vapour lasers (h=578 nm - 61 1 nm), diode lasers
and excimer lasers (h=193 nm - 350 nm) [9]. In the
ClRP keynote paper of 2002 Meijer et al describe the
application of short and ultrashort lasers in material
processing [81]. This description also includes the above
mentioned types of lasers. Depending on type, lasers
can be used for a broad range of materials [81]-[82].
Metals, ceramics, glass, polymers and semiconductors
are as mentioned before the most widely used materials
for micro products and all of these materials can be
processed by one or more laser technologies [81]. See
figure 12 for an example.
Figure 12: Prototypes c . ;tents made of: (a)
bioresorbable polymer, (b) tantalum. Stents produced
using femtosecond laser [81].
Minimum obtainable lateral dimensions are connected to
the wavelength of the laser and the optics used.
Generally speaking smaller wavelengths can produce
smaller structures, but also beam quality and power
density influences the obtainable feature size [81]. In
[83] structures in the sub-pm range are reported.
Excimer lasers can be used to produce extremely small
structures. For example, six lines of written text can be
miniaturized down to the size of a human hair [30].
When lasers are used in connection with mask
projection the pattern of the mask set the limits as to the
obtainable lateral resolutions. Masuzawa et al [24] and
[84] report the use of a 2D mask for manufacturing 3D
structures I cavities by means of an excimer laser (hole
area modulation). Certain issues of this process still
need to be dealt with e.g. non-uniform depth of cavity,
non-vertical walls etc. Two different methods for using
pulsed laser ablation are described in [9]: direct writing
and mask projection. Direct writing is a rather simple
technique with only a limited range of possible features
and a small covered area. Mask projection on the other
hand can produce many types of structures and is
suitable for batch production. However, the presence of
a mask is required.
Ion and electron beam machining
Focused ion beam machining is an alternative way of
machining fine structures and extremely fine details. Ions
from a plasma source are directed and focused onto the
surface where they sputter away material [37]. In this
way also 3D structures can be obtained. Spot sizes in
the order of 10-50 nm are reported in [65]-[66], [87]. In
[88] the focused ion beam process is investigated and
modelled with respect to the machining of polycrystalline
silicon. The material removal rates of the process are
relatively low (of the order of some pm3/s).
Alternatively, electron beam machining can be employed
yielding an even smaller spot size. The electron beam is
used to write on an electron-sensitive film. The basic
techniques are highly developed for IC mask production
and particularly useful for the production of structured
surfaces such as binary optics [89].
The above mentioned technologies are also used for
surface modifications of materials.
Electro discharge machining (EDM)
EDM is based on two electrodes separated from each
other by a dielectric fluid. Two electrodes (one is the tool
and one is the workpiece) are positioned close together
and subjected to a voltage. When sparks are generated
the electrode materials will erode and in this way a
material removal is realised [4]. The process requires the
workpiece material to be conductive, and the hardness
of the material is not critical. EDM is a relatively slow
manufacturing process. Different versions of EDM exist:
EDM die-sinking, wire EDM, EDM drilling, EDM milling
and electro discharge grinding. Micro EDM is employed
in the field of micro-mould making and used for the
production of micro valves, micro nozzles etc. Micro
EDM is used for producing grooves and channels, bore
holes, linear profiles, columns and even complex formed
3D structures (for overview see [4]). The structures are
characterised by being burr free.
In the wire EDM process, thin wires with diameters down
to 0.02 mm are used as electrodes. This process is
primarily used for producing 2D structures and for
manufacturing electrodes.
In the process of EDM die sinking graphite or copper
electrodes are manufactured by mechanical machining,
LIGA-technology or by wire EDM. Electro discharge
grinding is used for electrode fabrication in general. The
manufacture of the electrode is an essential step since it
determines the resulting quality of the manufactured
feature. The tool wear is significant and therefore [91]
proposes to use a simple shaped electrode instead of a
complex and expensive one. By using a layer-by-layer
machining process and relying on the fact that the
electrode shape is recovered under certain process
conditions, the so-called uniform wear method is
developed. CAD/CAM solutions for compensating for
tool wear were already mentioned [55]-[56].
The use of EDM for drilling both blind and through holes
has been reported in [92]-[93]. Hole diameters in the
range of 5 pm to 100 pm are reported. The aspect ratios
lie in the interval 10-20 [93]-[94]. In EDM drilling of holes
the tool is rotated. If the rotation is based on a planetary
movement non-circular holes are produced [93]. This
particular tool movement was reported to improve
p rocess stab iIity .
The use of the EDM principle in conjunction with turning
has been extended by Masuzawa et al in [95]. On this
particular EDM-lathe it is possible to machine coaxial
components with cavities without any mechanical
deformation during processing. The electrode is
fabricated on the same machine on which the
subsequent boring process takes place in order to
assure concentricity and straightness. The electrode is
manufactured using electro discharge grinding (wire or
disc electrode).
4.3 Replication processes
Replication can be realized either by mechanical force
(plastic deformation), solidification or polymerisation.
Casting will not be discussed in this paper.
Forming processes
Forming processes are based on plastic deformation,
without any addition or removal of material. They are
particularly suited for mass production of metallic parts,
due to their well known advantages of high production
rates, minimized or zero metal loss, excellent
mechanical properties of the final product and close
tolerances, making them suitable for near net shape or
even net shape production [6]. Nevertheless, the
applicability of forming processes to the production of
micro parts is somehow limited due to the difficulties in
transferring the deep knowledge existing on the macro-
scale level to the micro-scale level. For forming
processes this challenge starts at the sub-mm level. The
strongest obstacle to the implementation of microforming
processes is the number of effects of miniaturization
observed. The material behaviour is affected by size
effects that occur when scaling down a process from
conventional size to the micro scale. The flow stress,
anisotropy, ductility and the forming limit depend on the
specimen size and the micro structure, which has to be
considered when designing a microforming process.
Additional effects are those concerning the forming
forces, tribology, spring-back, the scatter of the results
and thus the accuracy of the produced parts. Moreover,
as discussed above, miniaturization effects on process
and material behaviour also affect the applicability of
FEM-based simulations for process design and layout
PI.
As regards the material behaviour, Geiger [60] has
demonstrated experimentally by use of tensile and
upsetting tests on geometrically similar specimens of
different dimensions, that the flow stress for copper
alloys decreases with decreasing specimen dimensions.
This effect has been confirmed for different materials [6],
[49]. The decreasing stress can be explained by the so-
called surface layer model presented above. This effect
is present when the deformed area has free surfaces,
and leads to lower process forces relative to the
dimensions. In bending the process force increases
when the sheet thickness is reduced to a value such that
only one grain is located over the thickness [96]-[98].
This is explained by the fact that each single grain in the
deformed area will be deformed according to the shape
of the tool, regardless of its possibly unfavourable
orientation.
The normal mean anisotropy of sheets decreases with
miniaturization leading to a deterioration of the forming
characteristics, because the thickness reduction
increases in deep drawing processes.
By use of the double cup extrusion test of geometrically
similar specimens in copper alloy, according to the laws
of similarity theory, Tiesler [99] has demonstrated an
increase in friction with decreasing specimen size when
a liquid lubricant is used. This behaviour has been
explained by the model of open and closed lubricant
pockets described in [49], [99]-[I 001.
Important applications of micro sheet forming processes
on an industrial base are production of connectors,
contact springs and lead frames by blanking and
bending. In [6] an example of lead frame with 212 leads
made of a sheet of 150 pm in thickness, with a pitch
distance of 168 pm is reported. Further applications of
the blanking process are the shearing of cutting blades
for shavers and punching of holes, e.g. for fuel nozzles
of engines. Today the smallest hole diameter is about 50
pm [6]. Deep drawing and stretch forming are other
micro sheet metal working processes. An application is
the production of cups for electron gun in colour TV sets
PI.
As regards the bulk metal forming area, a major
limitation to miniaturization is that in most of these
processes, a wire has to be cut first in order to produce a
billet of well defined length. Handling and positioning in
the die with high speed and accuracy of a billet of few
milligrams is not trivial. The smallest part known from
industrial applications produced by a multi-stage forming
operation is a copper pin with a shaft diameter of 0.8 mm
and a wall thickness of 125 pm. Miniature screws from a
wire of 0.8 mm in diameter are produced by forming [6].
At the research level, the smallest reported part obtained
by combined full forward cup backward extrusion is a
part having a shaft diameter of 300 pm and a cup wall
thickness of 50 pm [ l o l l . Superplastic extrusion of Al-
78Zn was used to produce gear shafts with a module of
10 pm and a pitch circle of 100 pm [6]. Extrusion of the
amorphous alloy La55A125Ni20 in the supercooled liquid
state has been investigated leading to the production of
micro gear shafts with a module of 50 pm and a pitch
diameter of 500 pm [6]. Embossing technologies of
various metallic materials were investigated using a
monocrystalline silicon tool. Micro structures of 10 pm
with radii of some 100 nm and a surface roughness of 20
nm in aluminium, copper, brass and steel were produced
PI.
Injection moulding
In injection moulding the polymer material is heated and
melted and then forced into the tool cavity using high
pressure. Usually the tool temperature is relatively low
compared to the material. The material solidifies under a
maintained pressure before it is ejected out of the tool. In
micro injection moulding very low shot weights (0.01g)
and even smaller part weights have to be realised. This
requires some modification as to the process as
described in [ I 021-[I 031. Modifications comprise
elevated tool temperatures compared to traditional
injection moulding, a cooling of the tool after material
injection, prior evacuation of the tool etc. Because of the
small parts size many cavities can be implemented into
one tool in this way making the process cost effective.
The tool manufacture is totally relying on manufacturing
technologies that can create the necessary micro
structures (e.g. milling, laser machining, electroforming).
An example of the fabrication of electroformed tool
inserts using electroforming is given in [104].
In [I041 the dependence of the product quality on
process parameters is reported. Well defined micro
structures were produced and the replication quality (tool
insert - produced part) evaluated. Tool temperature was
found to have more effect on product quality than melt
temperature. Holding pressure also influences the
product quality since increased pressure improves
mould filling. It was also concluded that not all polymer
materials are equally good for micro injection moulding.
Micro structures with wall thicknesses of 20 pm,
structural details in the range of 0.2 pm and surface
roughness Rz< 0.5 pm are reported in [102]. Aspect
ratios exceeding 20 are obtainable. Micro products made
in polymers are used for micro optics, micro fluidics and
biological and medical technology. It is possible to
produce 2D, 2%D and 3D micro products by injection
moulding. The main challenge is the manufacture of the
mould.
Micro powder injection moulding of metal and ceramic
based products is reported in [I021 and [105]. With this
technology structural details in the order of 10-50 pm
and aspect ratios of 10-15 can be obtained [ I 021.
4.4 MEMS processes
The manufacturing processes related to the MEMS and
microelectronics fields are based on 2D or planar
technologies. This implies the construction of
components or products on or in initially flat wafers.
Normally, bulk micromachining (processes that etch
deeply into the substrate) are distinguished from surface
micromachining (processes that remove sacrificial
layers) [37]. The number of different fabrication
processes and the derived process variants is huge.
Therefore this paragraph will aim at providing an
overview rather than discussing in detail specific
processes .
The technologies related to silicon machining of course
take their starting point in a prepared wafer. The wafer is
cleaned and oxidised (perhaps locally) and if necessary
doped (introduction of impurities into the semiconductor
crystals to obtain changed material characteristics).
MEMS products and integrated circuits are then formed
by creating patterns in the various layers of the wafer.
Pattern transfer consists of a photographical transfer of
the desired pattern to a photosensitive film covering the
wafer, followed by a chemical or physical process to
remove or add material in order to create the pattern.
This cycle is then repeated until the desired component
has been fabricated. Silicon bonding techniques can
also be utilised to extend the structures produced by
s iIicon micro mach ining techniques into muItiIaye r
structures [37].
Photo lithography is the basic technique used to define
the shape of micromachined structures. Initially a mask
is produced. This will typically be a chromium pattern on
a glass plate. The wafer is then coated with a photoresist
(a polymer sensitive to ultraviolet light). Ultraviolet light is
then projected through the mask onto the photoresist.
When the photoresist is developed the pattern on the
mask is transferred to the photoresist layer. There are
two types of photoresist, termed positive and negative.
Where the ultraviolet light strikes the positive resist it
weakens the polymer, so that when the image is
developed the resist can be washed away. In this way a
positive image of the mask is transferred to the resist
layer. The opposite occurs with negative resist. If a
polymer resist is not strong enough to withstand the
following etch processes, layers of metal or other
materials may be deposited onto the pattern. In the
pattern transfer process systematic errors may be
introduced into the geometry of the micro product [37],
[301.
The subsequent chemical or physical processes are
listed in table 3. The table is split into the two main
categories thin film deposition (creating functional layers
on the silicon substrate) and etching processes
(removing material). The specific sequence of processes
is not given on beforehand, but must be defined by the
designer according to the previous discussions in this
section [37].
4.5 LlGA
The LlGA technology comprises the processes of X-ray
lithography, electroforming and moulding. LlGA enables
the manufacture of micro-components made of non-
silicon materials like plastics, metals and ceramics with
almost any kind of lateral geometry and very high aspect
ratios. For LIGA, in most cases, PMMA is used as resist
material. In X-ray-lithography almost parallel high energy
synchrotron rays enable the manufacture of very deep
structures (up to 1000 pm depth, lateral dimensions
down to 0.2 pm, surface quality Ra 0.3 nm) with almost
 Thin film deposition Etching
(add itive processes) (material removal)
CVD Wet etching
Atmospheric Isotropic wet etching
pressure Anisotropic wet
Low pressure etching (single
Plasma enhanced crystal)
Dry etching
Vapour phase
e pitaxy Vapour etching
pvJ Plasma etching
Vacuum evaporation Reactive ion etching
Molecular beam
e pitaxy
Sputtering
Electrochemical
deposition
Elect roplat ing
Electroless plating
Spin-on deposition
Table 3: Thin film deposii ‘n techniques and etching
techniques.
vertical and very smooth side walls (aspect ratios from
50 to 500) [8]. If UV light or lasers are used instead of X-
rays, less impressive resolutions and aspect ratios are
obtained at a relatively lower cost. When these
structures are produced in polymers, the exposed
structured areas can be filled by electroplating with Figure 13: Fabrication sequence of AFM cantilever in
different metals like nickel, gold, copper or certain alloys. Nickel (top). SEM of all-metal cantilever, tip and support
Once the PMMA is dissolved, metallic micro structures (length 200 pm, width 30 pm, thickness 4 pm) [106]-
are left. The metal structures produced can be the final [107].
product (see figure 13) [I21 and [106]-[107], however it is
According to [log], the main reasons for miniaturization
common to produce a metal mould. This mould can then
be used for injection moulding [104]. This technology is of machine tools are decrease of heat deformation of
machine tools with decrease of their sizes, decrease of
also used for fabrication of tools for embossing or
coining of polymers, although the development of new material consumption for machine tool manufacturing
(more expensive material with better properties can be
plateable alloys with improved thermal and mechanical
properties are necessary if temperatures increase above used), decrease of vibration amplitudes and decrease in
space and energy consumption. Efforts in this direction
400°C.
have been addressed within a Japanese research
4.6 Micro fabrication systems project. This has led to the realization of a
desktoplportable machining micro factory [ I 101-[I 1I ]
Micro factory which consists of a lathe, a milling machine, a press, a
Micro factory is a concept that has been introduced transfer arm and a two fingered hand (figure 14). This
recently referring to extreme miniaturization of a portable micro factory is 625 mm long, 490 mm wide and
manufacturing system. Reviewing a conventional factory 380 mm high and weighs approximately 34 kg. It
and comparing the size of the facilities and products, it is functions entirely stand-alone requiring a single IOOV AC
immediately found that facilities, such as machine tools power source [112]. It uses three miniature CCD
or manipulators, are much larger and heavier than the cameras mounted on each machine tool, which display
products to be manufactured. The facilities occupy a the image of a machined part on a monitor. This micro
large space and consume much energy although the factory can machine and assemble miniature parts; ball
product is far smaller [108]. This consideration is much bearings with a diameter of 0.9 mm were actually
more valid when dealing with micro parts fabrication. produced [108].
Moreover, micro parts often require special working A rough cost analysis reported in [I091 regarding the
environments for their manufacturing, handling and advantages of micro factory creation in regard to
assembly, as for example clean rooms or vacuum component cost shows that the impact savings in
chambers. The maintenance of such working conditions energy, space and use of material, is not that significant
is also quite costly and energy consuming. These factors when small machine tools are made of very expensive
are directly related to the volume of the manufacturing devices and components. Therefore they propose the
system. If the facilities could be miniaturized while realization of micro machine tools as a sequential
maintaining the manufacturing capability, it would result generation of micro equipment with decreasing
in a dramatic reduction of space and energy required for equipment sizes as a result of each step. With this
the factory [108]. The environmental impact would also approach, a first generation micromachining centre with
be reduced by a miniaturization of the factory. dimension of 130 x 160 x 85 mm has been produced
Local clean room zones within a ‘not-clean’ environment [109].
can be a solution in some cases. For wafer processing
large clean room areas are usually constructed.

Figure 14: Micro factory [ I 121.
A fundamental issue for micro factory realization is the
achievement of complete process integration. Process
integration in micro parts fabrication is possible only if
either different processes (or process steps) are
performed with a single positioning, or manipulation of
micro parts with pm or nm accuracy is obtained. An
increasing level of process integration is also required as
the production volume of new products increases,
changing from prototype manufacturing at the beginning
of the product-life-cycle to an automatic or semi-
automatic production in the following phases.
Handling, assembly, packaging
Although a high level of product integration has been
regarded as a positive factor for development of micro
products, there are two main drawbacks of this
approach. The first is that silicon micromachining
techniques are essentially 2D or 2%D, and therefore it is
difficult to create any arbitrary real 3D micro part. The
second drawback relates to the fact that manufacturing
steps in an integrated object influences each other due
to coupling effects (as discussed in section 3). Hence a
trade off between product performance and product
integration level has to be accepted. For these reasons
manipulation and assembly of micro components is still
required.
Micro manipulation is broadly classified into contact type
and non-contact type, whilst the manipulation
environment is classified as air, liquid or vacuum [ I 131.
Contact type manipulation can be realized by means of
mechanical grippers, adhesive grippers, vacuum
grippers, ultrasonic travelling waves or distributed
micromotion systems as arrays of small simple actuators
(cilia arrays). Non-contact type manipulation uses
physical properties of the components involving electric
fields, magnetic fields, or aerostatic levitation induced by
a controlled air flow. A fascinating alternative is that of
optical trapping, which makes use of the optical pressure
that occurs when light is refracted, absorbed or reflected
by an object [7].
Manipulation and assembly of micro parts is an issue
facing new problems that were not encountered in
conventional size production. Grasping and releasing
are not trivial operations anymore because of the strong
influence of the surface forces. Air cleanness can
critically influence the quality of the assembly. According
to [114], the main problems can be summarized as
fo Ilows :
Tolerance problems: as a consequence of the high
precision of the miniaturized components, only
except ionally small joining tolerances are permissible .
The necessary assembly accuracy, depending on the
application, lies between 0.1 and 20 pm.
Force problems: with the reduction of product
dimensions , surface forces (electrostatic forces, surface
tension forces and van der Waals forces) become
dominating over the gravity force. This may cause the
part to behave in an uncontrolled manner (i.e. sticking of
the micro part to the gripper or repulsion of the micro
part so that grasping is impossible). These surface
forces can also be used as working principle for handling
of micro parts. Moreover, when contact manipulation is
used, the forces exerted by the manipulator on the part
could produce damage.
Interference factors: vibrations, temperature changes or
contamination can lead to positioning errors or have an
adverse effect on product quality.
Variety of models: miniaturized products are produced in
a large number of different models; therefore micro
assembly systems must be flexible.
Approaches to the solution to the above mentioned
general problems are described in [ I 141. Tolerance
problems can be overcome by minimizing handling
tolerances through shortening the tolerance chain.
Furthermore compensation of handling tolerances can
be achieved by use of compliant systems that generate
a compensatory movement (on the basis of contact force
or positional measurement). Force problems mainly
arise during gripping and joining operations. These could
be overcome by use of non-contact manipulation
systems. The adhesion forces can be reduced following
the suggestions outlined in [7].
In order to reduce the influence of interference factors,
handling and assembly of micro parts must be carried
out in clean rooms or local clean areas. The wide range
of models requires flexibility of the assembly system
through modular design which uses product specific
interchangeable system components.
The micro manipulation accuracy of conventional robots
is mechanically limited since influence parameters such
as fabrication defects, friction, thermal expansion or
computational errors play an important role in the micro
world. Furthermore these robots are subjected to
mechanical wear and must undergo regular
maintenance and calibration which make them
expensive [7]. A new concept for micro robots has been
introduced by Fatikow [ I 151. The robots are 50 to 80 mm
in size, stand on piezoelectric legs and move based on
the stick-slip principle. This allows very fine resolutions
down to 10 nm and speeds up to 30 mmls [7]. Precision
positioning 3 DOF micro robots consisting of three piezo
elements for thrusting and three electromagnets for
clamping are reported in [ I 161. The two robots, one with
a Y construction and the other with a A construction,
weigh 60 g and 40 g respectively and have linear
displacement resolutions down to 200 nm and rotational
resolution down to 50 prad.
Besides the contact and non-contact manipulation, self-
assembly is very attractive. Self-assembly is defined as
the spontaneous organization of molecules or objects
into stable aggregates under equilibrium conditions
[ I 171. The majority of processes of this type use fluidic
transport of the micro components to put them in place
on a substrate. Using photolithographic techniques,
binding sites are prepared on the micro parts and
receptor sites are made on the target substrate where
the parts are to be assembled [ I 171. When a binding site
on a micro part interacts with a receptor site on the
substrate, there is a certain probability of attachment. An
important consideration then regards yield since it is
difficult to obtain 100% of the parts assembled correctly
on the substrate with a process that is probability driven.
Nevertheless in [ I 171-[I 181 self-assembly using capillary
forces is successfully employed for assembly of single
crystal silicon micro mirrors onto su rface-micromach ined
actuators for adapt ive-opt ics a ppIicatio n .
Solder self-assembly of MEMS is a folding technique
which allows mass manufacturing of assembled 3D
structures on the basis of 2D structures using the
surface tension properties of molten solder or glass as
the assembly mechanism. The solder method involves
the use of a standard hinged plate with a specific area
metallised as solder wettable pads. Once the solder is in
place, it is heated to its melting point and the force
produced by the natural tendency of liquids to minimize
their surface energy pulls the free plate away from the
silicon substrate [ I 191. Solder self-assembly of 300 pm
square plates is common in the electronics assembly
and packaging. Investigation on further miniaturization of
this method has been presented in [ I 191.
While pick-and-place assembly techniques are “serial”
operations, so that one component at a time is
man ipuIated , “para IIe 1” tech niq ues such as se If-assem bIy
allow simultaneous manipulation of hundreds or
thousands of components. Therefore they appear
particularly suited for mass production, even though
yield and applicability are often limited.
On-the-machine assembly is a smart assembly method
that avoids the loss of information on the position of a
micro part connected to dismounting it from the machine
on which it is produced. The idea suggested by Langen
et al. [120], as applied to production and assembly of
EDM machined parts, is to produce the tool, machine the
product and assemble it on the same machine, without
repositioning.
Packaging of micro systems regards realization of those
complementary parts that allow the micro system to
interact with the environment, protecting it from damages
and disturbances to the working principle of the core part
and enabling easy handling of the whole micro system. It
is not a negligible matter, since it involves from 20% to
95% of the cost of a micro device. The package size
often reduces dramatically the benefits of micro devices.
Moreover, the interaction of the active part of a micro
product with its package can be critical to the
performances of the device itself. In a pressure sensor
for example, different coefficients of thermal expansion
between a piezoelectric film coated silicon membrane
and the substrate, on which it is fixed, induce thermally
dependent stresses on the piezoelectric film affecting the
overall response of the device.
In [38] three levels of MEMS packaging are
distinguished:
Die level, which the example refers to and regards
the connection of the functional part onto a
substrate;
Device level, which regards die bonding, wire
bonding dielsignal transduction, interconnect;
System level, regarding integration of MEMS
devices with primary conditioning circuitry.
This particular characteristic of a micro product is
therefore not only a technological problem (‘how do we
do it?’) but a product development and design issue.
Quality assurance and metrology
As with macro-scale engineering and production, the key
to the successful manufacture of micro scale devices
and products is proper process control. Without this
control the fraction of useable devices will be low
resulting in higher costs per product. Functional tests of
micro products are important to determine product
performance. This implies dynamic testing under various
operating conditions and the simultaneous monitoring of
product performance.
As already discussed process control in connection with
micro products manufacture is not necessarily based on
dimensional relationships between product geometry
and process parameters for single process steps.
Dimensional metrology is fundamental to understanding
and controlling production processes at the pm and nm
level. However, while the metrology and standards
infrastructure exists in traditional manufacturing
industries, the need for traceable metrology of micro-
scale components and devices has not been given the
attention it urgently needs [121]. Moreover, in the case of
smal I product dimensions , the ratio between surface
area and dimensions causes metrological problems. As
product dimensions become smaller, the ability to
distinguish between surface and linear dimension
becomes more difficult.
Instrumentation for dimensional and geometrical
metrology in micro and nano technology is not as
developed as on the macro scale. Scanning probe
microscopes can achieve nm accuracies but only with a
limited measuring range. Strong efforts have been put
into establishing traceability of scanning probe
microscopes. The NlST Molecular measuring machine
(M3) has nm-accuracy for a point-to-point measurement
over a 50x50 mm2 area [122]. Still the vertical range is
limited to 5 pm. Another instrument reported in [I231
combines the flexibility of the CMM with the high
resolution of the AFM, and based on stitching algorithms
allows for measurement of surface areas exceeding the
range of the AFM.
There is a need for instruments capable of measuring
real 3D micro products. The challenges include high
accuracy probing systems capable of gripping geometry
information in three dimensions. Among the reported
developments are found:
Combined optical and x-ray interferometer ([124]). Long
range (1 mm) combined with the excellent resolution of
the x-ray interferometer.
Small scale CMM developed by NPL ([124],[125]).
Range X, Y, Z 50 mm and measurement uncertainty of
50 nm.
pCMM. Developed by PTB ([33], [126]-[127]). Range 25
mm X 40 mm X 25 mm with measurement uncertainties
of 3D coordinates below 0.1 pm. Probing system based
on a specially developed opto-tactile micro-probe.
Standardisation in the field of micro technology is
required if some sort of unified language has to be
developed. Input from both the MEMS-world and the
precision engineering world are necessary in order to
define common guidelines regarding tolerancing,
measuring instruments as well as measurement and
Calibration met hods.
5 PRODUCT MANUFACTURE
The main product characteristics or design parameters
(i.e. material, size, geometry, layout) in combination with
the required production volume and associated
production cost are the key decision criteria when
choosing an appropriate production setup and process
sequence. In the previous sections we have described
some of the manufacturing techniques for production of
micro components. It is seen from this description that
some products can be manufactured using one single
manufacturing method, other products by more than one
method, while many (or most of them) only can be
manufactured using one or some alternative
combinations of different methods. This shows the
importance of considering the synergies of different
micro manufacturing technologies in order to expand the
range of manufacturability.
What characterizes the manufacturing of micro products
is that the required addlremoval of material is very small.
On one hand this is a problem, since it makes the
application of some conventional technologies difficult or
even impossible. On the other hand it is a great
advantage, since many new technologies become
available, while some of the conventional ones still show
potentials that lead to think they can be developed to fit
the micro world. This opens new possibilities as regards
the process sequences and process combinations, and
makes different suitable alternatives available .
The definition of a process sequence is mostly an
iterative process, since it often involves questions
regarding the design of the product and therefore it
merges with the product design phase. This is the base
of concurrent engineering where decisionldesign
regarding product, processes, assembly and packaging
are carried out simultaneously.
The outline of the process sequence and the evaluation
of the possible alternatives is a critical step in high tech
new micro products. Due to the trend in Microsystems
Technology to develop products based on a specific
technology platform, industries are normally somehow
limited in the number of alternatives.
The performance of manufacturing technologies, pushed
to the limit of their capability, is another peculiar
characteristic of micro manufacturing. Often the
realization of a product is made possible only through a
small improvement of a method that was already at the
border of its capabilities. Therefore it is expected that the
absolute reliability of the process falls on a lower level if
pushed beyond this border. The reliability of the
manufacturing method is a critical parameter. If a reliable
method is used and nearly all components can be used,
the costs are reduced in comparison to methods where a
high percentage of non-usable products are generated.
The combination of technologies involved in the
production of a micro product is often not very apparent,
but if we look at the “complementary” necessary
conditions for producing a micro product, a framework
for discussion is established. The main complementary
necessary conditions that distinguish micro from macro
can be listed as follows:
wo rkpiece mate riaIlsubst rate preparation
availability of tools
machining of prototypeslmasters
functional coatings
assembly and packaging solutions
quality assurance methods
6 CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
The initial questions presented in the introduction were:
How do we design micro products?
How do we manufacture micro components?
These questions have determined the philosophy and
the structure of the paper. After discussing definitions of
micro products and micro engineering the presentation
aimed at describing typical issues, possibilities and tools
regarding design of micro products. The implications of
the decisions in the design phase on the subsequent
manufacturing processes are considered vital. Finally,
manufacturing and assembly of micro products as well
as the philosophy of micro factories were shortly
presented.
The approach to development of micro products is far
from systematic. After a look into the subject, we believe
many benefits will come from applying a systematic
approach in the field of micro engineering. Therefore the
concept of ‘micro product’ must be clearly characterized
in order to clarify its essential usefulness. Moreover,
architectures of micro products need to be defined and
classified for effective integration of macro-micro-nano
principles. Alternative architectures could thus be
evaluated easily, saving time in the design phase.
Standardization of product architectures will give further
benefits in this direction.
Integration of product and process development is
essential, because new processes enable new product
concepts, and also because a better optimization of
product-process interaction can be achieved. Systematic
design methods are important, because functional
behaviour of micro products is hard to predict. Top down
design methodologies are therefore expected to be
effective approaches.
Consideration of the peculiar material behaviour at
micro-nano scale is fundamental for the success of the
design, and effective and realistic material models must
be implemented in the productlprocess analysis tools
(CAD tools).
As discussed above, tolerancing of micro components
needs to be clearly defined in its philosophy and
principles; applicability of I S 0 GPS standards to micro
products is currently being discussed.
Standardization would also be effective in the area of
assembly and packaging. Standard features
incorporated in the majority of micro parts would allow an
optimization of assembly systems and improve
assemblability through a reduction of time and cost
required for developing a customized microassembly line
and an increased flexibility of the assembly line itself.
The integration of processes into a continuous process
chain is necessary for realisation of a micro product. The
process chain should be chosen considering possible
alternatives and optimised in order to avoid coupling
effects. Micro factory is a real possibility for a
sustainable development of technologies for
manufacture of micro products.
To realize the promising perspectives of micro
technology it is very important that:
both the product driven and technology driven
approach are used.
in the product driven approach methodologies and
principles in design of micro products must be
developed - both related to next generation of
products and future generations.
in the technology driven approach a continuous
development of materials and processes is
promoted supporting the new design principles.
New design principles as well as improved materials and
technologies are necessary to realize the industrial
potentials which are linked to mass production principles
and low cost.
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank to the following persons
who have contributed to this paper (CIRP members
denoted by *):
Professor J. Meijer*
Professor A. Weckenmann*
Professor H. Kunzmann*
Professor E. Brinksmeier*
Professor R.J. Hocken*
Professor G. Reinhart*
Professor Zaeh
Professor K. Weinert*
Professor M. Geiger*
Professor U. Engel
Dr. G. Esser
Professor H. Weule*
Dr. H. Tritschler
Dr. P.T. Tang
Dr. R. Leach
Professor 0. Sigmund
Dr. L. Shu
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