2

Chapter 1 - The Basis of Canola Yields

1. Canola Yields
o Photosynthesis
o Essential Plant Growth Factors
o Crop Production Factors
o Average Canola Yields
o Summary
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Principle of Limiting Factors
o Figure 2. Crop Production Factors
o Figure 3. Yield Components of Canola
o Figure 4. Production Factor Interaction
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Average Canola Yields by Area (1990 - 2000)

Chapter 1 - The Basis of Canola Yields

Canola Yields

Canola plants convert the sun's energy into materials required for their growth by a
process called photosynthesis. Canola crop yields ultimately depend on the ability of the
plant to carry on photosynthesis. Photosynthesis must be maximized to achieve high
yields. Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis and ultimately crop yields, include:

 available water
 fertilizer practices
 variety selection
 seeding rates
 seeding depths
 weeds
 pest control

Photosynthesis

Chlorophyll, a substance in green plant cells, is capable of absorbing sunlight energy

and through a complex process converts this light energy into food materials for the
plant. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air plus water (H2O) from the
soil are used by the chlorophyll of green cells in the presence of light energy to produce
a carbohydrate or glucose sugar (C6H12O6) and release oxygen (O2) and water (H2O). In
chemical symbols, the balanced photosynthetic equation is:
 3

The plant uses the glucose in combination with nutrients from the soil for growth and
development. Nutrients are essential for photosynthesis to occur. However, carbon
dioxide is the main ingredient in the process. Over 90% of the plant's dry weight is
composed of carbon dioxide products. Nutrients taken up from the soil account for the
other 10%. Plants require nutrients for the synthesis of more complex products that
make up the plant's body. These products are:

 other sugars
 proteins
 fats and oils
 cellulose
 vitamins
 organic compounds
 lignin

Essential Plant Growth Factors

Plants depend on their environment to provide them with basic necessities for
photosynthesis. These essential plant growth factors include:

 light
 heat
 air
 water
 nutrients
 physical support

If any one factor, or combination of factors, is in limited supply, plant growth will be
adversely affected. The importance of each of the plant growth factors and the proper
combination of these factors for normal plant growth is best described by the principle
of limiting factors. This principle states: "The level of crop production can be no greater
than that allowed by the most limiting of the essential plant growth factors." The
principle of limiting factors can be compared to that of a barrel having staves of
different lengths with each stave representing a plant growth factor (Figure 1).
 4

Figure 1. Principle of Limiting Factors

The barrel cannot hold anything above the height of the shortest stave (the most
deficient or limiting factor). In other words, if most factors are ideal for crop
production, yields will be held down by the one factor in least supply. A nutrient is the
limiting factor in the illustrated barrel. Only by increasing the length of the shortest
stave (adding the nutrient) can the 102 yield be raised to the full yield potential. If the
plant growth factor in least supply cannot be controlled, for example, air temperature, it
will limit the maximum yield.

Crop Production Factors

Canola yield and quality depend upon the essential growth factors and the many
interrelated soil, plant, environmental and agronomic factors or variables. Within this
system some of these factors cannot be controlled; others can be controlled and are
manageable. Both production factors are shown in Figure 2.
 5

Figure 2. Crop Production Factors

Consider production factors in light of their effect on photosynthesis. For example, any
one or more of the plant growth factors moisture, nutrients, light, oxygen and carbon
dioxide, which are essential for photosynthesis, may be in short supply at any time
during development of the plant. A production factor like weeds will reduce the supply
of these growth requirements. For example, weeds reduce light by shading or using up
soil moisture, soil oxygen and nutrients that would otherwise be available to the crop.
Control of weeds removes the limitations and photosynthetic efficiency is increased.
However, weed control by tillage or herbicides may adversely affect other production
factors.

Canola yield is the product of the components in Figure 3.

 6

Figure 3. Yield Components of Canola

Each canola yield component is greatly influenced by agronomic practices and the
environment. Sunlight is rarely a limiting factor in obtaining high yields. Factors such
as moisture, temperature, soil fertility, soil texture, soil structure, weeds, insects and
diseases are usually responsible for a crop's inability to reach potential yield. For
example, the number of plants per unit area is influenced by:

 seeding rate
 seeding depth
 seeding date
 fertilizer placement
 seedbed moisture
 seed treatment
 variety
 air temperature
 seedbed soil temperature
 soil texture
 soil type
 pH, tillage
 soil surface residue cover
 disease pressure
 soil oxygen

All production factors are interdependent; if one factor is changed, many other factors
can be affected. A positive interaction occurs when the growth response of two or more
production factors used together is greater than the sum of their individual growth
responses. There is an addon effect. Research has shown many positive interactions
between production factors. In average-yield fields, these interactions still occur but at
lower levels than in high-yield fields where they are very significant. Figure 4 illustrates
that when production factors B, C and D are optimized and implemented, yields
increase and larger quantities of fertilizer could be used more effectively.
 7

Figure 4. Production Factor Interaction

Crop production is a system in which all factors are integrated or brought together in
balance with one another. An integrated system will be efficient, allowing for leastcost-
per-unit canola production.

In most cases, yields are not likely to be increased by a single management factor. To
achieve crop yield potential understand, recognize and remove the limitations of as
many factors as possible. Do not become discouraged by the failure of a single change
to increase yield but search out the factors limiting yield and modify them. It is
frequently difficult to separate out the individual production factors as they are masked
by the numerous positive interactions between fertility and other inputs or
environmental factors. For example, yields may be successfully increased by greater use
of fertilizer but only if:

 the soil requires it

 moisture is adequate
 the crop is planted at optimum date, rate, depth and distribution
 weeds are controlled
 other production factors are favourable

An increase or modification in one input factor, which may appear to have a potential
for increasing yields, without considering the other inputs, may not by itself result in an
increase in yield. Frequently there will be a compromise between factors within the
system. Direct seeding can produce better seedbed soil moisture but cooler soil
temperatures may result. Using direct seeding can increase the seedling blight potential.
Tillage may control weeds but can produce a drier seedbed which can reduce
germination potential.
 8

Recognize major limitations of soil and climatic factors and manage the factors that can
be adjusted to increase crop yield. If all manageable crop production factors are at
optimum, only the uncontrollable soil and climatic factors will limit yield.

Average Canola Yields

Average yields across western Canada vary somewhat due to differences in soil and
climatic factors. Table 1 shows average yields in major canola production regions from
1990-2000. These average yields are low. In each of the regions, there are individual
growers who, with the same soil and climate limitations as their neighbours,
consistently achieve yields in the 2,200 to 2,800 kg/ha (40 to 50 bu/ac) range. Grower
surveys have shown that canola yields are not limited so much by soil and climatic
limitations as they are by failure to apply, modify and adapt crop production factors into
an integrated system.

Table 1. Average Canola Yields by Area (1990-2000)

Average Yield
Region/Crop District
kg/ha bu/ac

Manitoba

Eastern 9,10,11 1,233 22.0

South-Western and Central 1,2,3,7,8 1,278 22.8

Western 4,5,6,12 1,295 23.1

Saskatchewan

Eastern 1A,1B,5A,5B,8A 1,160 20.7

Central 2B,6A,6B,8B,9A 1,171 20.9

Western 7A,7B,9B 1,216 21.7

Alberta

Southern 1,2,8 1,323 23.6

Northern 4A,4B,5 1,306 23.3

Peace Region 7 1,177 21.0

British Columbia

Peace Region 964 17.2

 9

Source: Statistics Canada

Individual growers have reported exceptional yields of 4,500 kg/ha (80 bu/ac). This
indicates the potential yield increases that are possible when conditions are ideal. The
growers who consistently obtain high yields pay careful attention to practices that will
meet the crop's requirements for maximum photosynthesis at all its growth stages.

Summary

A high rate of photosynthesis is essential for consistently high yields. Photosynthesis is

influenced by many crop production factors interacting within a system. The question
growers must ask is "How can I maintain photosynthesis at the highest level through the
proper combination of production factors?" A high yield can only be achieved when a
proper combination of plant, soil, environmental and agronomic practices are obtained
in the production system. Yields may be increased most efficiently if each input or each
crop production practice is considered in light of how it works within a system and
affects photosynthesis. A knowledge and ability to recognize and emphasize the
positive production factors that increase photosynthesis will achieve high canola yields.

References

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development and yield of different varieties of oilseed rape. J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.)
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analysis of the growth of oilseed rape. J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 77:339-341.

Brar, G. and Thies, W. 1977. Contribution of leaves, stem, siliques and seeds to dry
matter accumulation in ripening seeds of rapeseed, Brassica napus L. Z.
Pflanzenphysiol. Bd. 82:1-13.

Bouttier, C. and Morgan, D.G. 1992. Development of oilseed rape buds, flowers and
pods in vitro. Journal of Experimental Botany 43:1089-1096.

Bouttier, C. and Morgan, D.G. 1992. Ovule development and determination of seed
number per pod in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Experimental Botany
43:709-714.

Campbell, D.C. and Kondra, Z.P. 1977. Growth pattern analysis of three rapeseed
cultivars. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:707-712. Campbell, D.C. and Kondra, Z.P. 1978.
Relationships among growth patterns, yield components and yield of rapeseed. Can. J.
Plant. Sci. 58:87-93.

Chongo, G. and McVetty, P.B.E. 2001. Relationship of physiological characters to

yield parameters in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 81:1-6.

Clarke, John M. 1979. Intra-plant variation in number of seeds per pod and seed
weight in Brassica napus 'Tower'. Can. J. Plant Sci. 59:959-962.

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1978a. Growth analysis of Brassica napus cv.
Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58:587-595.
 10

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1978. Influence of irrigation and seeding rates on
yield and yield components of Brassica napus cv. Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58:731-737.

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1979. The application of a curvefitting technique to
Brassica napus growth data. Field Crops Res., 2:35-43.

Daniels, R.W., Scarisbrick, D.H. and Smith, L.J. 1986. Oilseed rape physiology. In:
Scarisbrick, D.H. and Daniels, R.W. (eds) Oilseed Rape. Collins, London, Pp:83-126.

Diepenbrock, W. and Geisler, G. 1979. Compositional changes in developing pods

and seeds of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) as affected by pod position on the plant.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 59:819-830.

Eisikowitch, D. 1981. Some aspects of pollination of oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.).
J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 96:321-326.

Evans, E.J. 1984. Pre-anthesis growth and its influence on seed yield in winter oilseed
rape. Aspects of Applied Biology 6:81-90.

Freyman, S., Charnetski, W.A. and Crookston, R.K. 1973. Role of leaves in the
formation of seed in rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 53:693-694.

Good, A.G. and Maclagan, J.L. 1993. Effects of drought stress on the water relations
in Brassica species. Can. J. Plant Sci. 73:525-529.

Henry, J.L. and MacDonald, K.B. 1978. The effects of soil and fertilizer nitrogen and
moisture stress on yield, oil and protein content of rape. Can. J. Soil Sci. 58:303-310.

Jung, G.A. and Shaffer, J.A. 1993. Planting date and seeding rate effects on
morphological development and yield of turnip. Crop Sci. 33:1329-1334.

Kjellstrom, C. 1993. Comparative growth analysis of Brassica napus and Brassica

juncea under Swedish conditions. Can. J. Plant Sci. 71:795-801.

Krogman, K.K. and Hobbs, E.H. 1975. Yield and morphological response of rape
(Brassica campestris L. cv. Span) to irrigation and fertilizer treatments. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 55:903-909.

Major, D.J. 1977. Analysis of growth of irrigated rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:193-197.

Major, D.J., Bole, J.B. and Charnetski, W.A. 1978. Distribution of photosynthates
after 14CO2 assimilation by stems, leaves, and pods of rape plants. Can. J. Plant Sci.
587:783-787.

McGregor, D.I. 1981. Pattern of flower and pod development in rapeseed. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 61:275-282.

Mendham, N.J., Rao, M.S.S. and Buzza, G.C. 1991. The apetalous flower character
as a component of a high yielding ideotype. Proceedings of the eighth International
Rapeseed Congress. Saskatoon. Pp:596-600.
 11

Mendham, N.J. and Salisbury, P.A. 1995. Physiology - crop development, growth and
yield. In: Kimber, D.S. and McGregor, D.I. (eds) Production and Utilization of Brassica
Oilseeds. CAB International, Oxford. Pp:11-65.

Mendham, N.J. and Scott, R.K. 1975. The limiting effect of plant size at inflorescence
initiation on subsequent growth and yield of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). J. Agric.
Sci., Camb. 84:487-502.

Mendham, N.J., Shipway, P.A. and Scott, R.K. 1981. The effects of seed size,
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Mendham, N.J., Shipway, P.A. and Scott, R.K. 1981. The effects of delayed sowing
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Morrison, M.J. Stewart, D.W. and McVetty, P.B.E. 1992. Maximum area, expansion
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Pechan, P.M., Bashford, J.A. and Morgan, D.G. 1980. The use of radiography in
studies of pod growth in oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 95:25-
27.

Pechan, P.A., and Morgan, D.G. 1985. Defoliation and its effects on pod and seed
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Rao, M.S.S. and Mendham, N.J. 1991. Soil-plant-water reloations of oilseed rape
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 12

Smith, L.J. and Scarisbrick, D.H. 1990. Reproductive development in oilseed rape
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Williams, I.H., Martin, A.P. and White, R.P. 1987. The effect of insect pollination on
plant development and seed production in winter oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). J.
Agric. Sci., Camb. 109:135-139.

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502.
 13

Chapter 2 - Canola Varieties

1. Canola Varieties
o Brassica Species and Relatives
o History of Canola in Canada
o Argentine Type (B. napus)
o Polish Type (B. rapa)
o Canola Quality B. juncea
o Variety Development
o Rapeseed Varieties
o Fatty Acid Profiles in Edible Oils
o Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Varieties
o Low Erucic Acid and Low Glucosinolate Canola Varieties
o Herbicide-Tolerant Canola
o Hybrids and Synthetics
o Winter Canola Varieties
o Specialty Fatty Acid Varieties
 High Erucic Acid Rapeseed
 Low Linolenic and Low Linolenic/High Oleic Canola
o Future Variety Developments
o Variety Selection
 Yield
 Agroclimatic Area
 Days to Maturity
 Risk of Frost
 Potential for Drought
 Lodging
 High Temperatures During Flowering
 Cropping History
 Risk of Diseases, Insects and Weeds
 Harvest Method
o Plant Breeders' Rights
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Brassica Crop Relationships
o Figure 2. Hybrid Seed Production
o Figure 3. Synthetic B. rapa Canola Breeding and Multiplication
o Figure 4. Factors to Consider in Choosing a Variety
o Figure 5. Relative Ranges for Crops - Short and Mid-Season Zones
o Figure 6. Canola Yield in Black - Dark Grey Soil Zone on Various Crop
Stubbles
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Comparative Analysis of Fatty Acid Contents of Vegetable Oils
o Table 2. Average Yield in Sweden of Four Types of Rapeseed

Chapter 2 - Canola Varieties

 14

Canola Varieties

Canola varieties grown in Canada belong to the Brassica napus, B. rapa or B. juncea
species, which in turn belong to the much larger mustard family. Since B. napus and B.
rapa species were first introduced in Canada, plant breeders have developed many
varieties. The development of these varieties with major improvements in agronomic,
oil and meal quality greatly influenced the rapid expansion of the canola industry in
Canada, especially during the last decade. Improved seed quality increased the market
for canola seed and its products. In 2002, B. juncea was introduced under contract
production. There are considerable differences in agronomic characteristics and yield
between species and between varieties. Evaluate these differences carefully when
selecting a variety to grow. Choose the variety that is best suited to local conditions.

Brassica Species and Relatives

Canola is comprised of three species that are modified forms (using traditional plant
breeding methods) of rapeseed or brown mustard:

 Brassica rapa or Polish canola

 Brassica napus or Argentine canola
 Brassica juncea - canola quality brown mustard

Until the early 1990's, Brassica rapa was referred to as Brassica campestris. The
difference in species name arose from an error in classification made by the 18th
Century father of taxonomy, Carolus Linnaeus. He named the turnip producing Brassica
species B. rapa-rapa being Latin for root.

Linnaeus later discovered a related plant that he believed was different from B. rapa. He
gave this vegetable oilproducing plant the name B. campestris. A review of his
classification by taxonomists in the late 20th Century found that the two plants in fact
belonged to the same species and were cross fertile. Since Brassica rapa was the name
first associated with the species, the decision was made to eliminate the use of the term
Brassica campestris in favour of Brassica rapa.

B. rapa, B. napus and B. juncea species belong to the Cruciferae (mustard) family. The
mustard family consists of about 3,000 species of plants found mainly in the northern
hemisphere. The name crucifer originates from the arrangement of the plants flower
petals-diagonally opposite each other in the form of a cross. Many Brassica species have
been cultivated since prehistoric times for their edible roots, stems, leaves, buds,
flowers and seeds. Members of the B. rapa species include turnip, Chinese cabbage and
canola. Members of the B. napus species include rutabaga and canola. B. juncea species
include mustard greens, various leaf mustards and brown or Indian mustard.

Rapeseed is closely related to other Brassica species like cabbage, cauliflower, kale, and
brown and oriental mustard. The relationships are important to canola plant breeders
since they provide wide sources of genetic features for research purposes. Figure 1
outlines the close relationships between Brassica species. B. napus, with its 19
chromosomes, originated about 1,000 years ago from a cross between B. oleracea
(cabbage=nine chromosomes) and B. rapa (turnip=10 chromosomes). The same is true
 15

for B. juncea, which originated from a cross between B. nigra (black mustard) and B.
rapa (turnip).

Figure 1. Brassica Crop Relationships

More distantly related to rapeseed are the species Sinapis alba (white mustard) and
Sinapis arvesis (wild mustard). These two species were formerly referred to as Brassica
hirta and Brassica kaber, respectively. Besides wild mustard, the Cruciferae family also
contains a host of weed species including:

 stinkweed-Thlapsi arvense L.
 wild radish-Raphanus raphanistrum L.
 shepherd's purse-Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic.
 dog mustard-Erucastrum gallicum (Willd.) Schulz
 flixweed-Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb.
 common peppergrass-Lepidium densiflorum Schrad.
 ball mustard-Neslia paniculata (L.) Desv.

History of Canola in Canada

History suggests that rapeseed was cultivated as early as the 20th century B.C. in India,
and was introduced into China and Japan about the time of Christ. References to its use
or that of a close relative appear in the earliest writings of European and Asian
civilizations. Rapeseed plants have the ability to grow at relatively low temperatures
with far less heat units required than other oilseed crops. Therefore, rapeseed was one of
the very few oil sources that could be successfully grown in temperate extremes. This
led to rapeseed being grown in Europe as early as the 13th century. In later centuries,
rapeseed was used for both cooking and lighting, as its oil produced a smokeless white
flame. Rapeseed had a rather limited industrial acceptance until the development of
steam power, when it was discovered that rapeseed oil would cling to water and steam
washed metal surfaces better than any other lubricant. It was this special property that
led to the introduction of rapeseed into Canada.
 16

The need for Canadian rapeseed production arose from the critical shortage of rapeseed
oil that followed the World War II blockade of European and Asian sources in the early
1940's. The oil was urgently needed as a lubricant for the rapidly increasing number of
marine engines in naval and merchant ships.

Argentine Type (B. napus)

Prior to World War II, rapeseed had been grown in Canada but only in small research
trials at experimental farms and research stations. The trials showed that rapeseed could
be successfully grown in both eastern and western Canada. Because of the need for
rapeseed oil production in the spring of 1942, a small amount of seed from research
trials was distributed to a few experimental farms and stations. However, only 1,200 kg
(2,645 lb) was harvested that fall. A considerably larger quantity of seed than this was
required for planting in 1943 to relieve the serious shortage of rapeseed oil. This led to
the location and purchase of 19,000 kg (41,000 lb) of rapeseed from U.S. seed
companies. This B. napus seed had originally been secured from Argentina. Therefore
the name "Argentine" rapeseed was widely used in the early years of production and is
still used in Canada as an unofficial name for B. napus varieties. This seed was sown on
1,300 ha (3,200 ac) in 1943 with a harvest of 1 million kg (2.2 million lb). Growers
received a good return for their production which stimulated an expansion of B. napus
acreage the following year.

Polish Type (B. rapa)

A Shellbrook, SK farmer in 1936 obtained some rapeseed from a friend or relative in

Poland. He grew this seed in his garden for a few years and found the plants well
adapted. However, at this time, there were no established markets in Canada for
rapeseed. With the coming of the war, and the release of information about the need for
rapeseed production, the Shellbrook farmer increased his seed supply and sold seed to
his neighbors. Due to the Polish origin of both the farmer and the seed, the species he
grew became known in Canada as "Polish" rapeseed. It was later established that this
rapeseed belonged to the B. rapa species. Since seed of the B. rapa species was widely
distributed at the outset of production, it dominated the acreage for a few years. Yield
tests showed that B. napus out yielded B. rapa. However, the earlier maturity and
greater shatter resistance of B. rapa made it better adapted to short season growing
areas. It soon occupied more acres than B. napus.

Canola Quality B. juncea

Canola oil quality B. juncea was developed through traditional breeding methods by
Agriculture and Agri- Food Canada (AAFC) Saskatoon, SK Research Centre and
Saskatchewan Wheat Pool (SWP). B. juncea is the same species used to produce
oriental and brown mustard varieties. In 2002, SWP introduced the first two varieties,
Arid and Amulet, under contract production. This species is more suitable to the hotter,
drier regions of the southern prairies and will be most adapted to the brown soil zone. B.
juncea pods do not shatter as easily as other canola varieties therefore producers will be
able to straight combine the crop.
 17

Variety Development

Variety development is a team effort that involves plant breeders, pathologists, crop
quality chemists, physiologists and agronomists - as well as highly trained technicians
to back up these professionals. The plant breeders make crosses among promising
materials and select for yield and quality characteristics. After several years of selection,
promising lines are entered into private and public evaluation trials called Co-operative
Tests that are located at over 20 locations across western Canada. After one year of
testing in private trials plus one to two years in the public Co-operative Tests, the lines
that meet all the required standards for oil quality, yield, herbicide tolerance and disease
resistance are evaluated by the Western Canada Canola/Rapeseed Recommending
Committee. Lines that meet the criteria of the Committee are recommended to the
Canadian Food Inspection Agency for registration.

It usually requires eight to 10 years from the initial crosses until a variety is registered,
followed by an additional two to three years of seed multiplication before a variety is
available for commercial production. Rapeseed breeding began soon after the crop was
introduced at AAFC, Saskatoon. Other rapeseed breeding programs were initiated at the
University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, MB in 1953 and at the University of Alberta, in
Edmonton, AB in 1969 to develop more regionally adapted varieties. Breeding
programs were later established at the University of Guelph, in Guelph, ON and the
AAFC Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre.

Rapeseed Varieties

The original seed stocks of the B. napus species from Argentina contained a mixture of
plant types, and were not licensed. However, these seed stocks provided the genetic
material for the development of Canadian B. napus varieties. Similarly, the B. rapa seed
stocks originally from Poland were not licensed, but were utilized in breeding programs
for the development of later varieties.

Early breeding programs concentrated on improvements in agronomic characteristics

and in oil content. The first rapeseed variety licensed in Canada was released from
AAFC Saskatoon. Here's a list of rapeseed varieties and when they were introduced:

 Golden (1954) - a B. napus selection from Argentina with improved oil

content and lodging resistance (AAFC, Saskatoon)
 Arlo (1958) - a B. rapa Swedish variety
 Nugget (1961) - a B. napus selection from Argentina with improved oil
 Tanka (1963) - a B. napus selection from Golden with improved yield and
seed size (University of Manitoba)
 Echo (1964) - a B. rapa selection from Polish with improved yield (AAFC,
Indian Head, SK)
 Target (1966) - a B. napus selection from Tanka with a major
improvement in maturity, plant height, oil content and yield (University of
Manitoba)
 Polar (1969) - a B. rapa selection from Polish with improved oil and
protein content (University of Manitoba)
 Turret (1970) - a B. napus selection from Target with improved maturity, oil
contents and yield (University of Manitoba)
 18

Fatty Acid Profiles in Edible Oils

Edible vegetable oils are made up of fatty acids. The types of fatty acids determine
whether a vegetable oil is used for edible or industrial purposes. Certain fatty acids such
as linoleic are considered essential in human diets since they cannot be synthesized by
the body but must be obtained from the diet. All of the rapeseed varieties presented
above produced oils containing large amounts of eicosenoic and erucic acids which are
not considered essential for human growth. A comparison of rapeseed oil to other
vegetable oils is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparative Analysis of Fatty Acid Contents of Vegetable Oils

Major Fatty Acids (%)

Vegetable Oil
Palmitic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic Erucic

Polish rapeseed 3.0 32 19 10 23.5

Argentine rapeseed 3.5 22 12 7 40.0

High erucic rapeseed 2.0 12 14 8 55.0

Canola 3.0 57 26 11 Trace

Corn 12.0 27 57 1 -

Palm 46.0 38 10 Trace -

Soybean 11.0 25 50 8 -

Sunflower 8.0 20 68 Trace -

Low Erucic Acid Rapeseed Varieties

As early as 1956, the nutritional aspects of rapeseed oil were questioned, especially the
high eicosenoic and erucic fatty acid contents. Canadian plant breeders responded
quickly with isolation of rapeseed plants with low eicosenoic and erucic acid content-by
1960 for B. napus and 1964 for B. rapa. These desirable characteristics were then bred
into suitable varieties. Here's a list of low erucic varieties introduced:

 Oro (1968) - the first low erucic acid B. napus selection from crosses
between Nugget and an unlicensed forage crop cultivar Liho, which
contained low erucic acid (AAFC, Saskatoon)
 Zephyr (1971) - a B. napus selection from an Oro X Target cross with
improved oil and protein content (AAFC, Saskatoon)
 Span (1971) - the first low erucic acid B. rapa variety developed from low
erucic acid selections from Polish and Arlo (AAFC, Saskatoon)
 19

 Torch (1973) - a B. rapa selection from Span with improved yield (AAFC,
Saskatoon)
 Midas (1973) - a B. napus selection from crosses between Target and a
low erucic acid source with yields equal to Target but lower in protein
content (AAFC, Saskatoon)

The development of low erucic varieties represented a major quality improvement and
allowed Canada to first establish a maximum level of 5% erucic acid in the oil
component of the seed. Continual improvements in canola varieties through plant
breeding have allowed this maximum to be reduced to less than 2% erucic acid, which
is currently the world standard.

Low Erucic Acid and Low Glucosinolate Canola Varieties

While the rapeseed oil quality changes were being bred into suitable varieties, plant
breeders were also working hard with animal nutritionists to change the meal quality.
Rapeseed meal is an excellent source of protein with a favourable balance of amino
acids. However, the use of rapeseed meal in rations was limited by its glucosinolate
content. Most plants of the mustard family contain glucosinolates. Glucosinolates are
responsible for the pungent odour and biting taste, which ranges from the hot flavour in
mustard seed and horseradish, to the more subtle flavours of rutabaga and cauliflower.

The glucosinolates in rapeseed led to palatability and nutritional problems when fed to
livestock and poultry. The glucosinolates break down into other compounds during
crushing and feed formulation. High levels of glucosinolates in rations fed to livestock
and poultry resulted in reduced feed efficacy. For this reason, plant breeders searched
for genetic material low in glucosinolates. In 1967, seeds from plants of the Polish
variety Bronowski were found to be low in glucosinolates. This genetic source for low
glucosinolates content was then utilized to develop low erucic, low glucosinolate
varieties.

The University of Manitoba developed the first low erucic acid, low glucosinolate
variety, Tower, in 1974. The term "double low" is used to describe varieties with low
erucic acid and low glucosinolate levels. In 1977, two more "double low" varieties were
registered, the first Polish variety, Candle, developed by AAFC, Saskatoon, and the
second Argentine variety, Regent, developed by the University of Manitoba. Canada
became the first country in the world to produce large quantities of rapeseed with low
erucic acid in the oil and low glucosinolates in the meal.

This new improved quality in the seed, oil and meal needed a name to distinguish the
commodity from common rapeseed. The term "canola" derived from "Canadian oil"
was adopted. The term "canola" is not just a Canadian term and is no longer an industry
trademark. Canola is defined in Canadian food acts, feed acts and the Seeds Act. The
official definition of canola is: "An oil that must contain less than 2% erucic acid, and
less than 30 micromoles of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal." Except
for specialty fatty acid varieties like high erucic acid destined for specialty industrial
markets, the varieties registered in Canada must be of canola quality.
 20

Canola oil quality B. juncea was developed by AAFC, Saskatoon and Saskatchewan
Wheat Pool by changing the fatty acid profile to that found in B. napus and B. rapa and
reducing the erucic acid and glucosinolates levels to the canola standard.

Herbicide-Tolerant Canola

Conventional canola is tolerant to a variety of herbicides. Through mutagenesis and

gene transfer, plant breeders have developed canola that is tolerant to specific herbicides
or groups of herbicides. Here is a list:

 Triazine-tolerant canola (TTC) was developed to allow growers to plant

canola on fields infested with cruciferous weeds such as wild mustard,
stinkweed, ball mustard and a number of other weedsmany of which
cannot be controlled by herbicides in conventional canola.
Unfortunately the triazine resistance from the B. rapa weed (bird's rape) is
due to a cytoplasmic mutant, which meant that TTC varieties yielded
considerably less when compared to conventional canola varieties
under weed-free conditions. Early work on triazine-tolerant canola took
place at the University of Guelph, with the first B. napus variety, OAC
Triton, registered in 1984.
 In 1995, the first imidazolinone-tolerant (Pursuit + Odyssey herbicides) B.
napus variety "45A71" was registered. This variety and others were
developed through mutagenesis by Cyanamid (now BASF).
 In 1995, the first transgenic B. napus variety, Quest, was registered. Quest
is tolerant to the herbicide glyphosate (Roundup) and was developed
by Monsanto.
 Innovator and Independence were granted registration in 1995. These
transgenic B. napus varieties were developed by Aventis and contain a
gene that provided resistance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium
(Liberty).
 In 1999, several bromoxynil-resistant varieties-295 BX, Armor BX, and
Zodiac BX-were developed by the University of Manitoba.

From 1995 to 2001, over 100 herbicide-tolerant varieties were recommended for
registration.

Hybrids and Synthetics

A canola hybrid is simply the result of crossbreeding two lines of canola. Research in
the greenhouse showed that making hand crosses between two distantly related lines of
canola resulted in yields that were up to 45% higher than either parent line. This
increased yield is the result of heterosis or hybrid vigour. The more distantly related the
parents, the greater the resulting hybrid vigour. However, producing hybrid seed by
hand for large volumes of seed is economically impractical. Since B. napus varieties are
mainly self-pollinated, the self-pollination of the parent lines must be controlled to
make hybridization commercially feasible.

To date, several approaches have been taken to develop hybridization systems in B.

napus. The first relatively successful programs utilized more traditional hybrid breeding
methods such as cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). Researchers discovered that some
 21

Brassica species and close relatives had male-sterile cytoplasm (material surrounding
the nucleus of a cell). At the cellular level, fertility is controlled by an interaction
between the cell nucleus and cytoplasm. The CMS systems for canola hybridization
depend upon this mutation in certain cytoplasmic bodies that result in failure to develop
functional pollen or anthers. Use of CMS allowed canola breeders to produce canola
female plants that either fail to make pollen, fail to shed pollen or make pollen that is
unable to cause selffertilization. The hybrid system is normally composed of three
components-a male-sterile Line A, a maintainer Line B and a restorer Line R (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Hybrid Seed Production

Female plant flowers from Line A have a sterile cytoplasm and do not produce pollen
and cannot self-pollinate. This CMS characteristic is inherited maternally, therefore,
when a CMS female Line A, is crossed with a genetically identical maintainer Line B
that produces pollen, all the seed produced retains the CMS trait. The restorer Line R is
genetically different from Line A and contains nuclear genes that compensate for the
defect in the cytoplasm and restore fertility to the hybrid cross. The first commercial
CMS B. napus hybrid, Hyola 40, was registered in 1989 by Advanta Seeds. This was
quickly followed by the very popular hybrid Hyola 401 in 1991.

A novel hybridization system was developed by Plant Genetic Systems in Belgium

through biotechnology. This system involves the use of two parental lines. The first
parental line is male sterile, does not produce viable pollen grains and cannot self-
pollinate. A gene isolated from a common soil bacterium and inserted into the parental
line causes this nuclear male sterility. The gene controls production of a specific
enzyme in a specific anther cell layer and at a specific stage of anther development
 22

resulting in no pollen production. The second parental line contains another gene,
obtained from the same common soil bacterium that produces an inhibitor enzyme that
counteracts the sterility enzyme in the first parental line to restore fertility. A gene that
confers tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate ammonium (Liberty) was inserted into
both parental lines. When the two lines are crossed, the progeny is a 100% true hybrid.
And since fertility is restored, the hybrid plants are fully fertile and produce seed. The
first Liberty-tolerant hybrids-"3850 and 3880"-were registered in 1996 by Aventis (now
Bayer CropScience).

Hybrid breeding techniques, while reasonably successful in B. napus, have not been
successful in B. rapa variety development. An alternative breeding method to exploit
the heterosis available in the Brassica family is the production of "synthetic" varieties.
Synthetic canola varieties are developed by blending seed from one parent with seed
from another parent and growing out the mixed seed to produce a Certified synthetic
seed (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Synthetic B. rapa Canola Breeding and Multiplication

Synthetics of B. rapa are usually composed of two, or at most three, parental lines. The
resulting Certified synthetic seed composed of a mixture of hybrid and parental plants
tends to be more stable over a wider range of environmental conditions than
conventional varieties. In comparison, a synthetic canola variety is usually intermediate
between conventional varieties and hybrids in terms of capturing heterosis. B. rapa
canola is selfincompatible, meaning the plant cannot self-pollinate with pollen from a
flower on the same plant, but must pollinate with other plants in the field. This self-
incompatibility in B. rapa is an advantage in making synthetic varieties. The first B.
rapa synthetic varieties, Hysyn 100 and Hysyn 110, were registered in 1994 by Advanta
Seeds.
 23

Synthetics of B. napus are developed from two or more parental lines, which are then
mixed in equal proportions (although not always) and grown in isolation. As B. napus is
self-compatible and the degree of outcrossing is dependent on insect pollination, there
will be varying degrees of crossing between the parental lines. The seed of the next
generation will be a mixture of the parental lines and all possible hybrids between them.
For example, a three parent synthetic would include the original three parental lines and
the three possible hybrids. This process can be continued for another generation before
the seed is released as certified. As the degree of outcrossing is variable, it is difficult to
predict what levels of heterosis will be achieved in the commercial seed. The first
synthetic B. napus variety registered in Canada was Synbrid 220 in 1997.

Winter Canola Varieties

Winter (fall-seeded) rapeseed is widely grown in parts of Europe and Asia. The term
rapeseed is used, but many of the varieties have similar erucic acid and glucosinolate
levels to Canadian varieties and fit the canola definition. Winter rapeseed greatly out
yields spring types as shown by Swedish yield data in Table 2.

Table 2. Average Yield in Sweden of Four Types of Rapeseed

Average Yields 1976-79

Rapeseed Type
kg/ha bu/ac

Winter rapeseed (B. napus) 2,700 48

Winter turnip rapeseed (B. rapa) 2,000 36

Spring rapeseed (B. napus) 1,800 32

Spring turnip rapeseed (B. rapa) 1,400 25

Early winter varieties introduced and registered in Canada were of European origin.
Since they did not meet the standards for glucosinolates, they were rapeseed varieties.
However, later breeding work in Europe and eastern Canada produced winter canola
varieties. The first Canadian-bred winter canola, OAC Winfield, was developed by the
University of Guelph, in Guelph, ON and registered in 1988. In western Canada, winter
canola is not grown commercially because of unsatisfactory winter hardiness. An
occasional crop of a hardy variety may survive some winters in the southern prairies,
but attempts to grow it consistently have always failed. Winter canola is slightly less
winter hardy than winter barley that also rarely survives prairie winters. A major
increase in winter hardiness is required for successful production in western Canada.
Varieties with this degree of winter hardiness have not been observed to date anywhere
in the world.

Research trials by the University of Guelph have shown that winter canola has limited
potential for some areas of Ontario. Where winter canola over-winters, it will out yield
spring canola by 40 to 50%. Management studies at many locations throughout Ontario
 24

have shown that winter canola has the best chance of winter survival and high yields
when grown on well-drained, lighter-textured loam soils and on sandy loam soils in
southern Ontario with good snow cover. Winter survival is not very good on heavy clay
soils or soils with poor drainage due to heaving.

Specialty Fatty Acid Varieties

Canola oil is accepted around the world as a healthy oil low in saturated fat. However,
there are markets available for oils with specific oil characteristics for special functions.
Specialty fatty acid canola varieties are tested and recommended for registration by the
Specialty and Contract Registration Committee, a sub-committee of the Western
Canada Canola/Rapeseed Recommending Committee. Specialty varieties are restricted
to contract production through private companies.

High Erucic Acid Rapeseed

Prior to the reduction in erucic acid levels which produced canola, rapeseed oil was
used both for edible and industrial purposes. The high levels of erucic acid made the oil
useful in the production of lubricants. Today there remains a market for a significant
acreage of high erucic acid rapeseed oil for use in plastics, lubricants, lacquers and
detergents.

Plant breeders increased the erucic acid level in conventional rapeseed to produce High
Erucic Acid Rapeseed (HEAR). At the same time, they reduced the glucosinolate levels
so that the meal from HEAR varieties was more readily marketable as a livestock feed.
The first HEAR (B. rapa) variety, R-500, was developed at the Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada Saskatoon, SK Research Centre. It produced a high-glucosinolate meal.
The second HEAR (B. napus) variety, Reston, was registered in 1982 by the University
of Manitoba, in Winnipeg, MB. It contained 40 to 48% erucic acid and medium
glucosinolate levels. It was de-registered in 1989. Since then many "HEAR" varieties
have been developed and released by the University of Manitoba.

Low Linolenic and Low Linolenic/High Oleic Canola

Plant breeders also recognized that by manipulating other fatty acids different nutrient
and processing characteristics could be produced in the resulting oil. The first variety in
this category was developed at the University of Manitoba and registered in 1987 under
the name Stellar. Stellar had a reduced linolenic fatty acid content (3%), which resulted
in significant improvements in the processing and keeping quality of the oil. High
linolenic acid makes oil go rancid. Since Stellar, companies such as Cargill Specialty
Canola Oils, Pioneer Hi-Bred and Dow AgroSciences have registered varieties with
modified fatty acid profiles, such as high oleic, low linolenic or high oleic and low
linolenic.

Future Variety Developments

For the past decade varieties have changed rapidly as new quality and agronomic
characteristics have been introduced. If Canadian canola plant breeders are as successful
as they have been in the past, there will be many breeding improvements to look
 25

forward to in the next decade. Potential breeding improvements that plant breeders are
working toward include:

 resistance to drought stress

 frost tolerance (late spring and early fall frosts)
 elimination of green seed
 nutrient use efficiency
 low saturated fatty acid content
 early maturing Argentine varieties for shorter frostfree areas
 new herbicide tolerance
 disease resistance - seedling blight, brown girdling root rot, etc.
 insect resistance - root maggot, cabbage seedpod weevil, etc.
 cold temperature tolerance for improved germination and emergence
 larger seed size
 improved winter hardiness and yield in winter canola
 higher yielding hybrids

Variety Selection

There has been a rapid proliferation of registered conventional, herbicide-tolerant and

specialty fatty acid canola varieties. In the past decade, over 200 varieties have been
registered and over 50 de-registered. This increases the complexity in deciding which
variety to grow. Some of the factors to consider when choosing a variety are shown in
Figure 4.

Figure 4. Factors to Consider in Choosing a Variety

 26

Seed yields and agronomic characteristics vary not only between species but also
between varieties. Because of this, and the fact that the number of varieties now
available is so large, before deciding on which varieties to seed, review as much
information as possible.

Pay particular attention to information from provincial variety testing trials and Canola
Council of Canada Canola Production Centre trials. Regional variety testing programs,
conducted extensively throughout each of the provinces, provide the agronomic
performance of registered or recommended varieties, under the different environmental
production areas. When planting an unfamiliar variety, consider planting only a portion
of the acreage to that variety. This will allow time to assess how the variety performs on
the farm before committing a large acreage.

Yield

In provincial canola variety trials, yields can differ from 25 to 35% between high and
low yielding B. napus varieties. Under good moisture and frost-free conditions, B.
napus varieties yield 15 to 20% higher than B. rapa varieties. However, where summer
droughts and early spring or fall frosts occur, yields can be similar.

All registered varieties have the genetics for reasonably high yield, but many more
production factors can have a greater impact on yield than the variety itself. While yield
is an important factor in variety selection, do not use it as the only selection criteria.
Look for stable, consistent performance over years and locations when evaluating
varieties. Most varieties go through a multitude of testing and the data generated can be
useful in making decisions. Growers may not want a variety that averaged 115% above
the checks for a specific area if they know that its performance ranged from 60 to 170%
of the checks over years and locations. The yields reported from variety trials are not
precise and as a rule of thumb the precision is a plus or minus 8 to 10%. For example, in
evaluating two varieties -one that is 109% of the check compared to another at 101% of
the check-expect no yield difference between the two in a field.

Look to these sources for variety selection data:

 Western Canada Canola/Rapeseed Recommending Committee Co-

operative Trials
 provincial canola regional trials
 crop insurance farmer reported yields-Alberta Management Insights,
Manitoba Management Plus Program, Saskatchewan Management Plus
Program
 Canola Council of Canada variety trials
 private seed company trials and demonstrations
 local trials-municipal, agricultural service boards, etc.

Information on variety performance can be obtained either from government or

company Web sites or publications, including:

 Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta seed guides

 Alberta http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/
 British Columbia http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/
 27

 Manitoba http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/
 Ontario http://www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/
 Saskatchewan http://www.agr.gov.sk.ca/

A partial budget is a useful tool when comparing varieties to evaluate not only the cost
of the variety but also the differences in herbicide costs and/or technical use agreements.

Agroclimatic Area

Growers should make certain the varieties they select meet the requirements of their
farming practices, timing of farming operations, frost-free periods at their location, and
growing climate.

Days to Maturity

Relative maturity ratings are the average number of days from seeding to swathing. The
actual number of days to reach maturity depends on local climate and to some extent on
management practices.

The accumulation of temperature or Growing Degree Days (GDDs) has a major

influence on days to maturity for canola. In the short and mid-season zones of western
Canada, maturity for B. napus varieties will range from 95 to 125 days depending on the
growing season heat accumulation (Figure 5). Within any particular year, the maturity
difference between early and late maturing varieties will range from five to nine days.
B. rapa varieties are usually 10 days to four weeks earlier and range from 80 to 115 days
to maturity. The difference between B. rapa varieties on a yearly basis is usually three to
five days.

Figure 5. Relative Ranges for Crops-Short and Mid-Season Zones

Risk of Frost

Consider the risks of spring and fall frost damage. Spring frosts can reduce plant stands
or set the crop back. Fall frosts can result in green seed. Whether a crop matures before
the first killing frost depends on seeding date, heat accumulation and management
practices. In shorter frostfree areas, an early maturing B. napus variety sown early may
be a better choice than a B. rapa variety sown later in May. However, if the B. napus
variety cannot be sown early the better choice may a B. rapa variety sown when field
conditions and weather allow. B. napus varieties are slightly more susceptible to late
 28

spring frosts than cereals, and are susceptible to early fall frosts. B. rapa varieties are
less susceptible to late spring frosts and usually mature before fall frosts. Obtain long-
term records of GDDs and spring and fall frost probabilities for the location to assist in
variety choice.

Potential for Drought

Both species of canola have poor drought tolerance for germination and emergence
during plant establishment. After establishment both species have drought tolerance
similar to cereals. However, B. napus varieties may suffer loss in yield and quality from
late summer drought while B. rapa varieties often mature early enough to escape late
summer drought. B. juncea is considered to be more drought tolerant than B. napus and
B. rapa.

Lodging

While lodging varies with the variety, agro-climatic conditions also influence the plants
height and lodging resistance. Depending on growing conditions, B. napus varieties
range from 75 to 175 cm (30 to 69") while B. rapa varieties range from 50 to 125 cm
(20 to 49"). In field tests, the two B. juncea varieties were comparable to B. napus. B.
juncea grows more upright than B. napus canola and has less tendency to lodge. In
irrigated or high rainfall and cooler growing areas, canola tends to grow taller and have
an increased risk of lodging. Under these conditions, straw strength or lodging
resistance and fertility are important factors to consider. Fall and early seeded canola
crops are shorter than mid-May sown crops.

High Temperatures During Flowering

B. napus varieties may flower during high temperature periods in July with reduced pod
and seed set. Fall or early seeding may allow the B. napus varieties to flower earlier and
escape high temperature damage. B. rapa varieties sown in mid May usually finish
flowering before high temperatures occur.

Cropping History

The benefits of a good rotation will probably have more impact than variety selection
over the long term for such factors as disease, weeds, insects and soil fertility. Variety
selection is not a good substitute for crop rotation. The crop type and variety seeded in
the past will affect future choices. Canola is an excellent rotation break for cereals.
Canola residue provides a biofumigant for control of some cereal root diseases. A good
crop rotation can assist in controlling problems with volunteers, diseases, herbicide
residues and weeds. For example, sowing a Clearfield (imidazolinonetolerant) variety
following field peas that were sprayed with Pursuit will reduce potential risk of crop
damage from herbicide residues. Canola yields tend to be higher in rotations following
cereals or summerfallow (Figure 6).
 29

Figure 6. Canola Yield in Black - Dark Grey Soil Zone on Various Crop Stubbles

Risk of Diseases, Insects and Weeds

Blackleg disease resistance is an important consideration in areas where the disease is

widespread. Varieties with superior lodging resistance reduce the incidence of
sclerotinia. Tall varieties tend to be more susceptible to sclerotinia stem rot, especially if
lodging occurs. Apetalous varieties are also less susceptible to sclerotinia stem rot. B.
napus varieties are generally more resistant to diseases like brown girdling root rot than
B. rapa varieties. With high infestations of cabbage root maggot, B. napus yield losses
are much less than with B. rapa varieties. Herbicide-tolerant canola varieties may
provide another strategy for controlling difficult or herbicide-resistant weeds.

Harvest Method

B. rapa and B. juncea varieties are more resistant to shattering and may be straight
combined. B. napus varieties shatter readily when ripe and should be swathed.
Harvestability-a combination of height, lodging resistance, podding depth and plant
density-is a measure of the ease with which a canola variety can be swathed and
combined. If plant height and ease of swathing have been a problem in the past,
consider shorter varieties with good lodging resistance. See the Canola Council of
Canada's Canola Production Centre Annual Report for harvestability ratings of current
varieties.

Plant Breeders' Rights

On August 1, 1990 Plant Breeders' Rights (PBR) legislation was enacted in Canada.
PBR provide a way to assure that companies and institutions that invest in plant
breeding are able to keep reasonable control of their varieties and secure fair
compensation for their efforts. This encourages additional investment in improved crop
varieties for Canadian farmers.

PBR for crop variety developers are comparable in many ways to patent protection in
other areas. When plant breeders develop a new variety for use in Canada, they may
apply under the Plant Breeders' Rights Act to obtain certain controls over the
multiplication and sale of the seed of that variety. Sale, trade or any other transfer of the
seed for propagation purposes is prohibited by law without:

 written permission of the breeder or the breeder's agent

 30

 payment of a royalty to the breeder or the breeder's agent

Under PBR, farmers are allowed to save seed of the variety for their own use, on their
own farms.

References

Beare, J.L., Campbell, J.A., Youngs, C.G. and Craig, B.M. 1963. Effects of
saturated fat in rats fed rapeseed oil. Can. J. Biochem. And Physiol. 41:605-612.

Baranyk, P. and Fabry, A. 1999. History of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) growing and
breeding from middle age Europe to Canberra. Proceedings of the tenth International
Rapeseed Congress. Canberra. 5 pages.

Beversdorf, W.D., Weiss-Lerman, J., Erickson, L.R. and Souza Machado, V. 1980.
Transfer of cytoplasmically-inherited triazine resistance from bird's rape to cultivated
oilseed rape. (Brassica campestris and B. napus). Can. J. of Geneti. and Cytol. 22:167-
172.

Brandle, J.E. and McVetty, P.B.E. 1989a. Effects of inbreeding and estimates of
additive genetic variance within seven summer oilseed rape cultivars. Genome 32:115-
119.

Brandle, J.E. and McVetty, P.B.E. 1989b. Heterosis and combining ability in hybrids
derived from oilseed rape cultivars and inbred lines. Crop Science 29:1191-1195.

Buzza, G.C. 1983. The inheritance of an apetalous character in canola (Brassica napus).
Cruciferae Newsletter 8:11-12.

Buzza, G.C. 1995. Plant Breeding. Brassica Oilseeds: Production and Utilization.
Edited by D.S. Kimber and D.I. McGregor. Cab International Pp:153-175.

Downey, R.K. 1964. A selection of Brassica campestris L. containing no erucic acid in

its seed oil. Can. J. Plant Sci. 44:295.

Downey, R.K. and Harvey, B.L. 1963. Methods of breeding for oil quality in rape.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 43:271-275.

Downey, R.K. and Rimmer, S.R. 1993. Agronomic improvement in oilseed brassicas.
Adv. Agron. 50:1-66.

Downey, R.K., Stefansson, B.R., Stringam, G.R. and McGregor, D.I. 1975.
Breeding rapeseed and mustard crops. In: Harapiuk, J.P. (ed.) Oilseed and Pulse Crops
in Western Canada: A Symposium. Western Cooperative Fertilizers, Canada, pp. 157-
183.

Gowers, S. 1980. The production of hybrid oilseed rape using selfincompatibility.

Cruciferae Newsletter 5:15-16.
 31

Grami, B., Baker, R.J. and Stefansson, B.R. 1977. Genetics of protein and oil content
in summer rape: heritability, number of effective factors, and correlations. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 57:937-943.

Grant, I. And Beversdorf, W.D. 1985a. Agronomic performance of triazine-resistant

single cross hybrid oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Can. J. of Genet. Cytol. 27:472-
478.

Grant, I. And Beversdorf, W.D. 1985b. Heterosis and combining ability estimates in
spring-planted oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Can. J. of Genet. Cytol. 27:472-478.

Kondra, Z.P. and Stefansson, B.R. 1965. Inheritance of erucic and eicosenoic acid
content of rapeseed oil (Brassica napus). Can. J. of Genet. Cytol. 7:500-510.

Kondra, Z.P. and Stefansson, B.R. 1970. Inheritance of the major glucosinolates of
rapeseed (Brassica napus) meal. Can. J. Plant Sci. 50:643-647.

Li, S., Qian, Y. Wu, Z. and Stefansson, B.R. 1988. Genetic male sterility in rapeseed
(Brassica napus L.) conditioned by interaction of genes at two loci. Can. J. Plant Sci.
68:1115-1118.

Love, H.K., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. and Downey, R.K. 1990a. Development of low
glucosinolate mustard. Can. J. Plant Sci. 70:419-424.

Love, H.K., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. and Downey, R.K. 1990b. Genetic control of 2-
propenyl and 3--butenyl glucosinolate synthesis in mustard. Can. J. Plant Sci. 70:425-
429.

Love, H.K., Rakow, G., Raney, J.P. and Downey, R.K. 1991. Breeding
improvements toward canola quality Brassica juncea. In: McGregor, D.I. (ed.)
Proceedings of the Eighth International Rapeseed Congress, Saskatoon, Canada. Pp.
164-169.

Pleins, S. and Friedt, W. 1989. Genetic control of linolenic acid concentration in seed
oil of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). Theoretical and Applied Genetics 78:793-797.

Rimmer, S.R. and van den Berg, C.G.J. 1984. Resistance of oilseed Brassica spp. To
blackleg caused by Leptosphaeria maculans. Can. J. Plant Path. 14:56-66.

Rao, M.S.S., Mendham, N.J. and Buzza, G.C. 1991. Effect of the apetalous flower
character on radiation distribution in the crop canopy, yield and its components in
oilseed rape (Brassica napus). J. of Agric. Sci., Camb. 117:189-196.

Sernyk, J.L. and Stefansson, B.R. 1983. Heterosis in summer rape (Brassica napus
L.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 63:407-413.

Shiga, T. and Baba, S. 1971. Cytoplasmic male sterility in oilseed rapeseed plants
(Brassica napus L.). Jpn. J. Breed. 21:16-17.
 32

Slinkard, A.E. and Knott, D.R. 1995. Harvest of Gold: The history of crop breeding in
Canada. University Extension Press. University of Saskatchewan. Pages 140-152.

Stefansson, B.R. 1983. The development of improved rapeseed cultivars. In: Kramer,
J.K.G., Sauer, F.D. and Pigden, E.J. (eds) High and low erucic acid rapeseed oils:
Production, Usage, Chemistry, and Toxicological Evaluation. Academic Press, New
York, pp:144-159.

Stefansson, B.R., Hougen, F.W. and Downey, R.K. 1961. Note on the isolation of
rapeseed plants with seed oil free from erucic acid. Can. J. Plant Sci. 41:218-219.

Thomas, P.M. and Kondra, Z.P. 1973. Maternal effects on the oleic, linoleic, and
linolenic acid content of rapeseed oil. Can. J. Plant Sci. 53:221-225.

Thompson, K.F. 1972. Cytoplasmic male-sterility in oilseed rape. Heredity 29:253-

257.

Thurling, N. 1991. Application of the ideotype concept in breeding for higher yield in
the oilseed brassicas. Field Crops Research 26:201-219.
 33

Chapter 3 - Growth Stages

1. Growth Stages of the Canola Plant
o Growth Stage 0: Germination: Sprouting Development
o Growth Stage 1: Leaf Development
 Roots
 Leaves
o Growth Stage 2
o Growth Stage 3: Stem Elongation
o Growth Stage 4
o Growth Stage 5: Inflorescence Emergence
o Growth Stage 6: Flowering
o Growth Stage 7: Development of Seed
o Growth Stage 8: Ripening
o Growth Stage 9: Senescence
o Summary of Growth Stages
o Time to Maturity
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Growth Stages in B. campestris and B. napus
o Figure 2. Germination
o Figure 3. LAI for B. napus and B. rapa
o Figure 4. Relationship Between LAI and Crop Growth Rate
o Figure 5. Photosynthetic Contribution by Canola Plant Structures
o Figure 6. Canola Plant Dry Weight Distribution - B. napus
o Figure 7. Canola Plant Dry Weight Distribution - B. rapa
o Figure 8. Reduced Yield Due to Leaf Area Loss at Different Growth
Stages
o Figure 9. Distinguishing Characteristics of Some Brassicas
o Figure 10. Days to Flower and Duration of Individual Branches - B. rapa
seeded May 25
o Figure 11. Days to Flower and Duration of Individual Branches - B.
napus seeded May 5
o Figure 12. Total Flowers Produced and Productive Pods Formed in B.
napus Plants
o Figure 13. Number of Flowers for Each Branch and Number of
Productive Pods in B. rapa
o Figure 14. Typical Pods of B. napus and B. rapa Canola
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Summary of the Chief Characteristics of B. rapa and B. napus
o Table 2. Range in Maturity at Different Research Trial Locations and
Years

Growth Stages of the Canola Plant

Understand how a canola plant grows and how growth can be affected by different
management to make effective management decisions. Effectiveness of post-emergence
inputs-such as herbicides, fertilizers and water-differs with stage of growth. Proper
 34

timing of application, based on growth stage of the crop, can improve the efficiency of
the input and prevent crop injury and economic loss.

The growth and development of a canola plant is continuous but can be divided into
easily recognizable growth stages. The length of each growth stage is greatly influenced
by temperature, moisture, light (day length), nutrition and variety. Research studies at
the University of Manitoba, in Winnipeg, MB have shown that temperature is the most
important environmental factor regulating growth and development of canola in western
Canada.

A standardized growth stage scale developed by BASF, Bayer, Ciba-Geigy and Hoechst
called the BBCH decimal system provides an accurate and simplified approach to
describing canola growth stages. The BBCH decimal system is illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Growth Stages in B. campestris and B. napus

 35

Growth Stage 0: Germination: Sprouting Development

00 dry seed (seed dressing takes place at this stage)

01 seed imbibition (water absorption)

03 seed imbibition complete

05 radicle (root) emerges from seed

06 elongation of root, formation of root hairs and/or lateral roots

07 hypocotyl with cotyledons break though seed coat

08 hypocotyl with cotyledons grow toward soil surface

09 cotyledons break through soil surface

The oil and protein in the seed provide the energy required for germination but the
seedbed must supply sufficient water, oxygen and a suitable temperature for
germination to occur.

Water absorption is the first step in germination. Water is the medium and reactant for
many biochemical processes. For a canola seed there is an initial period of rapid water
uptake, followed by a lag period then rapid absorption associated with embryo growth.
Since water comes from the soil, the seed must be in close contact with moist soil
particles to absorb water. Water absorption by seed cells is influenced by the
concentration of inorganic salts and/or organic substances in the soil solution. If the salt
concentration is too high, the seed cannot absorb enough water for normal germination.
This partially explains why seed may fail to germinate in the fertilizer zone or in
severely saline soils.

Sufficient oxygen must be present for cell respiration to provide adequate energy for
germination. Normally, oxygen is a limiting factor only under conditions leading to
lower oxygen diffusion rates, such as waterlogged or compacted soils. Temperature
must be within a suitable range for germination. While water absorption by the seed is
not sensitive to temperature, new growth is temperature dependent because of the effect
of temperature on biochemical processes.

Germination is a step-by-step process that includes:

 taking in water
 activation and synthesis of enzymes
 breakdown of stored food
 transport of breakdown products within the embryo
 initiation of embryo growth

During the period of water absorption, several enzyme systems are activated in the
embryo, which break down stored proteins to amino acids, starch to glucose and oil to
 36

fatty acids and glycerol. These breakdown products are transported to the active
growing point in the seed where they are rebuilt into compounds (proteins, lipids, etc.)
necessary for embryo growth with the resulting swelling, splitting of the seed coat and
emergence of the root or radicle tip (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Germination

The root grows downward and develops root hairs that anchor the developing seedling.
The new stem, or hypocotyl, begins growing up through the soil pushing two heart
shaped leaf-like organs called cotyledons or seed leaves. The seed coat is usually shed
in the process. Canola seeds have two cotyledons and canola plants are called
dicotyledonous. When exposed to light, the cotyledons unfold and become green.

Other factors that influence germination are seed viability, seed size, soil
microorganisms, seed soundness and seed diseases. Viability describes whether the
embryo is alive and able to germinate. Seed size is an indication of the amount of food
available to the seedling. Larger seeds with increased food supply frequently germinate
faster, emerge from greater soil depths and produce a more vigorous seedling than do
smaller seeds. Soil microorganisms can decay seeds, especially under poor germinating
conditions. Seed treatments may help protect the seed and seedling against soil-borne
disease infection. Cracks in the coat increase disease susceptibility, decreasing
germination. Diseased seed (blackleg, Alternaria, etc.) may result in shrunken seed that
may germinate but the seedling is infected.
 37

Growth Stage 1: Leaf Development

10 cotyledons completely unfold

11 first true leaf unfolds

12 two leaves unfold

13 three leaves unfold

14 four leaves unfold

15 five leaves unfold

16 six leaves unfold

17 seven leaves unfold

18 eight leaves unfold

19 nine or more leaves unfold

Upon emergence, four to 15 days after seeding, the seedling develops a short 1.25 to 2.5
cm (1/2 to 1") stem. The cotyledons at the top of the hypocotyl (growing point) expand,
turn green and provide nourishment to the growing plant. The cotyledons of B. napus
seedlings are smooth on the underside, while B. rapa cotyledons are hairy and wrinkled
on the underside. Unlike barley, which keeps the growing point protected beneath the
soil for five to six weeks, the growing point of canola is above the soil, between the two
cotyledons. The exposed growing tip makes canola seedlings more susceptible than
cereals to spring frosts, soil drifting, insects and hail; or any other hazard that results in
the destruction of the seedling below the cotyledons. Heat canker may occur when the
bare soil temperature becomes so high as to burn the hypocotyl at the soil surface.

Roots

Canola plants have a tap root system. Rooting depth varies from 3 to 5 cm (1.2 to 2.0")
at emergence. The root system continues to develop with secondary roots growing
outward and downward from the taproot. Root growth is due to cell division and
enlargement at the tip of the root. Root development is relatively constant averaging
nearly 2 cm (3/4") per day as long as good soil moisture exists.

Where soil water and nutrients are abundant, the balance of root to stem and leaf growth
typically shifts in favour of stem growth at the expense of roots. When water is limited,
the opposite usually occurs. Root and stem growth complement one another by
adjusting their relative size to meet the basic requirements of the whole plant in
response to climatic and soil conditions.

With moisture stressed canola, roots account for about 25% of plant dry matter at stem
elongation compared to about 20% for unstressed plants. At peak flowering and
 38

maximum stem length, roots will have reached about 85% of their maximum depth.
Root depth, like plant height, will vary from 90 to 190 cm (36 to 76") but will average
about 140 cm (56") at maturity for B. napus and 90 cm (36") for B. rapa. The root
system varies with soil type, moisture content, temperature, salinity and soil physical
structure.

Roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil and transport them upward into the stem.
Roots do not grow in search of water or nutrients, they only intercept water and
nutrients present in the soil pore space that they happen to contact. Factors limiting root
penetration through the soil include a high water table, dry soil, soil compaction, weed
competition for moisture and nutrients, a salt layer or cool soil temperatures. For
example canola plant roots do not grow into waterlogged, dry or compacted soil.

As roots grow, they use oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Restricted soil aeration,
because of excess water or soil compaction, results in low oxygen, high carbon dioxide,
and eventually root death. Moist topsoil with dry sub-soil during the early stage of plant
growth promotes a shallow root system. Roots penetrate dry soil only slightly beyond
available moisture supplies. Insects and diseases such as root maggots and brown
girdling root rot damage the root and restrict the uptake of water and nutrients.

Leaves

Four to eight days after emergence the seedling develops its first true leaves. The first
true leaf to develop and fully expand is frilly in appearance (Figure 1). The plant
quickly establishes a rosette with older leaves at the base increasing in size and smaller,
younger leaves developing in the centre. B. rapa plants develop smaller rosettes of three
to five yellow-green leaves, while B. napus plants develop larger rosettes of up to six
waxy, blue-green leaves. There is no definite number of leaves produced by a canola
plant. A canola plant under good growing conditions normally produces nine to 30
leaves on the main stem depending on variety and growing conditions. The maximum
area of individual leaves on the plant in the absence of stress is around 250 cm 2.

Count the leaves of a canola plant when it has become visibly separated from the
terminal bud. During this rosette growth stage the stem length remains essentially
unchanged although its thickness increases.

The growth rate of the crop is closely related to the amount of solar radiation captured
by the leaves. Research has shown that canola leaves influence seed yield at early
growth stages by influencing the development of the plant's overall sink capacity, pod
set and early seed development. Rapid leaf development also encourages root growth,
reduces soil moisture evaporation and shades weeds. There is a positive correlation
between seed yield and maximum leaf area index (LAI).

LAI is a measure of the upper surface area of leaves per unit of ground surface. An LAI
of 4 is 4 m2 of leaf surface area per m2 of ground surface. B. napus plants usually
develop more and larger leaves than B. rapa and have a higher LAI (Figure 3). An LAI
of about four is required for the crop canopy to intercept about 90% of the incoming
solar radiation. The larger the leaf area the crop can expose to the sun, the more dry
matter the crop can produce per day (Figure 4). The more dry matter, the higher the
potential yield.
 39

Figure 3. LAI for B. napus and B. rapa

Figure 4. Relationship Between LAI and Crop Growth Rate

Researchers report that the maximum LAI for B. napus is between 3 and 6 while B. rapa
averages 3.5. Leaves initially are the most important photosynthetic plant structure for
fixing food for plant growth. The LAI of canola starts to decrease shortly after first
flower (GS 60) (Figure 5). At full flower (GS 65), stems become the major
photosynthetic structure although leaves are still important. At the beginning of ripening
(GS 80) pod walls and stems account for the majority of photosynthesis while leaves
make only a small contribution.
 40

Figure 5. Photosynthetic Contribution by Canola Plant Structures

Plants in low population density crops (20 plants/m2) have a higher LAI than do plants
in high population density crops (126 plants/m2). Plants compete with each other for
light, moisture and nutrients. In uneven germinating crops the leaf area of early
emerging plants can become large enough to cause weak, spindly growth or stunting
and death of later emerging plants.

Growth Stage 2

This growth stage (20-29) refers to the development of side shoots (tillering) and occurs
in many plant species but it is not applicable to the spring canola varieties grown in
Canada.

Growth Stage 3: Stem Elongation

30 stem elongation (bolting) begins

31 stem 10% of final length

32 stem 20% of final length

33 stem 30% of final length

34 stem 40% of final length

35 stem 50% of final length

36 stem 60% of final length

37 stem 70% of final length

38 stem 80% of final length

39 maximum stem length

 41

Stems display the leaves to sunlight and air. Canola plant stems are also important
photosynthetic structures throughout the period of pod and seed growth (Figure 5).

Stem elongation (GS 30) overlaps leaf development and normally occurs earlier than
GS 19. At or just prior to stem elongation, flower and branch initiation begins.
Maximum stem length (GS 39) overlaps flower development and is reached at peak
flowering (GS 65). As stems elongate, roots continue to grow deeper. The vegetative
stages, or days from seeding to first flower, can range from 30 to 50 days in B. rapa and
40 to 60 days in B. napus, depending on date of seeding and growing conditions.

B. napus plants grow taller (75 to 175 cm, 30 to 70") on average than B. rapa plants (50
to 125 cm, 20 to 50"). Stem diameter and height are influenced by seeding date,
moisture, variety, soil fertility and plant population. Plants in low-density crops have
thicker stems and are more resistant to lodging. Plants in high-density crops are thinner
and more prone to lodging. Lodging aggravates the problem of uneven pod maturity and
creates an ideal microenvironment for the spread of diseases such as sclerotinia and
alternaria. Disease infection reduces the photosynthetic capacity of the stems and pods,
reducing yields.

Growth Stage 4

This growth stage (40-49) is not important for canola management but applies in the
development of harvestable vegetative plant parts such as broccoli or cauliflower.

Growth Stage 5: Inflorescence Emergence

50 flower buds present, but still enclosed by leaves

51 flower buds visible from above (green bud)

52 flower buds free, level with the youngest leaves

53 flower buds raised above the youngest leaves

55 individual flower buds (main inflorescence) visible but still closed

58 individual flower buds (secondary inflorescence) visible but closed

59 first petals visible, but flower buds still closed (yellow bud)

Lengthening days and rising temperatures trigger bud formation. Flower development
growth stages (GS 50-65) overlap stem development (GS 30-39). Initially flower buds
(GS 50) remain enclosed during early stem elongation (GS 31) and can only be seen by
peeling back young leaves. As the stem elongates a cluster of flower buds can be easily
seen from above but are still not free of the leaves. This is known as the green bud
stage.

As the stem rapidly bolts or lengthens, the buds become free of leaves and the lowest
flower stalks extend so that the buds assume a flattened shape. The remaining leaves
 42

attached to the main stem unfold as the stem lengthens and the small stalks holding the
first unopened flower buds become more widely spaced. The lower flower buds are the
first to become yellow, signalling the yellow-bud stage.

Secondary branches arise from buds that develop in axils of upper leaves and
occasionally from axils of some lower leaves on the main stem. These secondary
branches develop one to four leaves and a flower bud cluster. The canola plant initiates
many more inflorescences (branches with flower clusters) than it can support, then
aborts back according to the plant's set carrying capacity and environmental conditions.
The ability to produce secondary branches is useful as it allows the crop to compensate
for poor stand establishment and damage due to hail, pests and diseases. Development
of branches is not fixed until the end of flowering. Removal of branches by hail can
initiate replacement. Environmental stress can reduce the degree of branching and if the
second to fourth primary branches (from the top) are affected, total flower production
and therefore total seed yield can be seriously reduced.

B. rapa plants usually develop many branches. In an average uniform stand, plants can
average eight to nine branches per plant. Individual plants in this type of stand will
produce three to 20 branches. The greater number of branches leads to a less structured
appearance. This makes identification of the main stem more difficult in the mature B.
rapa plant.

B. napus plants grow taller and have a distinct main stem with fewer secondary
branches. B. napus plants, in an average uniform stand, will average from four to six
branches per plant. However, individual plants can range from two to nine branches.
Low plant populations produce more branches per plant compared to high plant
populations.

The main stem reaches 30 to 60% of its maximum length just prior to flowering. Also,
30 to 60% of the plant's total dry matter production will have occurred at this time,
depending upon growing conditions (Figures 6 and 7).

Figure 6. Canola Plant Dry Weight Distribution - B. napus (Lethbridge, AB Irrigation)

 43

Figure 7. Canola Plant Dry Weight Distribution - B. rapa (Lethbridge, AB Irrigation)

Maximum leaf area is usually reached near the beginning of flowering and then begins
to decline with the loss of lower leaves. The leaves, especially the upper ones at this
stage, are the major source of food for the growth of stems and buds. Rapid
development and growth of a large leaf area, which is maintained well beyond the start
of flowering, strongly influences pod set and early seed development on the main stem
and the first few secondary branches. This impact of leaves on potential yield is shown
in the results of a study at the Saskatoon, SK Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Research Centre where leaves were removed at three flowering stages (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Reduced Yield Due to Leaf Area Loss at Different Growth Stages

Leaves at the start of flowering are the major source of food for plant growth, and their
removal results in a large seed yield loss. As flowering progresses, the leaf area declines
 44

and becomes less important as a source of food for plant growth, and its removal results
in less seed yield loss (Figure 5).

The development and maintenance of a large leaf area after the start of flowering is
largely dependent on proper seedbed preparation combined with adequate moisture,
temperature and nutrients that promote rapid, uniform emergence and growth.

Growth Stage 6: Flowering

60 first flower opens

61 10% of flowers on the main raceme open, main raceme elongating

63 30% of flowers open on the main raceme

65 full flowering - 50% of flowers on main raceme open, older petals falling

67 flowering declining - majority of petals fallen

69 flowering ends

B. napus varieties are self-pollinated and do not need pollinating agents such as wind
and insects. About 70 to 80% of the seed produced is from self-pollination. The crop is
very attractive to bees but their presence is unlikely to have much effect on yield.
However, some research has reported that bees cause seed set to occur earlier, resulting
in shorter, more compact plants that ripen more uniformly.

B. rapa is highly self-incompatible and relies on crosspollination from other plants.

Bees are the main pollinating agents, assisted by other insects and by wind. If adequate
pollination does not occur, yield can be significantly affected.

The two species can be distinguished at flowering by the position of the buds to the
surrounding open flowers (Figure 9).
 45

Figure 9. Distinguishing Characteristics of Some Brassicas

a) B. rapa - blade of upper leaves fully clasp the stem

b) B. napus - leaves partially clasp the stem
c) B. juncea - leaf blade terminates well up the petiole
d) Flower cluster of B. rapa with buds below open florets
e) Flower clusters of B. napus with buds above open florets
f) Typical Brassica floret

Copyright by Academic Press Canada, 1983

 46

The flower bud clusters are more compact in B. rapa. In B. napus, the buds are normally
borne above the open flowers, while in B. rapa, the buds are held below the uppermost
open flowers. B. rapa flowers are normally smaller and darker yellow than B. napus
flowers. The shape of the leaves on the flowering stalk can also be used to distinguish
between the species (Figure 9). In B. rapa, the upper leaf blade clasps the stem
completely, while in B. napus the leaf only partially clasps the stem. In tame and wild
mustard plants, the leaf blade terminates well above the stem.

Flowering begins with the opening of the lowest bud on the main stem and continues
upward with three to five or more flowers opening per day. Flowering at the base of the
first secondary branch begins two to three days after the first flower opens on the main
stem. Figures 10 and 11 illustrate the progression of flowering in fields of B. rapa and
B. napus with uniform stands of average density.

Figure 10. Days to Flower and Duration of Individual Branches - B. rapa Seeded May

25

Figure 11. Days to Flower and Duration of Individual Branches - B. napus Seeded May

Under reasonable growing conditions, flowering of the main stem will continue from 14
to 21 days for both species. Full plant height (GS 39) is reached at peak flowering (GS
65) due to the overlap of growth stages.

Flowers begin opening early in the morning and, as the petals completely unfold, pollen
is shed and dispersed by both wind and insects. Flowers remain receptive to pollen for
up to three days after opening. If favourable, warm, dry weather occurs, nearly all the
 47

pollen is shed the first day the flower opens. In the evening, the flower partially closes
and opens again the following morning. Fertilization occurs within 24 hours of
pollination. After pollination and fertilization, the flower remains partially closed and
the petals wilt and drop (two to three days after the flower opened). The young pod
becomes visible in the centre of the flower a day after petals drop.

During flowering, the branches continue to grow longer as buds open into flowers and
as flowers develop into pods. In this way, the first buds to open become the pods lowest
on the main stem or secondary branches. Above them are the open flowers, and above
them, the buds which are yet to open. All of the buds that will develop into open flowers
on the main stem will likely be visible in B. napus within three days after the start of
flowering, and within 10 days in B. rapa.

Canola plants initiate more buds than they can develop into productive pods. The
flowers open, but the young pods fail to enlarge and elongate, and eventually fall from
the plant (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Total Flowers Produced and Productive Pods Formed in B. napus Plants

The abortion of flowers and pods is natural. Both flowers and seeds can undergo
substantial abortion depending on the carrying capacity established by leaf, stem and
branch growth plus environmental stress imposed during flowering and seed set. During
flowering the plant can adjust yield based on the number of flowers produced and
pollinated. Under stress, the number of branches that produce flowers may be reduced
and the number of flowers on each branch may decline. Flowers that are open during
heat stress may fail to pollinate. Normally, fertility of flowers that open later will be
unaffected if stress has been alleviated. Areas on the main stem or branches with no pod
development are symptoms of stress. Under severe stress, loss of unopened buds
increases, signalling the end of flowering. If the severe stress occurred at early
flowering the plant may resume flowering through increased branching if very
favourable conditions return.

Studies at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Saskatoon Research Centre have
shown that only 40 to 55% of the flowers produced on a plant develop productive pods,
which are retained until harvest (Figure 13). In this study, conducted in a dry year, most
of the productive pods were from flowers that opened within the first 15 days of
flowering on the main stem and first three secondary branches. Later flowers and pods
on all branches aborted. Under more favourable growing conditions more flowers and
 48

pods would have been produced but the percentage of abortions would have been
similar.

Figure 13. Number of Flowers for each Branch and Number of Productive Pods in B.

rapa

At the peak of flowering canola produces a bright yellow layer of flowers, at least 30
cm (12") thick, which forms an effective reflecting and absorbing surface for solar
radiation at the top of the crop. Studies have found that flowers reflect or absorb about
60% of incoming radiation that could have been utilized by the photosynthetic active
tissues of the plant. Research studies comparing a normal flowering variety with an
apetalous variety at peak flowering have shown that solar radiation into the canopy
increased by 30% when plants had no flower petals. The main reason for the decrease in
leaf area index (LAI) after floral initiation is the reduction of radiation into the leaf
canopy caused by flower petals. This shading results in senescence of active green
leaves. Therefore, apetalous varieties should have a greater photosynthetic capability
through increased radiation into the crop canopy at the critical stage for developing pods
and seeds.

Growth Stage 7: Development of Seed

70 0% of pods reach final size

71 10% of pods reach final size

72 20% of pods reach final size

75 50% of pods reach final size

77 77% of pods reach final size

79 nearly all of the pods reach final size

By mid-flower, when lower pods have started elongating, the stem becomes the major
source of food for plant growth, with a reduced amount from the declining leaves and a
small amount from the developing pods (Figure 5). There is competition for the food
supply between flowers and pods on the same branch, as well as between branches. The
early developed pods have a competitive advantage over later formed pods. Flowering
on the later developing secondary branches may continue for some time after the main
 49

stem has finished flowering. Older pods at the base of the flowering branches are well
along in development while new flowers are still being initiated at the tips. At this stage,
the stem and pod walls are both major sources of food for seed growth since the pod
photosynthetic surface area has greatly increased (Figure 5).

During the first couple of weeks of seed development, the seed coat expands until the
seed is almost full size. The seed at this stage is somewhat translucent and resembles a
waterfilled balloon. The seed's embryo now begins development and grows rapidly
within the seed coat to fill the space previously occupied by fluid; seed weight
increases.

Any stress leading to a change in the supply of food can abort pods or reduce the
number of seeds in each pod. The stress may be internal where the plant is unable to
take up soil water available to it or to generate food supplies necessary for seed filling.
The stress can be external where soil water is limited or temperatures excessive for
optimal crop development.

The number of seeds that develop in each pod will be influenced by the availability of
plant food supplies at the time when seed expansion occurs. Lack of plant food supplies
at this growth stage will result in smaller pods with fewer, lighter seeds, especially in
the later secondary branches and tops of branches. Substantial stress at seed expansion
leads to shorter pods and/or lack of expansion around missing seeds. Segments of the
pods will not expand normally with little or no sign of seed remnants inside the pod.

Plants under stress redirect food supplies from stems and pods to those seeds that are
left. The only way a plant can respond to more favourable conditions late in the growing
season is by producing larger seeds. When severe stress occurs later in the filling
process, the pod appears normal because the seed expanded normally and then started to
die off resulting in a shrivelled seed coat with little or no evidence of having started the
seed filling process.

Once seed expansion is complete, seeds are more resistant to loss from stress, but losses
can occur if stress is severe. The plant attempts to redirect food supplies to seeds that
continue filling. Pods show no external signs of stress, but affected seeds may be visibly
shrivelled within the pod. Even where shrivelling is not evident, due to reduced food
supplies, seed size will be smaller and a larger portion of seeds will have wrinkled seed
coats. B. rapa is reported to be more sensitive to high temperatures, while B. napus is
more sensitive to drought.

B. napus pods are larger, with a medium length beak, while B. rapa pods are smaller
and shorter, with a long beak (Figure 14). The pod is divided internally into two halves
by a membrane, which runs the full length of the pod. Normally a pod contains 15 to 40
seeds. B. napus seeds are generally larger at 3.5 to 5.5 grams/1,000 seeds (182,000 to
286,000 seeds/kg or 83,000 to 130,000 seeds/lb) than B. rapa at 2.0 to 3.0 grams/1,000
seeds (333,000 to 500,000 seeds/kg or 150,000 to 227,000 seeds/lb).
 50

Figure 14. Typical Pods of B. napus and B. rapa Canola

Typical pods of:

a) B. napus showing an intact and opened pod with the seeds of the upper half exposed,
while those of the lower half are obscured by the central membrane;
b) an intact and opened pod of B. rapa

Growth Stage 8: Ripening

80 ripening begins - seed green, filling pod cavity

81 10% of pods ripe, seeds black and hard

83 30% of pods ripe, seeds black and hard

85 50% of pods ripe, seeds black and hard

87 70% of pods ripe, seeds black and hard

89 fully ripe - nearly all pods ripe, seeds black and hard

At the stage where seeds in the lower pods have turned green, most of the leaves on the
plant have yellowed and fallen from the plant. The pod walls have become the major
source of food although the stem is still important (Figure 5). The pods, besides being
major food producers, are also major food users from other sources for seed
development.
 51

About 35 to 45 days after the flower opens seed filling is complete. The firm green seed
has adequate oil and protein reserves to support future germination and seedling growth.
The stems and pods turn yellow and progressively become brittle as they dry.

Usually the earliest formed pods are the largest and develop more and larger seeds.
Immature seeds, when filled, contain about 40 to 45% moisture. The seed coat then
begins to turn from green to yellow or brown, depending on the variety. Seed moisture
is rapidly lost at a rate of 2 to 3% or more per day, depending on growing conditions. At
40 to 60 days after first flower or 25 to 45 days after the end of flowering, the seeds in
the lower pods will have ripened and fully changed colour. As the seed coat changes
colour so does the seed. The embryo, which fills the entire seed, begins to lose its green
colour. When completely mature the seed is uniformly bright yellow in colour. When 30
to 40% of the seeds on the main stem of a plant have begun to change seed coat colour
(black or yellow), seeds in the last formed pods are in the last stages of filling. The
majority of seeds have reached physiological maturity and the average seed moisture is
about 30 to 35%. This is the optimum stage for swathing. Swathing before physiological
maturity can result in reduced yields due to incomplete seed development.

Although the potential number of pods per plant and seeds per pod are set at flowering,
the final number is not established until a later stage. Seed filling requires adequate soil
moisture and nutrients. Seed abortion, or reduction in seed weight, can be caused by
anything that interferes with plant functions during this time.

In canola, the seed accounts for about 23 to 31% of the total plant dry matter produced,
depending upon growing conditions (Figures 6 and 7). The leaves, stems and especially
pod surface areas must be kept free from disease, insect and weather damage. Anything
that stresses or reduces the food production capacity of these plant surfaces may lead to
a reduction in seed yield.

Growth Stage 9: Senescence

92 plants dead and dry

95 plants dead and dry

97 plants dead and dry

99 harvested product

When all the seeds in all pods have changed colour, the plant dies. Mature pods easily
shatter (split along the centre membrane) and the seed is lost. B. rapa pods are more
resistant to shattering than the easily shattered B. napus pods. This and other
characteristics of B. rapa versus B. napus canola are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of the Chief Characteristics of B. rapa and B. napus.

Characteristic B. rapa B. napus

 52

Table 1. Summary of the Chief Characteristics of B. rapa and B. napus.

Characteristic B. rapa B. napus

Cotyledons Hairy and wrinkled on underside Smooth on underside

Rosette and Larger, up to 6 waxy,

Small, 3 to 5 yellowgreen leaves
leaves blue-green leaves

4 to 6 per plant on
Branches Up to 20 per plant
average

Smaller, darker yellow, rely on cross Self-pollinating, buds

Flowers pollination. Compact bud clusters, buds borne above open
held below uppermost open flowers flowers

Leaf blade only

Leaves Leaf blade clasps the stem completely partially clasps the
stem

Taller, 75 to 175 cm (30

Height 50 to 125 cm (20 to 50")
to 70")

Large, medium length

Smaller, shorter, long beak, smaller
Pods beak, fewer pods,
seeds, more pods
larger seeds

Shattering Resistant Easily shattered

Summary of Growth Stages

The life cycle of the canola plant is divided into seven principle stages. Learn the
growth stages to make the critical management decisions at each development stage.
Each growth stage covers a stage in the development of the plant. However, the
beginning of each stage is not dependent on the completion of the preceding stage.
Several growth stages tend to overlap. From the onset of budding each growth stage is
determined by examining the main flowering (terminal) stem. The timing and
occurrence of the different growth stages will vary with growing conditions, location,
species and variety. When two stages overlap, use the growth stage number for the more
advanced stage, where it will adequately describe the state of the plant.
 53

In general, the growth stages of the canola plant and overlaps are illustrated in the

following chart:

Time to Maturity

Maturity, or days from seeding to harvest, is an overall measure of the duration of

canola growth stages. Maturity will vary considerably depending on location, growing
season and date of seeding (Table 2). Generally speaking, B. rapa varieties mature seven
to 28 days earlier than most B. napus varieties.

Table 2. Range in Maturity at Different Research Trial Locations and Years

Range in Days from Seeding to Swathing

Location B. rapa B. napus

Low Avg High Low Avg High

Ontario

Guelph 77 79 81 84 86 88

Kempville 73 80 86 84 88 92

New Liskeard 78 85 100 92 105 129

Kapuskasing 76 96 111 96 116 140

Manitoba

Morden 66 80 99 83 94 105

Winnipeg 70 81 88 74 96 105
 54

Table 2. Range in Maturity at Different Research Trial Locations and Years

Range in Days from Seeding to Swathing

Location B. rapa B. napus

Low Avg High Low Avg High

Brandon 66 82 106 78 93 124

Portage La Prairie 67 47 85 79 89 99

Saskatchewan

Regina 75 85 93 96 99 105

Watrous 77 80 82 85 88 90

Saskatoon 85 87 90 94 98 100

Indian Head 78 87 96 89 103 114

Scott 83 88 96 97 101 106

Melfort 75 88 100 95 105 112

Alberta

Lethbridge 69 72 81 88 89 90

Irricanna 86 89 90 96 99 102

Olds 98 104 110 107 113 120

Penhold 95 98 104 102 105 108

Lacombe 91 97 106 102 118 127

Ellerslie 91 95 99 101 107 113

Westlock 89 91 107 98 105 112

Kelsey 81 98 111 100 106 114

Vermilion 89 93 109 95 98 104

Beaverlodge 84 96 108 103 119 133

 55

Table 2. Range in Maturity at Different Research Trial Locations and Years

Range in Days from Seeding to Swathing

Location B. rapa B. napus

Low Avg High Low Avg High

Fort Vermilion 88 94 100 106 116 130

Since the mid-1990s, increasing numbers of new canola varieties have been introduced
to the market. Some of these are adapted to specific canola growing regions. Check with
your provincial oilseed extension specialist or refer to reports of adaptation trials in your
province to determine what varieties have the maturity best suited to your area.
Varieties that require fewer days to mature can be grown in the southern canola growing
areas because of the greater heat units available. In the far north, the longer day length
tends to offset the lower heat units available.

References

Allen, E.J. and Morgan, D.G. 1975. A quantitative comparison of the growth,
development and yield of different varieties of oilseed rape. J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.)
85:159-174.

Allen, E.J., Morgan, D.G. and Ridgman, W.J. 1971. A physiological analysis of the
growth of oilseed rape. J. Agric. Sci., Camb. 77:339-341.

Bouttier, C. and Morgan, D.G. 1992. Development of oilseed rape buds, flowers and
pods in vitro. Journal of Experimental Botany 43:1089-1096.

Campbell, D.C. and Kondra, Z.P. 1977. Growth pattern analysis of three rapeseed
cultivars. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:707-712.

Campbell, D.C. and Kondra, Z.P. 1978. Relationships among growth patterns, yield
components and yield of rapeseed. Can. J. Plant. Sci. 58:87-93.

Chongo, G. and McVetty, P.B.E. 2001. Relationship of physiological characters to

yield parameters in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Can. J. Plant Sci. 81:1-6.

Clarke, J.M. 1979. Intra-plant variation in number of seeds per pod and seed weight in
Brassica napus 'Tower'. Can. J. Plant Sci. 59:959-962.

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1978a. Growth analysis of Brassica napus cv.
Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58:587-595.

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1978. Influence of irrigation and seeding rates on
yield and yield components of Brassica napus cv. Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58:731-737.
 56

Daniels, R.W., Scarisbrick, D.H. and Smith, L.J. 1986. Oilseed rape physiology. In:
Scarisbrick, D.H. and Daniels, R.W. (eds) Oilseed Rape. Collins, London, Pp:83-126.

Eisikowitch, D. 1981. Some aspects of pollination of oil seed rape (Brassica napus L.).
J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 96:321-326.

Evans, E.J. 1984. Pre-anthesis growth and its influence on seed yield in winter oilseed
rape. Aspects of Applied Biology 6:81-90.

Freyman, S., Charnetski, W.A. and Crookston, R.K. 1973. Role of leaves in the
formation of seed in rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 53:693-694.

Harper, F.R. and Berkenkamp, B. 1975. Revised growth-stage key for Brassica
campestris and B. napus. Can. J. Plant Sci. 55:657-658.

Kjellstrom, C. 1993. Comparative growth analysis of Brassica napus and Brassica

juncea under Swedish conditions. Can. J. Plant Sci. 71:795-801.

Lancashire, P.D., Bleiholder, H., Van Den Boom, T. Langeluddeke, P., Stauss, S.,
Weber, E. and Witzenberger, A. 1991. A uniform decimal code for growth stages of
crops and weeds. Ann. Appl. Biol. 119:561-601.

Major, D.J. 1977. Analysis of growth of irrigated rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:193-197.

Major, D.J., Bole, J.B. and Charnetski, W.A. 1978. Distribution of photosynthates
after 14CO2 assimilation by stems, leaves, and pods of rape plants. Can. J. Plant Sci.
587:783-787.

McGregor, D.I. 1981. Pattern of flower and pod development in rapeseed. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 61:275-282.

Mendham, N.J., Rao, M.S.S. and Buzza, G.C. 1991. The apetalous flower character
as a component of a high yielding ideotype. Proceedings of the eighth International
Rapeseed Congress. Saskatoon. p:596-600.

Mendham, N.J. and Salisbury, P.A. 1995. Physiology - crop development, growth and
yield. In: Kimber, D.S. and McGregor, D.I. (eds) Production and Utilization of Brassica
Oilseeds. CAB International, Oxford. p:11-65.

Mendham, N.J., Shipway, P.A. and Scott, R.K. 1981. The effects of seed size,
autumn nitrogen and plant population density on the response to delayed sowing in
winter oil-seed rape (Brassica napus). J. Agric. Aci., Camb. 96:417-428.

Morrison, M.J., Stewart, D.W. and McVetty, P.B.E. 1992. Maximum area,
expansion rate and duration of summer rape leaves. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72:117-126.

Pechan, P.A., and Morgan, D.G. 1985. Defoliation and its effects on pod and seed
development in oil seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Experimental Botany
36:458-468.
 57

Rao, M.S.S., Mendham, N.J. and Buzza, G.C. 1991. Effect of the apetalous flower
character on radiation distribution in the crop canopy, yield and its component in
oilseed rape (Brassica napus). Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 117:189-196.

Rood, S.B., Major, D.J. and Charnetski, W.A. 1984. Seasonal changes in 14CO2
assimilation and 14C translocation in oilseed rape. Field Crops Res., 8:341-348.

Smith, L.J. and Scarisbrick, D.H. 1990. Reproductive development in oilseed rape
(Brassica napus cv. Bienvenu) Annuals of Botany 65:205-212.

Strauss, R. 1994. Compendium of growth stage identification keys for mono- and
dicotyledonus plants - Extended BBCH scale. Ciba- Geigy AG.

Sylvester-Bradley, R. and Makepeace, R.J. 1984. A code for stages of development

in oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). Aspects of applied Biology 6:399-419.

Tayo, T.O. and Morgan, D.G. 1975. Quantitative analysis of the growth, development
and distribution of flowers and pods in oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of
Agricultural Science, Cambridge 85:103-110.

Tayo, T.O. and Morgan, D.G. 1979. Factors affecting flower and pod development in
oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Cambridge 92:363-
373.

Thurling, N. 1974a. Morphophysiological determinants of yield in rapeseed (Brassica

campestris and Brassica napus L.). I. Growth and morphological characters. Australian
J. Agricultural Research 25:697-710.

Thurling, N. 1974b. Morphophysiological determinants of yield in rapeseed (Brassica

campestris and Brassica napus L.). II. Yield components. Australian J. Agricultural
Research 25:711-721.

Williams, I.H. 1978. The pollination requirements of swede rape (Brassica napus L.)
and of turnip rape (Brassica campestris L.). Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge
91:343-348.

Williams, I.H., Martin, A.P. and White, R.P. 1987. The effect of insect pollination on
plant development and seed production in winter oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.).
Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 109:135-139.

Yates, D.J. and Steven, M.D. 1987. Reflexion and absorption of solar radiation by
flowering canopies of oil-seed rape (Brassica napus L.). Journal of Agricultural Science,
Cambridge 109:495-502
 58

Chapter 4 - Effects of Moisture

1. Effects of Moisture on Canola Growth
o Water's Role in the Canola Plant
 Germination and Emergence
 Rosette, Elongation and Flowering
 Excess Soil Moisture
o Water Use and Yield
o Crop Water Use Comparisons
o Soil Moisture Storage Capacity
 Effect of Soil Texture on Moisture Storage
 Effect of Soil Texture on Moisture Infiltration
 Effect of Soil Structure on Soil Moisture
 Suitability of Soils for Canola Based on Moisture Holding
Capacity
o Effect of Soil Fertility on Plant Moisture Use
o Soil Moisture Measurement
o Soil Water Management Strategies
 Conserving Snow Moisture
 Use of Crop Residues
 Increasing Soil Organic Matter
 Use of Fertilizer
 Tillage Operations
 Summerfallow
 Weed, Insect and Disease Control
 Drainage
 Summary
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Seedling Emergence for Brassica rapa (Tobin) at Various
Soil Water Contents
o Figure 2. Dry Matter (DM) Production and Leaf Area Index (LAI)
o Figure 3. Effect of Water Stress on Brassica Plants
o Figure 4. Effect of Water Logging on Yield
o Figure 5. Water Use by B. rapa
o Figure 6. Crop Response to Available Moisture
o Figure 7. Moisture Use and Canola Yield (Southern Alberta 1994 -
98)
o Figure 8. Picture of Root Systems of Canola (Cyclone), Wheat
(Katepwa) and Field Pea (Grande) at Swift Current in 1998
o Figure 9. Soil Texture Triangle
o Figure 10. Volume of Soil Components in Three Soils
o Figure 11. Relationship of Field Capacity, Wilting Point, Available
Water and Unavailable Water to Soil Texture
o Figure 12. Water Movement in Different Texture Soils
o Figure 13. Change in Infiltration Rate with Time
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Emergence of Canola at Two Soil Moisture Levels
o Table 2. Average Effects of Water on Yield Components and Yield
of B. napus - Outlook Area
 59

o Table 3. Effects of Temperature and Water Stress Applied from the

End of Flowering until Maturity on Yield, Yield Components and Oil
Content for B. napus
o Table 4. Effects of Irrigation Levels on Canola Yield
o Table 5. Water Use by B. rapa
o Table 6. Crop Yields, Water Use and Water Use Efficiency (WUE)
1996 - 1998
o Table 7. Fertilizer Effect on Canola Water Use Efficiency for 25 mm
(1") of water - Fort Vermilion, AB
o Table 8. Practical Interpretation Chart for Soil Moisture
o Table 9. Soil Moisture Reserves Necessary for Recropping

Chapter 4 - Effects of Moisture

Effects of Moisture on Canola Growth

Water is essential for plant growth. Too much or too little water at any particular growth
stage reduces yield potential. Canola plants obtain all their moisture needs from the soil.
Moisture factors that may limit yield include:

 spring soil-stored moisture

 the rate and duration of rainfall and/or irrigation during the growing
season
 the capability of the soil to absorb, store and make water available for
plants

Modifying some of these factors can improve moisture availability and efficiency of
water use.

Water's Role in the Canola Plant

Water is the major component of the canola plant. It plays an important role in nutrient
absorption and transportation, formation of new products, plant growth and plant
response to abiotic stresses. Carbohydrates, the products of photosynthesis, are moved
in water solution to storage organs. A major portion of the water absorbed by the canola
plant evaporates through the stomata (tiny pores in the leaves). This evaporation process
called transpiration is essential for absorbing oxygen for photosynthesis. In addition,
water absorbs heat, cools the plant and prevents plant injury from high temperatures.
Water is also lost directly from the soil surface by evaporation. The combined loss of
moisture from the soil and the plant is called evapotranspiration. Heat and wind
increases evapotranspiration by rapidly removing and changing the air surrounding
plants.

A firm moist seedbed provides uniform seed germination and rapid seedling growth.
Adequate soil moisture at the seedling and elongation stage promotes the development
of a strong, healthy plant less subject to lodging with a maximum amount of leaf growth
by the end of June. Leaves provide the predominant source of food for seed
development. Therefore, water management practices that increase leaf development
and prolonged leaf life will also promote seed development.
 60

Germination and Emergence

Moisture is essential for seed germination. Soil moisture and temperature are the two
most important factors controlling germination, the start of root growth and emergence.
Soil moisture is critical as it affects how quickly water penetrates the seed. Canola seed
has to imbibe a high percentage of its weight in water before germination begins. Cold
temperatures and variable soil water availability in early spring limit germination and
subsequent growth. In addition to cool temperatures in the spring, most Canadian prairie
soils are also exposed to rapid drying on the surface when disturbed by any form of
cultivation. Canola is sown very shallow and germinates in the portion of soil that is
subject to the greatest drying effect. Germination and emergence of canola is
progressively delayed and reduced as soil water availability decreases. As the soil dries
it becomes more difficult for the seed to obtain water from the soil particles. This is why
semi-dry seedbeds very often result in slow, uneven germination and more abnormal
seedlings. Coarse textured soils may dry or drain rapidly resulting in reduced
germination or root growth.

Growth chamber research on seedling emergence at low temperatures of 8.5 to 10°C

(day/night) and various levels of soil moisture, showed canola seeds in soils with lower
moisture had slower and lower emergence (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Seedling Emergence for Brassica rapa (Tobin) at Various Soil Water Contents

However, in the field, soil temperatures can be lower and seedling diseases can further
reduce rates of emergence. Researchers at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Melfort,
SK Research Centre working with Grey Wooded and Dark Grey Wooded soils in
northern Saskatchewan, reported that clay soils with higher moisture storage capacity
had better and quicker emergence than sandy loam soils with lower moisture storage
capacity at 100% field capacity (F.C.) (Table 1).

Table 1. Emergence of Canola at Two Soil Moisture Levels

% Emergence of B. napus

6 Days After Seeding 13 Days After Seeding

 61

Soil Type 100% F.C. 100% F.C.

Tisdale Clay 74 76

Sylvania Sandy Loam 33 50

A loose or dry, cold seedbed will result in reduced and delayed germination, reduced
rate of seedling emergence and may inhibit germination altogether until a rain occurs.
Conserve soil moisture during seedbed preparation. Maintain a firm seedbed to reduce
the loss of moisture to the surface. As long as sufficient moisture remains to maintain a
relative humidity in the soil pores of 60 to 75%, the canola seed coat will absorb
moisture. There is little capillary water movement in the seedbed.

If irrigation is available, centre pivot systems provide greater flexibility as irrigation can
be used to aid seedbed preparation. Prepare the field for seeding then irrigate heavily
enough to firm the surface and wet the soil to the level of sub-surface moisture, usually
1 to 2 cm (0.5 to 0.75"). Leave the field to become surface dry, then seed. Do not
irrigate between seeding and emergence due to potential soil crusting. A single
irrigation to promote germination and emergence is usually all that is necessary until the
crop is in the four- to six-leaf stage. Avoid overirrigation during this period which can
reduce the rate of crop growth and increase the level of seedling disease.

Rosette, Elongation and Flowering

Adequate soil moisture:

 promotes root growth

 promotes a large abundant leaf area
 helps plants retain their leaves longer
 lengthens the flowering period
 increases the number of branches per plant, number of flower forming
pods, seeds per pod, seed weight, and seed yield

Research at Lethbridge, AB and Outlook, SK has shown that adequate soil moisture
from irrigation has a large influence on plant growth and development in comparison to
dryland canola (Table 2).

Table 2. Average Effects of Water on Yield Components and Yield of B. napus -

Outlook, SK Area

Branchers Per Pods Per Seeds Per Seed Weight

Water Use Seed Yield
Plant Plant Pod g/100

mm kg/ha bu/ac

Rain fed 210 3.5 48 15.2 3.09 922 16.4

 62

Table 2. Average Effects of Water on Yield Components and Yield of B. napus -

Outlook, SK Area

Branchers Per Pods Per Seeds Per Seed Weight

Water Use Seed Yield
Plant Plant Pod g/100

mm kg/ha bu/ac

Low
282 3.9 54 18.9 3.22 1,537 27.4
irrigation

High
369 4.0 61 20.3 3.48 2,463 43.8
irrigation

Moisture stress during the early vegetative stages may reduce leaf expansion and dry
matter production (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Dry Matter (DM) Production and Leaf Area Index (LAI)

Plants under early season moisture stress will usually recover normal growth with
rainfall or irrigation. Stressed plants have the ability to recover leaf area, form flowers,
set pods and fill seeds when the water becomes available but with hastened
development rates, early maturity and lower yields. The worst time to experience
drought stress on canola is during stem elongation or flowering.

Heavy rain or sprinkler irrigation during flowering may cause flower damage, reduce
pollination and yield. However, most irrigation and dryland growers have not reported
this to be a serious problem. In general, canola produces more flowers than its
photosynthetic machinery can sustain and when a portion of the flowers are affected by
heavy rain or irrigation, later formed flowers can compensate. Since flowering can
extend up to 30 days, it is almost impossible to avoid irrigation during this period, if
adequate soil moisture levels are to be maintained. With water use of around 7 mm
(0.28") per day, the crop would need 210 mm (8") of water during flowering. However,
the soil moisture storage capacity of most soils is well below this level. Irrigating during
 63

the flowering stage is particularly important since a water deficiency will result in
reduced dry matter production, fewer pods, early leaf loss and reduced yields (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Effect of Water Stress on Brassica Plants

Moisture stress during flowering or ripening stages results in large yield losses. Leaves
wilt and die sooner causing reduced branching, pods per plant, pod length, seed size and
seeds per pod. Seed oil content drops while protein content increases. Moisture stress
may greatly slow or stop root growth affecting further soil water intake. If moisture
stress is severe, recently formed pods may abort. The flowering period and maturity are
shortened, especially when combined with high temperatures. An excessively low
relative humidity with high temperatures can result in pollen germination and seed
fertilization failure. Moisture stress combined with higher temperature from flowering
to maturity significantly decreases the number of pods, number of seeds, seed weight,
oil content and yield (Table 3).

Table 3. Effects of Temperature and Water Stress Applied from the End of
Flowering until Maturity on Yield, Yield Components and Oil Content for B.
napus

Day/Night Temperature Effect (% relative to irrigated low temperature)

18/10°C 26/18°C

Water Treatment Irrigated Water Stress Irrigated Water stress

Seed yield 100 63 67 56

Pods/m 2 100 72 82 65
 64

Table 3. Effects of Temperature and Water Stress Applied from the End of
Flowering until Maturity on Yield, Yield Components and Oil Content for B.
napus

Day/Night Temperature Effect (% relative to irrigated low temperature)

18/10°C 26/18°C

Water Treatment Irrigated Water Stress Irrigated Water stress

Seeds/m2 100 84 83 72

Seed weight 100 76 81 77

Oil content 100 88 89 83

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada researchers at Lethbridge, AB maintained available

soil moisture above 50% in different treatments up to budding, early pod formation and
ripening for B. rapa in years of below average precipitation (Table 4). The greatest
yields resulted from adequate fertility and soil moisture throughout the growing season.
With increasing available moisture, yield increased.

Table 4. Effects of Irrigation Levels on Canola Yield

Irrigation Treatment Water Yield (kg/ha) Yield (bu/ac)

mm Inches

No irrigation 0 0 1042 18.5

Irrigate to stem elongation 65 2.6 1281 22.8

Irrigate to early pod formation 130-195 5.1-7.7 1747 31.1

Irrigate to pod ripening* 260-325 10.2-12.8 2636 46.9

* First seed turning brown

Oil content and seed weight of canola increase with adequate water. Therefore, apply
irrigation to avoid available soil moisture from the root zone dropping below 50% until
the earliest pods begin to ripen. On late maturing fields, terminate irrigation prior to this
growth stage to hasten maturity and reduce the risk of frost damage.

The exact timing and amounts of irrigation required will depend on the soil moisture at
seeding, rate of water use, weather conditions, rainfall and type of irrigation system
used. Adequate soil moisture will tend to lengthen days to maturity of canola by up to
10 days.
 65

In many cases it may not be possible to provide adequate soil moisture. Rationed
irrigation water or the use of a sideroll sprinkler system may limit the amount of water
that can be applied and yield will be less than optimum. If a side-roll sprinkler system is
used, crop height can limit the system's use and reduce yield because of moisture stress
during ripening. In these cases, provide a high level of moisture to the crop just before
growth prohibits further wheel movement. The best results, when water is limited, will
usually be obtained with irrigation just prior to or at early flowering.

Long periods of drought will reduce yields on dryland more than frequent short periods
of drought, especially on coarse textured soils and shallow soils with low water storage
capacity.

Excess Soil Moisture

Canola roots require a good mix of water and air in the soil. When water exceeds the
soil's water holding capacity or where impermeable subsoil slows water infiltration,
water logging, flooding or ponding may occur. Canola is quite susceptible to water
logging and shows a yield reduction after only three days. Wet soils slow down or stop
gas exchange between the soil and atmosphere, causing an oxygen deficiency. A higher
temperature causes higher respiration rates in roots and soil micro-organisms and
therefore soil oxygen is consumed more quickly. Lack of oxygen reduces root
respiration and growth. Soil texture also affects the time that critical levels of soil
oxygen are reached. This is due to the oxygen carrying capacity of soils. Coarser
textured soils can hold more oxygen, increasing the amount of time required to reduce
levels to a critical point. Water logging reduces nutrient uptake and in very poorly
aerated soils plants can die. A high water table can also reduce the supply of oxygen to
the roots, restricting their growth. Symptoms include older leaves turning purple and
senescing more rapidly. Soil air supply must be maintained by ensuring that the soil has
good aggregation and adequate drainage.

The amount of yield loss will depend on the growth stage at the time of water logging,
the duration of water logging and the temperature (Figure 4).
 66

Figure 4. Effect of Water Logging on Yield

Water logging for seven days at the rosette growth stage can reduce plant height, while
number of branches and seeds per pod decrease with three days or more of flooding.
Water logging for three days or more during flowering reduces the number of pods per
branch as well as seeds per pod. Higher temperature during water logging reduces plant
growth and dry matter production. Water logging for seven days at seed filling
decreases individual seed weight and oil content. High temperatures combined with
water logging increases the detrimental effects on canola yield.

Water Use and Yield

The water required by a canola crop varies from spring to fall, year to year, and location
to location because of the influences of humidity, temperature, wind and light. Crop
evapotranspiration is primarily influenced by the stage of growth and amount of ground
cover as shown (Figure 5) for B. rapa varieties when adequately supplied with water in
southern Alberta.
 67

Figure 5. Water Use by B. rapa

B. napus crops have a similar water use curve but it extends to or past the end of
August. When the crop is young and not covering the ground, water use per day will be
low. Vegetative and root growth results in a gradual increase in water use. Increasing
temperature also contributes to the increase in water use. When the crop is actively
growing, providing full ground cover, and adequately supplied with soil moisture,
evapotranspiration will be at a maximum for the current weather conditions. Flowering
occurs during the peak use period. Peak moisture use occurs during hot, dry weather
and can be expected to reach 8 mm (0.32") per day or more. However, the weather
conditions necessary for such high water use are not likely to be prolonged over long
time periods. As the crop ripens, its ability to transmit water from the soil declines and
water use decreases.

Canola yields will be highest when there is adequate soil moisture throughout the
growing season. Adequate soil moisture is defined as maintaining 50% or more of the
available soil moisture in the root zone. The actual root zone of canola will vary from 5
to 6 cm (2 to 2.4") deep at emergence, to at least 14 cm (6") deep during flowering and
seed production. Under irrigation, soil moisture is managed to a depth of one metre
(39"). Not all of the available soil moisture is equally available to the plant. Generally,
when soil moisture is maintained at 75% of available soil moisture, yields are better
than at the 50% use level. Yields are reduced if more than 50% of the available soil
moisture in the root zone is used before soil moisture is restored (toward field capacity)
by rainfall or irrigation (Figure 6).
 68

Figure 6. Crop Response to Available Moisture

Additional soil moisture will result in no further increase in yield and may cause yield
reductions through poor soil aeration and/or increased lodging and diseases.

Canola plants require a threshold amount of water before any yield is obtained. Beyond
that threshold increasing amounts of water will result in higher yields. Usually 25 mm
(1") of water will result in about 150 to 200 kg/ha (2.75 to 3.60 bu/ac) of yield
depending on the soil type with good growing conditions and adequate fertility. Three
lines are presented in Figure 7 representing a range of crop growing conditions from
poor to excellent. In some research studies, under ideal conditions, yields have ranged
up to 392 kg/ha (7 bu/ac) per inch of water.

Figure 7. Moisture Use and Canola Yield (Southern Alberta 1994-98)

A study at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Centre in Lethbridge, AB

showed that a B. rapa crop used the following amounts of water under adequate soil
moisture and fertility (Table 5).

Table 5. Water Use By B. rapa

Month Water Use (mm) Water Use (")

May 25-30 1-1.2

 69

Table 5. Water Use By B. rapa

Month Water Use (mm) Water Use (")

June 130-150 5-6

July 200-210 8-8.3

August 45-60 1.8-2.4

Total 400-450 16-18

Under the same conditions a higher yielding, later-maturing B. napus crop would use
from 450 to 550 mm (18 to 22") of water in a growing season.

With sufficient soil moisture and fertility during the growing season to produce
maximum yields, crops in Black and Grey Wooded soils will require about 325 to 350
mm (13 to 14") of water. In most of the Thin Black, Black and Grey Wooded soil zones,
the rainfall during the growing season usually exceeds 250 mm (10"). Additional
moisture stored in the soil will result in higher yields. Therefore, in these areas, canola
can be grown successfully as a stubble crop.

Canola crops grown in cooler, more humid areas require less moisture to produce the
same crop yield than warmer, drier areas. Heat and wind increase water use while low
temperatures and less wind reduce water use. If the air is moist or on cloudy days,
moisture use is low. Potential water use is highest in the southwest prairies, especially
in the brown and dark brown soil zones. These areas usually have more sunlight, higher
temperatures, lower humidity and more wind than the Black or Grey-Wooded soil
zones. The Black soil zones have better moisture conditions and crop yield, not because
of higher precipitation, but as a result of lower temperatures and slower wind speeds.

In the Dark Brown and Brown soil zones, rainfall combined with stored soil moisture is
rarely sufficient to furnish the optimum amounts of water required by the crop during
the growing season. In these soil zones, use canola where the soil moisture profile is
fully recharged. A fully recharged soil profile is common on summerfallow, however,
use caution on stubble. Seed early as the plants develop a deeper rooting system to
utilize soil moisture. Early seeding also minimizes the risk of damage at flowering from
high temperatures in these soil zones. Increasing and conserving stored soil moisture is
important in these soil zones for higher yields.

Under conditions in much of the irrigated areas, the net annual irrigation requirement
for maximum canola yields will be 250 to 350 mm (10" to 14") of water. The exact
timing and amount of irrigation required will depend on the soil moisture at seeding,
rate of use, rainfall, and type of irrigation system.
 70

Crop Water Use Comparisons

Canola and mustard crops use about the same amount of water as a wheat crop. A three-
year joint study by Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada and the University of Manitoba in
Winnipeg, MB on crop water relations in the semi-arid prairie found that under natural
rainfall and imposed drought, total water use by all Brassica oilseeds was similar to
wheat (Table 6).

Table 6. Crop Yields, Water Use and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) 1996-1998

Imposed Drought Test (No Rain from Mid-June to Harvest)

Crop Water Use (") Seed Yield (lb/ac) WUE (lb/")

Mustard 5.86 a 531 e 84 d

B. napus canola 5.69 a 610 d 102 d

B. rapa canola 5.46 a 550 e 94 d

Chickpea 5.03 a 809 c 152 c

Field pea 4.82 a 1042 b 209 a

Wheat 5.81 a 1166 a 176 b

Rain Fed Test

Crop Water Use (") Seed Yield (lb/ac) WUE (lb/")

Mustard 13.49 a 1523 d 115 e

B. napus canola 13.51 a 1593 d 117 e

B. rapa canola 12.49 c 1776 d 143 d

Chickpea 12.67 bc 2132 c 167 c

Field pea 12.63 bc 3141 a 253 a

Lentil 12.44 c 1636 d 128 de

Wheat 13.18 ab 2551 b 193 b

Irrigated Test

Crop Water Use (") Seed Yield (lb/ac) WUE (lb/")

 71

Mustard 15.03 a 1836 dc 125 bc

B. napus canola 15.57 a 2285 b 146 b

B. rapa canola 13.80 b 1916 c 142 b

Chickpea 15.08 a 2283 b 145 b

Field pea 14.00 b 3293 a 145 b

Lentil 14.74 ab 1573 de 104 cd

Wheat 15.07 a 3280 a 224 a

Values within a column followed by the same letter were not statistically different
(P=0.05).

In general, B. rapa canola used significantly less water than wheat except under drought
conditions. This reflects the fact that B. rapa matures much earlier than any other crop.
Wheat has a higher water use efficiency, with higher pounds per unit of water consumed
than canola or mustard. Canola and mustard utilize more energy in producing oil than
wheat does in producing starch. B. napus canola and mustard used the same amount of
water and had similar water use efficiencies. Expect differences between canola and
mustard varieties in drought tolerance and water use.

The water use ranking of the various crops is: B. napus canola = mustard < spring wheat
= B. rapa canola < kabuli and desi chickpea > lentil = pea. This ranking is the same for
the each crop's rooting depth ranking.

Canola and field peas are dicots and have a tap root system, while wheat is a monocot
with a fibrous root system (Figure 8).
 72

Figure 8. Picture of Root Systems of Canola (Cyclone), Wheat (Katepwa) and Field Pea
(Grande) at Swift Current, SK in 1998

Canola and field pea root density was about 65% of wheat root density in the top 60 cm
(24") of the soil profile. The total root length density of canola and field peas in the
upper square metre of the soil profile were 131 m (429') and 166 m (544') compared to
248 m (814') in wheat. Canola had the highest root length density in the 100 to 120 cm
(40" to 48") layer. This research showed that field peas had the shallowest root system
and canola the deepest root system in this soil type.

The root system is elastic and depends on soil type, moisture content, temperature,
salinity and physical structure. Therefore, similar root density profiles will occur in
mediumtextured soils with moisture throughout the profile at seeding in the Brown soil
zone. Canola, mustard and wheat rely on water from their roots to maintain a favourable
 73

water balance so these crops more often experience water stress than do pulses. Pulse
crops show less water stress as their plant tissues are more elastic and can lose water
and still maintain a favourable water balance. Wheat is better at osmotic adjustment
(maintains more "suction" in its leaves) than canola or mustard so it can transport
sufficient water from its roots. The deep and conductive roots of canola and mustard are
key to the plant's ability to bring water to the leaves to maintain water status. Canola or
mustard grown on fallow can extract soil moisture at depth to reduce the effects of a dry
period. Under stubble, fall and early spring rains and snowmelt will often re-wet the soil
profile to a depth of up to 2'- much less than the depth Brassica crops can root. Below
that, the soil can be bone dry. Brassica crops cannot grow roots through extended zones
of dry soil and if the crop is limited to water near the soil surface there is an increased
risk of lower yields unless there are timely rains in June and July. Consequently, canola
and mustard are the poorest adapted to a dry rooting zone. Therefore, these crops in
dryland areas are best suited for production on fallow where the soil profile is recharged
with moisture at seeding.

Early and late seeded canola or mustard use about the same amount of water, but early
seeded fields produce higher yields due to more efficient water use. Mid-May sown
canola or mustard uses more water per day. However, as flowering and seed filling
occur during hotter drier conditions the crops mature earlier so that total water use is the
same as an early seeded crop.

Soil Moisture Storage Capacity

Not all of the yearly precipitation is stored in the soil and available to plants.
Precipitation may be stored in the root zone, drained below the root zone, used by
weeds and volunteer plants, evaporated from the soil surface, blown away as snow or
lost as runoff.

The amount of water that can be stored varies widely among soils depending upon the
number and size of pore spaces they contain, and the depth to layers of soil difficult for
water to penetrate. The number and size of pore spaces in a soil depend on its texture,
organic matter content and structure.

Effect of Soil Texture on Moisture Storage

Soil texture refers to the size and amount of the mineral particles of sand, silt and clay
present in the soil. The diameter of individual particles of sand range from 0.05 to 1 mm
(0.002 to 0.04"), silt from 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002") and clay less than
0.002 mm (0.00008"). The proportions of sand, silt and clay determine the soil texture
(Figure 9).
 74

Figure 9. Soil Texture Triangle

The 13 soil textures can be grouped into:

1. very coarse-sandy, loamy sands

2. coarse-sandy loam
3. medium-loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay, clay loam
4. fine-silt loam, silty clay, loam, silt
5. very fine-clay, silty clay, heavy clay

Figure 10 shows three soils of different textures-sandy loam, loam, and heavy clay-each
holding water at or near field capacity. Field capacity is the amount (%) of water that a
soil can hold against gravity.

Figure 10. Volume of Soil Components in Three Soils

 75

Note that the total amount of pore space (water and air) is greater as the percentage of
clay increases. In clay soils the clay particles are smaller, have more total surface area,
and contain many very small individual pore spaces. In sandy soils, the sand particles
are larger, have less total surface area and fewer larger individual pore spaces. Clay
soils are able to hold more water than sandy soils because of the smaller individual
pores and greater total pore space (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Relationship of Field Capacity, Wilting Point, Available Water and

Unavailable Water to Soil Texture

The small amount of pore space and many pores are so large that water readily drains
from sandy soils. Clay particles are very small with a large number of fine pore spaces,
which retain moisture. Organic matter increases the soil's water-holding capacity. After
a rain or irrigation that saturates the soil, about one-half of the total water will drain out
of the soil until it reaches field capacity if there is no restriction to drainage. For a sandy
soil, this drainage will be more than half the total water held at saturation, and for a clay
soil it will be less than half. As the water drains downward through the soil, evaporates
from the soil surface, or is used by plants, air will first occupy the large soil pores. As
the soil dries by evaporation and plant use, the intermediate and smaller size pores also
become occupied by air. As the soil dries further, increasing amounts of suction and
energy are required by plants to extract water from the soil. The water content of the
soil when the crop begins to wilt and not recover overnight is the wilting point. The
amount of soil water held between field capacity and wilting point is the available soil
moisture. In general, only about half of the total water that a soil can hold at field
capacity is available soil moisture.

Effect of Soil Texture on Moisture Infiltration

Evaporation from the soil surface mainly affects the water in the top 10 to 13 cm (4 to
5"). To be effectively stored in the soil, rainfall or irrigation must be heavy enough, or
frequent enough, to wet the soil below 10 to 13 cm (4 to 5"). Showers which only
dampen the surface will be lost to evaporation in a few days or even sooner if winds are
prevalent.

Soil texture and soil structure will regulate how much and how fast water can infiltrate
the soil. A sandy soil will have large pore spaces through which water can move easily.
The pore spaces in clay are small, causing water to move slowly. Think of three glass
 76

cylinders of soil, containing sand, sandy loam and clay loam soils respectively, as
shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Water Movement in Different Texture Soils

If a cup of water is poured on the surface of each soil it will disappear into the sand first,
into the loam next, and into the clay last. After the water has stopped moving in the soil,
the sand will be wetted the deepest, the loam not so deep, and the clay the least. This is
because of the greater water holding capacity of the clay loam. It has more pore space to
hold water, even though the individual pores are smaller. Sandy soils have a higher
infiltration rate over a longer period of time (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Change in Infiltration Rate with Time

If rainfall or irrigation exceeds the rate at which the soil allows infiltration, runoff will
occur. Crop residues break up raindrops and delay runoff, allowing penetration of water
into the soil.
 77

Effect of Soil Structure on Soil Moisture

Soil structure has only a small effect on the ability of soil to hold water. However, it
controls water entry into the soil, thus altering the "effective" water holding capacity.
Soil structure refers to the way in which mineral and organic particles are arranged into
granules or aggregates of different shapes, sizes and volumes of pore spaces. Soil
organic matter is involved in holding soil particles together in aggregates. Soil micro-
organisms are central to this process with aggregates constantly being formed and
broken down again. Soil micro-organisms feed on organic matter, producing binding
agents that aggregate soil particles. When a scarcity of organic matter occurs, micro-
organisms in the soil cause further destruction of aggregates by decomposing the
binding agents. Therefore, organic matter added to the soil in large quantities will
stimulate rapid growth of micro-organisms and result in production of binding agents,
greatly benefiting soil particle aggregation. The plant residue must also be mixed
thoroughly in the soil to maximize the soil volume involved. Consequently, plant roots
are best for adding organic matter to the soil in a form and location most beneficial to
maintaining a stable, fertile soil. The decomposing plant roots and micro-organisms
associated with them are continuous sources of soil organic matter. Native prairie stands
and forage crops provide more water-stable aggregates than a continuous wheat or
barley rotation.

Soil that is well aggregated has more pore space for air and water. A desirable soil
structure will have water-stable aggregates that vary in size from 1 to 5 mm (0.04 to
0.2") with good pore space within and between the granules. This allows air and water
to move freely into the soil and increase the ability of soil to hold water. A soil with low
organic matter and poor structure will have an initial infiltration rate for rainfall of only
one-tenth of a soil with high organic matter and good structure. A well aggregated soil
has good tilth preventing it from becoming either too hard with a crust or too loose. If
sufficient organic matter is returned to heavy clay soils they gradually develop a crumb-
like structure, which makes them easier to work and less susceptible to baking and
crusting. Soil surfaces that often bake or crust reduce water intake and storage causing
increased runoff and erosion after heavy rains or irrigation. Wetting only a portion of
the root zone depth can result in reduced root growth and lower crop yields. Increasing
organic matter content in light sandy soils helps soil aggregates hold together. When
soil particles are bound together into aggregates they stabilize the soil with a force
strong enough to resist breakdown by rainfall, wind erosion or runoff. Improved
aggregation results in less runoff and greater moisture storage.

Suitability of Soils for Canola Based on Moisture Holding Capacity

Medium-textured soils are most suitable to canola production because of their

favourable capacity for moisture infiltration, water holding capacity and usually
adequate drainage. These soils usually have a better granular structure that allows them
to be firmly packed for a seedbed without baking and crusting. Such a seedbed
promotes rapid germination and uniform stands that strongly compete with weeds.

Fine-textured soils can produce good canola crops when well managed. In drier areas,
clay soils with their higher water holding capacity are better able to carry canola crops
through short periods of drought. However, clay soils are more prone to becoming
waterlogged than sandy loam or loam soils because they have smaller air spaces and a
 78

slower rate of water movement. Clay soils tend to remain wet and cold in the spring,
which often results in slow germination and uneven growth, and allows little
competition to early weed infestations. Fine-textured soils low in organic matter often
have poor structure and crust easily, thereby reducing seedling emergence.

Sandy soils are usually not suitable for canola mainly because of their low moisture
holding capacity. The surface soil dries rapidly in the dry prairie region. Sandy soils
cannot store sufficient moisture to support a canola crop through periods of drought.
However, sandy soils are not subject to crusting and under irrigation, sandy textured soil
can support canola crops.

Effect of Soil Fertility on Plant Moisture Use

Soil fertility promotes efficient soil moisture use. Fertilized canola roots deeper and has
a greater root volume. This increases leaf development, prolongs leaf life and increases
supply of food for later pod and seed development. The amount of water required to
produce a kilogram or pound of dry matter is increased if the soil is low in fertility
(Table 7).

Table 7. Fertilizer Effect on Canola Water Use Efficiency for 25 mm (1") of water -
Fort Vermilion, AB*

Field Condition Unfertilized Fertilized

kg/ha/25 mm lb/ac/1" kg/ha/25 mm lb/ac/1"

Fallow 96 85 179 159

Stubble 50 45 116 103

*These calculations are made on the basis of May to August rainfall, plus an assumed
amount of stored soil moisture as the total water used by the crop.

The table illustrates a dramatic increase in moisture use efficiency on a low fertility
Grey Wooded soil. Adequate fertilization usually can improve water use efficiency by
up to 15% on fallow land and by 30% on stubble land.

Soil Moisture Measurement

Manual examination and appearance can be used to assess soil moisture content. Skill in
assessing soil moisture by manual examination is easily acquired, especially over a
number of years on the same fields. The only equipment needed is a shovel or auger to
obtain samples of the soil from the necessary depths. Table 8 describes the
characteristics of soil after it has been squeezed firmly in the hand. To obtain a useful
assessment of soil moisture with respect to the crop, examine the soil to three-quarters
of the rooting depth. For canola crops, the depth of rooting increases from the seedling
stage to full growth.
 79

Table 8. Practical Interpretation Chart for Soil Moisture

Feel or Appearance of Soils

Available
Soil
Moisture % Coarse Light Medium Heavy
of Field
Capacity

Powdery, dry,
sometimes Hard, baked,
Dry, loose, Dry, loose, slightly crusted cracked,
0 singlegrained, flows flows through but easily breaks sometimes has
through fingers fingers down into loose crumbs
powdery on surface
condition

Still appears Somewhat Somewhat

Still appears to be
to be dry; will crumbly but will pliable, will
50 or less dry; will not form a
not form a hold together ball under
ball with pressure
ball* from pressure pressure*

Tends to ball Forms a ball*,

Forms a ball;
under somewhat
Still appears to be will ribbon out
pressure but plastic; will
50 to 75 dry; will not form a between
seldom will sometimes slick
ball with pressure thumb and
hold slightly with
forefinger
together pressure

Tends to stick Forms a ball and

Forms weak Easily ribbons
together slightly, is very pliable;
75 to field ball, breaks out between
sometimes forms a slicks readily if
capacity easily, will fingers; has a
very weak ball relatively high in
not slick slick feeling
under pressure clay

Upon squeezing, no
free water appears
At field Same as Same as
on the soil but wet Same as coarse
capacity coarse coarse
outline of ball is left
on hand

Free water appears Free water Puddles and

Above field Can squeeze
when soil is will be free water
capacity out free water
bounced in hand released with forms on
 80

Table 8. Practical Interpretation Chart for Soil Moisture

Feel or Appearance of Soils

Available
Soil
Moisture % Coarse Light Medium Heavy
of Field
Capacity

kneading surface

*Ball is formed by squeezing a handful of soil very firmly with fingers.

Thus, the depth of soil with respect to critical moisture content is less in the early stages
of growth than in midseason. Take the shallowest samples in the 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8")
depth.

In the lower rainfall areas of the drier Brown soil zone, the risk of crop failure is greater
and the critical depth of moist soil is more important than in the other soil zones. Note
that sandy soils require the full rooting depth of 120 cm (4.8") to be moist before
recropping should be risked in all soil zones.

Soil Water Management Strategies

Canola crops on the Canadian prairies are frequently subjected to temperature and
moisture stress. The soil water supply during the growing season is frequently
insufficient to meet the potential evapotranspiration needs of the crop, especially in
dryland areas. Crop productivity is directly proportional to the amount of water
transpired. The transpiration can be increased either by increasing the water supply or
by reducing evaporation. Therefore, any management practice that improves water
available for transpiration either by conserving or by reducing evaporation, increases
crop yield.

On dryland, the manual assessment of soil moisture can help you decide whether or not
to recrop a stubble field. Table 9 provides a general guide for recropping.

Table 9. Soil Moisture Reserves Necessary for Recropping*

Soil Zone
Soil
Black,
Moisture
Grey, Peace River
Reserves Brown Dark Brown Thin Black
Grey Region
Wooded
 81

Table 9. Soil Moisture Reserves Necessary for Recropping*

Soil Zone
Soil
Black,
Moisture
Grey, Peace River
Reserves Brown Dark Brown Thin Black
Grey Region
Wooded

High: Soil
moisture
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
beyond 75
cm (30")

Medium: Recropping is to
Soil 45 to 75 cm (18
moisture to to 30") risky
Yes Yes Yes Yes
45 to 75 except at high
cm (18 to end of moisture
30") range

Low: Soil
Recropping Recropping is
moisture to Recropping is Recropping
has some Yes risky in drier
15-45 cm not advisable is risky
risk areas
(6 to 18")

Very low:
Little soil Recropping Recropping Recropping
Recropping is
moisture is not has some Yes risk depends
not advisable
below 15 advisable risk on subregion
cm (6")

*Assumes a loam soil. For clay soil, multiply depths by 0.7. For sandy soil, multiply
depths by 1.5.

Conserving Snow Moisture

Growers can influence the amount of water that enters the soil between harvest and
seeding time. Snowfall contributes about 25 to 35% of the total annual precipitation. As
a rule of thumb, 25 cm (10") of snow equals 25 mm (1") of rain. Use crop residue
management during the fall to help increase snow trapping and reduce snowmelt runoff-
which accounts for 85% of runoff from agricultural lands. Minimize fall tillage and
leave as much erect stubble as possible. This helps conserve snow and increase stored
water in the spring. An extra 25 mm (1") of water stored through moisture management
will make a significant difference in crop yields.
 82

Standing stubble increases snow trapping compared to that on a fallow field. The
amount of snow trapped is directly proportional to stubble height. Tall standing stubble
also reduces wind speed, solar radiation reaching the soil surface and keeps soil
temperature cooler than fallow reducing water lost by evaporation. These changes in the
microclimate are noticed early in the growing season when the crop canopy is small and
cannot yet affect evaporation loss. Canola sown early on tall stubble has increased water
use efficiency and higher yields.

Researchers at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Swift Current, SK Research

Centre and the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, SK, found that swathing fields
at alternate heights each round trapped more snow and increased soil moisture storage
by up to 45 mm (1.8") over bare summerfallow fields, and up to 25 mm (1") over
uniform standing stubble. The researchers have also developed a modified swather
cutter-bar that leaves tall narrow strips of stubble each round. The modification of trash
and stubble management increased soil moisture about one and one-half times over
conventional stubble management. The increased soil moisture storage through snow
management on stubble fields with adequate fertility has produced yields up to 95% of
those on conventional summerfallow.

Use of Crop Residues

Provide a ground cover with crop residues on the soil surface to improve soil water
intake. Surface trash increases water infiltration by breaking up raindrops and delaying
runoff.

Keep crop residues on the soil surface for as long as possible. The residue shades the
soil, providing a reflective cover to reduce the sun's energy that would otherwise
evaporate water from the soil. Crop residues also reduce the wind speed over the soil
surface reducing the loss of water vapour. However, residue causes the soil to be
slightly cooler in the spring, which could have a negative effect on germination and
emergence in more northern areas.

Increasing Soil Organic Matter

Increase soil organic matter content to improve soil structure and water infiltration.
Incorporate all crop residues. These residues add to the organic matter reserve and help
maintain it at a higher level. Grass, grass-legume and legume stands with their abundant
rooting systems will increase the organic matter content of the soil in the long term and
improve soil aggregation. A favourable aggregation will also benefit root development
and penetration allowing the root system to use soil moisture and nutrients effectively.
Manure assists in temporarily improving soil structure and helps in maintaining soil
organic matter at a higher level.

Use of Fertilizer

Fertilizer is essential to crop yields in extended rotations. Increased nitrogen fertility

increases both total water use and the rate of water use. With higher nitrogen fertility
levels canola develops denser rooting systems with greater water extraction in all soil
layers. Adequate fertility allows canola plants, during the early vegetative growth stage,
 83

to develop extensive roots for full exploration of the soil profile. Adequate fertility
increases the crop's water use efficiency. An inadequately fertilized crop does not use
available water efficiently resulting in reduced yields. Inadequate fertility reduces the
drought tolerance of canola by reducing the amount of soil water extracted and the
water use efficiency in producing seed.

Tillage Operations

Zero-till fields have greater soil moisture due to reduced runoff, greater infiltration,
reduced evaporation and increased snow trapping compared to conventionaltill fields.

The depth and amount of soil disturbance by a tillage operation influences soil moisture.
Losses are proportional to the depth of soil loosening. Turning the soil over by
ploughing or mixing by discing causes greater soil moisture losses than the actions of
the blade cultivator. Excessive spring cultivation also dries out the surface soil to the
depth of tillage, preventing shallow seeding to moisture. High tillage speeds and
excessive tillage dries out the soil surface and pulverizes the soil structure. Pulverized
fine powdery surface soils are susceptible to erosion and crusting. Crusting reduces
water intake. Use only those operations necessary for weed control, land levelling and
seedbed preparation. Minimum tillage cropping systems have similar yields to
conventional tillage. Use contour cultivation to lengthen the time that free water
remains on the surface, giving it a better chance to penetrate the soil. Therefore,
cultivation that leaves ridges on the contour of sloping or hilly land will help control
runoff and increase the penetration of rain where it falls.

Summerfallow

Summerfallow is a traditional means of conserving some of the precipitation in one

growing season to augment the plant-available moisture during the next season.
Research has found that summerfallow does not conserve moisture very efficiently,
especially in the higher rainfall areas. Researchers in Saskatchewan, Manitoba and
Alberta have reported that during the 21-month fallow period in Brown and Dark
Brown soils only 15 to 25% of the precipitation is stored in the soil, while in the Black
and Grey-Wooded soils, often only 3 to 13% is stored. The rest is lost as evaporation,
runoff, blown off as snow, or drained out of the root zone. Even though summerfallow
is an inefficient means of conserving soil moisture, the small amount stored may make
the difference between a paying crop and a crop failure, especially in the arid regions of
the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones. However, a reduction of summerfallow is
possible on most soils if combined with better moisture management. In the higher
rainfall, more humid regions of the Black, Dark Grey and Grey-Wooded soil zones,
there may be little or no benefit from summerfallow other than perennial weed control.
In fact, negative results (through increased salinization and/or loss of soluble nutrients
from the root zone) may occur in both the Brown and Black soil zones if water is
accumulated beyond field capacity. Use summerfallow sparingly in these areas,
preferably only to combat severe weed infestation, or in cases of severe drought.
 84

Weed, Insect and Disease Control

Weeds use water at a similar rate to canola plants. Their control increases the moisture
supply available to the crop. Insects and diseases reduce the plant's ability to use water.
Control these pests to allow plants to more efficiently use the available moisture.

Drainage

When excessive water or ponding occurs, plant photosynthesis is reduced. This limiting
factor on some soils may be reduced by carefully planned and installed drainage
systems.

Summary

The amounts and duration of rainfall cannot be controlled and may be a limiting factor
to crop growth unless irrigation is applied. The only water reservoir available to plants
is that stored in the rooting zone of the soil. In order to plan effective use of water, you
must understand the basic factors, which determine the soil's capability to absorb, store
and provide water to plants. It is also essential to know the crop's water requirements
and the estimates of spring stored soil moisture and growing season rainfall. Some soil
factors affecting water storage cannot be controlled and may limit water availability.
Other soil factors can be modified and managed through practices which increase the
availability and efficiency of use of precipitation. Adopting these practices will allow
growers to closely estimate a potential yield and modify other production factors to
achieve maximum yields.

References

Angadi, S.V., Cutforth, H.W. and B.G. McConkey. 2000. Effect of Stubble
Microclimate on Canola Yield. Saskatchewan Soils and Crops Proceedings 2000.
Brandt, S.A. 1992. Zero vs. conventional tillage and their effects on crop yield and soil
moisture. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72:679-688.

Borstlap, S. and Entz, M. H. 1994. Zero-tillage influence on canola, field pea and
wheat in a dry subhumid region: Agronomic and physiological responses. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 74:411-420.

Champolivier, L. and A. Merrien. 1996. Effect of water stress applied at different

growth stages to Brassica napus L. var Oleifera on yield components and seed quality.
Eur. J. Agron. 5:153-160.

Clarke, J.M. and G.M. Simpson. 1978. Influence of irrigation and seeding rates on
yield and yield components of Brassica napus cv. Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58:731-737.

Cutforth, H., McConkey, B., Miller, P., Brandt, S., Volkmar, K., Entz, M. and D.
Ulrich. 1998. Yield and water use of canola and mustard in waterlimited environments.
Saskatchewan Soils and Crops Proceedings Pp. 440-444.

Gardner, W.H. 1979. How water moves in the soil. Crops and Soils Magazine.
 85

Good, A.G. and Maclagan, J.L. 1993. Effects of drought stress on the water relations
in Brassica species. Can. J. Plant Sci. 73:525-529.

Gutierrez Boem, F.H., Lavado, R.S. and C.A. Porcelli. 1996. Note on the effects of
winter and spring waterlogging on growth, chemical composition and yield of rapeseed.
Field Crops Res. 47:175-179.

Henry, J.L. and MacDonald, K.B. 1978. The effects of soil and fertilizer nitrogen and
moisture stress on yield, oil, and protein content of rape. Can. J. Soil Sci. 58:303-310.

Krogman, K.K. and Hobbs, E.H. 1975. Yield and morphological response of rape
(Brassica campestris L. cv. Span) to irrigation and fertilizer treatments. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 55:903-909.

Kumar, A., Singh, D.P. and Phool Singh. 1994. Influence of water stress on
photosynthesis, transpiration, water-use efficiency and yield of Brassica juncea L. Field
Crops Res. 37:95-101.

Lafond, G.P., H. Leoppky, and D.A. Derksen. 1992. The effects of tillage systems
and crop rotations on the soil water conservation, seedling establishment and crop yield.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 72:103-115.

Lore, J. & Associates Ltd. 1990. Crop response to moisture stress, flooding, and
salinity, under dryland conditions. Literature Review March 28, 1990.

McConkey, B.G., Ulrich, D.J. and D.A. Dyck. 1997. Snow Management and deep
tillage for increasing crop yield on a rolling landscape. Can. J. Soil Sci. 77:479-486.

Mendham, N.J. and P.A. Salisbury. 1995. Physiology: crop development, growth and
yield. In Kimber, D. and D.I. McGregor (Eds.) Brassica oilseeds - Production and
utilization, CAB. Pp. 11-64.

Miller, M.H. 1983. Soil limitations to crop productivity in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci.
63:23-32.

Miller, P., Cutforth, H., McConkey, B., Ulrick, D., Brandt, S., Volkmar, K., and
Entz, M. 1998. How thirsty are canola and mustard. Semiarid Prairie Agricultural
Research Centre Research Newsletter No. 4, March 20, 1998.

Miller, P.R., McDonald, C.C., Derksen, D.A. and Waddington, J. 2001. The
adaptation of seven broadleaf crops to the dry semiarid prairie. Can. J. Plant Sci. 81:29-
43.

Miller, P.R., Johnson, A.M., Brandt, S.A., McDonald, C.L., Derksen, D.A. and
Waddington, J. 1998b. Comparing the adaptation of sunola, canola and mustard to
three soil climatic zones of the Canadian prairies. Can. J. Plant Sci. 78:565-570.

Nielsen, D.C. 1997. Water use and yield of canola under dryland conditions in the
central great plains. J. Prod. Agric. 10:307-313.
 86

Nuttall. W. F. 1973. Influence of soil moisture tension and amendments on yield, oil
and protein content of Target rape grown on Grey Wooded Soils in the greenhouse.
Can. J. Soil Sci. 53:87-93.

Oosterveld, M. and W. Nicholaichuk. 1983. Water requirements, availability and

development restraints for increased crop production in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci.
63:33-44.

Rao, M.S.S. and N.J. Mendham. 1991. Soil-plant-water relations of oilseed rape
(Brassica napus and B. campestris). J. of Agric. Sci. Camb. 117:197-205.

Rao, S.C., and T.H. Dao. 1987. Soil water effects on low-temperature seedling
emergence of five Brassica cultivars. Agron J. 79:517-519.

Richards, R.A. and N. Thurling. 1978. Variation between and within Species of
Rapeseed (Brassica campestris and B. napus) in Response to Drought Stress. I.
Sensitivity at Different Stages of Development. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 29:469-477.

Richards, R.A. and N. Thurling. 1978. Variation between and within Species of
Rapeseed (Brassica campestris and B. napus) in Response to Drought Stress. II.
Sensitivity at Different Stages of Development. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 29:479-490.

Rood, S.B. and D.J. Major. 1984. Influence of plant density, nitrogen, water supply
and pod or leaf removal on growth of oilseed rape. Field Crops Res. 8: 323-331.

Thomas, P. M. Irrigated Canola Production. Alberta Agriculture Agdex No.

149/561-1 1980.

Triboi-Blondel, A.M. and M. Renard. 1999. Effects of temperature and water stress
on fatty acid composition of rapeseed oil. Proceedings 10th International Rapeseed
Congress, Canberra ACT, 1999.

Vigil, M.F., D.C. Nielsen, A.D. Halvorson, and B. Beard. 1993. Dryland canola
production: variety selection, nitrogen response, and water use in the central great
plains. Proc. Western Canola Development Meeting, Pp. 129-133.

Walton, G., Si, S., Tennant, D. and Bowden B. 1999. Environmental impact on canola
yield and oil. Proceedings 10th International Rapeseed Congress.

Canberra, ACT, 1999.

Wentz, D. 1997. Annual crops for recharge control of saline seeps. Alberta Agriculture,
Food & Rural Development Agdex No. 518-14.

Wright, P.R., Morgan, J.M., Jessop, R.S. and A. Cass. 1995. Comparative adaptation
of canola (Brassica napus) and Indian mustard (B. juncea) to soil water deficits: yield
and yield components. Field Crops Res. 42:1-13.
 87

Young, J.A., Evans, R.A., Roundy, B. and G. Cluff. 1983. Moisture Stress and Seed
Germination. USDA Agriculture Research Service. Agriculture Reviews and Manuals.
ARM - W- 36/April 1983.

Zheng, G.H., Gao, Y.P., Wilen, R.W. and L.V. Gusta. 1998. Canola seed germination
and seedling emergence from pre-hydrated and re-dried seeds subjected to salt and
water stresses at low temperatures. Ann. Appl. Biol. 132:339-348.
 88

Chapter 5 - Temperature, Frost, Hail

1. Temperature, Frost and Hail
o Temperature
 Heat and Growing Degree Days
 Temperature Effects on Canola Growth
 Temperatures Required for Germination and Emergence
 Temperature Required for Seedlings, Flowering and
Podding—Cold and High Temperature Stress
o Frost
 Frost-Free Periods
 Frost Tolerance
o Hail Damage
o Summary
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. GDD-Base T 0°C - for AC Excel at Crop Production
Centre Sites across Western Canada 1997 - 2001
o Figure 2. Effects of Temperature on Germination of B. napus
o Figure 3. Effects of Temperature on Germination of B. rapa
o Figure 4. Effects of Heat Unit Accumulation on Emergence of B.
napus
o Figure 5. Effects of Heat Unit Accumulation on Emergence of B.
rapa
o Figure 6. Effect of Temperature and Precipitation on Yield of
Westar Canola, 1989 - 1991 (May, June and July Rainfall in mm)
o Figure 7. Heat and Drought Injury at Elongation - Early Flower
o Figure 8. Heat Injury to Flowers Resulting in Sterile Pods
o Figure 9. Heat Effect on Flower Clusters
o Figure 10. High Temperature Stress on Canola Yield
o Figure 11. Abnormal Pod Formation in B. napus “Quantumâ€
in Response to 35/15°C Heat Stress at Early Flower
o Figure 12. Frost Damage to Seedlings
o Figure 13. Frost Damage to Rosette with Whitening of the Larger
Leaves
o Figure 14. Frost Damage to Seedling with Blackening of the
Cotyledons
o Figure 15. Frost Damaged Seedling with Green Re-growth
o Figure 16. Seedling Killed by Frost
o Figure 17. Seedling Killed by Frost
o Figure 18. Hail Damaged Plants at the Early Flowering Stage
o Figure 19. Hail Damaged Immature Seed
o Figure 20. Hail Damage to Seeds at Podding
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Daily Normal GDDs at Lacombe, Alberta Based on 30
Year Average Temperature in °C
o Table 2. GDDs Required for Canola Growth Stages in Western
Canada Using a °C Base Temperature
o Table 3. Soil Temperature for Conventional Tillage (May 15) for
1979 - 1981
 89

o Table 4. Average Dates of Last Spring and First Fall Frosts and
Average Frost-Free Days
o Table 5. Frost Damaged Seed Descriptions
o Table 6. Canola Grades in Alberta for the Years 1991–1993
o Table 7. Yield Loss Due to the Destruction of Branches During
Flowering in Canola

Temperature, Frost and Hail

Canola is reasonably widely adapted and performs well in many areas under variable
temperatures. However, B. napus and B. rapa vary in their ability to respond to
favourable and adverse conditions. Reduce the risk of weather losses by matching
production practices and variety selection to environmental conditions.

Temperature

Heat and Growing Degree Days

Plant functions such as evapotranspiration, photosynthesis, water and nutrient

absorption and transport, enzyme activity, and other biological and chemical activities
are regulated by temperature. For this reason, the development of the crop is more
closely related to the amount of heat the crop is exposed to than calendar days. Other
factors such as moisture, light (day length), nutrition and variety also play a role, but
they generally have less influence.

Growing Degree Days (GDDs) and Corn Heat Units (CHUs) are both measures of heat
accumulated by a crop over a period of time. CHUs are a more sophisticated and
accurate measure of accumulated heat and are important for warm season crops like
corn. GDDs are much simpler to calculate and prove a good estimation of accumulated
heat for most cool season crops like canola and wheat. GDD, however, does not
adequately account for the effects of extreme temperatures (high or low). Despite this
disadvantage, GDDs provides a useful tool for predicting or measuring development of
cool season crops.

Heat energy can be measured and used to track daily plant growth progress. This
requires keeping a daily record of minimum and maximum air temperatures for
calculating daily GDDs and maintaining a summary of these GDDs.

GDDs are calculated by averaging daily maximum (Max T) and daily minimum (Min
T) temperatures for each day, and subtracting the assumed minimum temperature (Base
T) required for growth to proceed. For canola, there is some debate as to whether the
base temperature should be 0° or 5°C. For this discussion, we have chosen to use a
0°C base, in part because it is simple to use.

The formula for daily growing degree days (DGDDs) is:

DGDDs=(Max T + Min T)/2 – Base T
Where:
Max T = highest temperature of the day. The warmer it is, the faster the plant will
develop up to a point. Canola is a relatively cool season crop in that its best growth
occurs above 12°C and below 30°C. The optimum temperature for maximum canola
 90

growth and development has been estimated at 21°C by Canadian research. However,
Australian research indicates a 25°C maximum. B. juncea and B. rapa appear to have
a higher optimum temperature than B. napus. Temperature above the optimum will slow
the rate of plant growth. The more the optimum temperature is exceeded, the greater the
development rate is slowed until reaching maximum temperature where all development
stops. Heat stress research has been a bit inconclusive on threshold temperature,
reporting critical temperatures for heat stress from as low as 25 to 27°C to as high as
30 to 32°C in Canada and 35°C in Australia for B. napus. These heat stress effect
studies were often confounded by variety differences, light and water stress.

Min T = lowest temperature of the day—temperatures less than 0°C are set to 0°C.
The minimum and maximum temperatures are for the 24-hour period of midnight to
midnight.

Base T = 0°C—a temperature below which no development occurs for a given plant
species. At temperatures above the minimum, plant development growth rate increases
as temperature increases to optimum. While there is only limited plant growth at
temperatures slightly above freezing, germination and seedling growth do occur at
temperatures between 0 and 5°C. While the majority of previous research used a
canola base temperature of 5°C, recent research indicates a more accurate base
temperature is from 0 to 1°C. For a cool season crop like canola grown in western
Canada, 0°C is often the best base temperature for predicting development.

Example: Assuming the maximum daily temperature is 15°C and the minimum is
5°C, the number of daily DGDDs is:
(15+5)/2) - 0 = 10

This value represents the daily heat useful for canola growth. Daily calculations
resulting in values greater than zero are added together to determine the accumulated
weekly, monthly or yearly GDDs. When the daily DGDDs of any two or more days are
added, this is referred to as accumulated GDDs. An example of a 30-year average for
DGDD is shown for Lacombe, AB (Table 1).

Long-term GDD records for a farm or an individual field combined with seeding dates
and records of growth stages can be useful. GDDs provide a means of estimating
growth stage during the growing season and become another tool for diagnostic work in
solving problems. Minimum and maximum temperatures to calculate DGDDs can be
obtained daily for a location or a nearby location from www.weatheroffice.com.
Calculations improve if the farm has actual maximum/minimum records.

Temperature Effects on Canola Growth

Canola plants require a specific number of GDDs to develop from growth stage to
growth stage between emergence, flowering and maturity. The GDD requirement for
canola can vary considerably as shown by research data from Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada (AAFC) Scott, SK and Swift Current, SK Research Centres (Table 2).

Table 1. Daily Normal GDDs at Lacombe, Alberta Based on a 30-year Average

Temperature in °C
 91

Month

Day April May June July August Sept

Average Daily DGDDs, at 0°C Base Temperature

1 8.6 13.4 14.5 16.1 12.8

2 8.9 12.9 14.4 16.4 12.6

3 8.6 12.5 14.4 16.2 12.6

4 8.4 13.3 14.8 17.1 12.0

5 9.0 13.3 14.8 16.9 11.7

6 8.4 13.0 14.3 16.6 11.5

7 9.2 13.1 14.8 16.3 11.2

8 9.2 13.8 15.3 16.1 10.8

9 9.3 13.1 15.6 16.1 10.9

10 9.3 13.8 15.7 16.1 10.5

11 9.4 13.4 15.4 15.3 9.9

12 10.0 13.3 15.4 15.1 10.2

13 10.2 14.2 15.4 14.8 10.4

14 10.6 13.5 15.4 15.5 10.5

15 6.0 9.7 13.9 15.1 14.6 10.7

16 6.2 10.1 14.0 15.0 14.5

17 6.4 10.5 13.9 15.2 14.5

18 5.9 10.1 13.9 15.3 14.7

19 6.6 9.3 14.2 15.5 14.1

20 7.0 10.4 14.2 15.8 14.2

21 7.5 10.4 14.8 16.5 13.9

 92

Table 1. Daily Normal GDDs at Lacombe, Alberta Based on a 30-year Average

Temperature in °C

Month

Day April May June July August Sept

Average Daily DGDDs, at 0°C Base Temperature

22 7.6 11.2 14.7 16.3 14.2

23 7.8 11.4 14.4 16.4 14.5

24 7.3 11.5 14.2 15.9 13.8

25 7.5 11.9 14.0 16.5 13.5

26 7.3 11.6 14.3 16.7 13.1

27 7.9 11.4 14.6 16.8 14.0

28 7.7 11.0 14.3 16.9 13.9

29 7.4 11.9 14.8 16.4 13.5

30 7.7 12.5 14.5 16.9 12.9

31 12.2 16.6 12.7

Table 2. GDDs Required for Canola Growth Stages in Western Canada Using a
0°C Base Temperature

Growth GGDs for GGDs for

Growth Stage Description
Stage B. napas B. rapa

1.0 Emergence-cotyledoms completely unfolded 152-186 102-143

1.2 Two leaves unfolded 282-324 201-254

1.4 Four leaves unfolded 411-463 300-365

Flowering begins—at least one open floret

6.0 582-666 467-554
on 50% or more plants

6.5 Flowering 50% complete 759-852 630-726

 93

Table 2. GDDs Required for Canola Growth Stages in Western Canada Using a
0°C Base Temperature

Growth GGDs for GGDs for

Growth Stage Description
Stage B. napas B. rapa

Seed fill begins—10% of seeds have reached

7.1 972-1074 826-934
final size

Maturity—seed begins to mature—10% of

8.1 1326-1445 1152-1279
seed has changed colour

Swathing—40% of seed on main stem has

8.4 1432-1557 1249-1382
changed colour— optimum swathing stage

An alternative source of ongoing GDD maps that illustrates canola GDDs with a 5°C
base temperature for the western provinces are available from the Agrometeorological
Centre of Excellence Web site at www.aceweather.ca/canola.cfm.

Under drought and/or heat stress, canola GDD requirements will be toward the low end
of the reported range for each stage. Several factors such as dry seedbeds, excess
moisture or irrigation, high fertility, frost or hail and low plant populations could
slightly delay crop advancement and GDD values would approach or exceed the high
end of the range. In fact, the GDD requirement for canola often exceeds the ranges
shown in Table 2 due to these other factors. In five years of Canola Council of Canada
Crop Production Centre trials across western Canada, the GDDs for AC Excel ranged
considerably as shown in Figure 1.

The primary cause of year-to-year and location-to-location variation in days to maturity

of the same canola variety is temperature variation.

The total GDDs required for B. napus to mature is similar to that of spring wheat while
B. rapa is similar to barley. GDDs are more accurate in predicting growth stages than
are calendar days. In Figure 1, AC Excel matured in 83 to 120 days (average 99 days) or
1,380 to 1,718 GDDs (average 1,560 GDDs) after seeding. For calendar days, there is a
potential error of plus or minus 21 days. Using GDDs, the potential error is about eight
calendar days. This difference is important in estimating maturity risk for varieties.
Growing late maturing B. napus varieties in areas with marginal GDDs will increase the
risk of late maturity and the probability of fall frost damage. Based on Table 1, a B.
napus variety sown on May 10 at Lacombe, AB would, on average, just meet the
requirement of 1,560 GDDs for maturity by August 29. Therefore, in some years with
lower GDDs there would be a high risk of fall frost damage—the crop would not reach
maturity until well into September. Growers in the Lacombe area report that the risk is
about one in five years for fall frost damage to a B. napus crop sown on May 10.
Unfortunately, the GDDs cannot be forecast. However, the use of existing records for
past trends can provide a more accurate means for predicting canola growth.
 94

Figure 1. GDD—Base T 0°C—For AC Excel at Crop Production Centre Sites across

Western Canada 1997-2001

GDDs do not limit canola production in northern areas as much as might be expected
since longer daylight hours partially compensate for lower temperatures. For example,
Fort Vermilion, AB has 538 daylight hours in July and a mean temperature of 16°C,
while Lethbridge, AB has 488 daylight hours and a mean temperature of 19°C. The
longer daylight hours reduces the overall GDD requirements in the Alberta Peace region
by about 150 GDDs.

Temperatures Required for Germination and Emergence

Temperature, light and water are the major environmental factors determining the
success of germination and early seedling development. Germination is also influenced
by the genetics of the variety, growth conditions as the seed matures, how the seed was
stored and seed treatments.

Seeding early can reduce the risk of damage from a fall killing frost. However, cold soil
conditions may result in emergence problems. Spring soil temperatures are frequently
less than optimum for canola, especially in the short season frost-free areas where B.
napus varieties must be sown early. Air and soil temperatures in the spring vary from
location to location and from year to year. The year-toyear soil temperature variation
can be very large, as shown by data from the AAFC Lacombe Research Centre for soil
under conventional tillage for three years (Table 3). The temperature at the 5 cm (2")
soil depth was colder than at the 2.5 cm (1") depth.

Table 3. Soil Temperatures for Conventional Tillage (May 15) for 1979-1981

Temperature °C
Soil Depth
1979 1980 1981

2.5 cm (1") 6.7 25.4 6.7

5.0 cm (2") 6.4 16.8 6.4

Soil temperatures can be determined for any field by taking an average of readings with
a soil thermometer inserted at seeding depth at 8:30 a.m. and 4:00 p.m.
 95

Generally, temperatures below 10°C result in progressively poorer germination and

emergence. Various research studies have shown that both B. napus and B. rapa canola
will imbibe water and germinate at constant temperatures of 2°C. Sustained low
temperatures for both B. napus and B. rapa, however, damage the seed embryo, which
reduces germination and growth. Low temperature impairs the production of proteins
required for proper germination and early seedling development through reduced
metabollic processes. Limited seedbed moisture slows uptake of water by the seed,
slowing the speed and number of seeds that germinate and emerge. Seedbed moisture
generally declines the longer seeding is delayed. Any factor that reduces the rate of
emerging seedlings may make them more susceptible to seedling disease.

The number of days to 50% germination is a useful indicator as the first 50% of plants
to emerge account for a majority of the yield from a field. Similar to previous studies,
AAFC Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre found much lower and slower germination at
low temperatures for both species compared to warmer temperatures (Figures 2 and 3).
Temperatures of 4°C or higher had little effect on total percent germination in B.
napus, however, the number of days to 50% germination increased dramatically at
temperatures below 6°C.

Figure 2. Effects of Temperature on Germination of B. napus

Figure 3. Effects of Temperature on Germination of B. rapa

 96

The number of days to 50% germination in B. napus was only three days at 8°C
compared to nearly 13 days at 2°C. This low temperature effect of slower and lower
germination was even more pronounced with B. rapa canola (Figure 3). In B. rapa, there
was greatly reduced germination at 3°C, and at 2°C, even after 20 days, 50%
emergence was not reached.

This research was carried out with only one seed lot for each variety and species.
Therefore, expect differences between varieties and seed lots due to differing abilities to
germinate and grow at lower temperatures.

A more recent study of temperature effect on canola emergence at Colorado found t hat
knowing the actual heat unit requirement or GDDs for emergence was more useful than
the minimum temperature at which seed will germinate (Figure 4).

To reach 50% germination for all temperatures 3°C or higher requires 75 to 120
GDDs (Base T 0°C) in B. napus and at temperatures above 8°C over 115 GDDs for
B. rapa. The days to 50% germination or emergence date for canola can be reasonably
predicted from knowing how many GDDs have accumulated since planting. Count the
GDDs beginning with the day after seeding.

Unlike these studies under controlled conditions, the speed of germination and
emergence in fields with variable soil moisture could be slower by a few days. The
longer it takes for seedling emergence, the greater the likelihood of seedling diseases
occurring and, therefore, the greater the chance for reduced plant populations. Slow and
uneven seed germination and emergence can result in poor stands and later uneven
maturity. This also increases the potential for high temperatures during flower and pod
formation. Low soil temperature and low soil moisture both delay germination and
when combined have an additive effect. The worse case scenario would be sowing deep
into a cold, dry seedbed. Field emergence studies have shown that the number of plants
that actually establish in a canola field is much less than the number of seeds sown even
under ideal conditions (usually 50 to 60%).

Figure 4. Effect of Heat Unit Accumulation on Emergence - B. napus

Seeding depth and heavy trash cover may also delay crop emergence by one to two
days. Soil temperatures generally decrease with soil depth in springtime. Bare soil
 97

warms quicker than soils with surface trash or vegetation that reflects some of the solar
radiation. Emergence in seedbeds without residues at the surface, at the same seeding
depth and under the same climatic conditions, will be about one to two days sooner than
in seedbeds with residues on the surface such as in a direct seeding system. Trash
management is critical for both fall sown and very early spring sown canola fields.
Tillage influences soil temperatures by reducing crop residue and drying the soil. Dry
soil warms faster than wet soil, however, moist soil has a greater heat storage capacity.
South-facing fields warm more quickly than north-facing fields or level land. Snow also
melts earlier on south-facing fields. South facing fields usually have a slightly longer
growing season.

The above studies on low temperature research were carried out with constant night and
day air temperatures but fortunately soil and air temperatures in fields tend to increase
after seeding. While temperatures above 10°C result in high germination, quick
emergence, and rapid leaf development, a target soil temperature for an early seeding
date would be 3°C or higher for B. napus varieties and 7 to 8°C for B. rapa varieties.
Research at AAFC Scott, SK and Lacombe, AB Research Centres has shown that very
early (April 25) spring sown B. napus canola in most years achieved higher yields than
mid-May sown canola even with reduced germination and delayed emergence. From a
practical standpoint, 10 to 12 days is not an unreasonable amount of time to wait for
emergence in a crop. An early seeded B. napus sown in a 3°C seedbed would likely
achieve 50% emergence in about 15 days. B. rapa, normally sown when soil
temperatures are warmer, can also be sown early if soil temperatures are at least at
7°C. An emergence of about 35% of a normal seeding rate in 15 days should still
result in an adequate plant stand with reasonable yield potential as long as there is little
seedling blight and weeds are adequately controlled (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Effect of Heat Unit Accumulation on Emergence - B. rapa

Temperature Required for Seedlings, Flowering and Podding - Cold and High
Temperature Stress

After emergence, canola seedlings prefer relatively cool temperatures up to flowering.

The optimum range of temperature for leaf area development in canola has been
estimated at 13 to 22°C (17°C mean temperature). Higher temperatures cause faster
 98

growth that results in shorter leaf area duration. Heat injury to seedlings can
occasionally occur especially in the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones. Cold soil
temperatures limit growth by reducing water and nutrient absorption by seedling roots.

Both low and high temperatures can adversely affect development prior to and during
flowering. Low, but nonfreezing temperatures just prior to flowering slow the rate of
plant development. The start of flowering is delayed or, if begun, the rate of flower
opening is slowed and the amount of pollen shed is reduced. Low temperatures,
however, do not reduce yield, except in the case of frost. Whereas high temperatures,
especially in the late growth stages, do result in reduced yields as shown by an
evaluation of Westar across western Canada co-operative trials for three years (Figure
6).

This research showed that as the average maximum temperature for July and August
increased above 20°C, canola yields decreased.

Analysis of long term weather data shows that, on average, there are at least seven days
in the summer when maximum temperatures above 32°C are experienced in the
semiarid prairies. On sunny days, with air temperatures in the 30 to 35°C range, soil
temperatures of 49°C have been recorded. Heat injury is commonly associated with
drought injury, but excessive heat will also injure or kill plants even if moisture is
plentiful (Figure 7).

High temperatures at flowering will hasten the plant’s development, reducing the
time from flowering to maturity. High temperatures during flowering shorten the time
the flower is receptive to pollen, as well as the duration of pollen release and its
viability (Figure 8).

Figure 6. Effect of Temperature and Precipitation on Yield of Westar Canola, 1989-

1991 (May, June and July Rainfall in mm)
 99

Figure 7. Heat and Drought Injury at Elongation—Early Flower

Figure 8. Heat Injury to Flowers Resulting in Sterile Pods

High temperature can decrease total plant dry matter, the number of pods that develop,
number of seeds per pod, and seed weight resulting in lower yields. Very hot weather
combined with drought and high winds may cause bud blasting wherein the flower
clusters turn brown and die resulting in serious yield losses (Figure 9). Flowering fields
also tend to be off colour.

Figure 9. Heat Effect on Flower Clusters

Plants under water stress may have a reduced maximum temperature threshold due to
decreased evaporative cooling. In the Brown and Dark Brown soil zones, high
temperatures often coincide with drought during the critical flowering period.

Research at AAFC Swift Current, SK Research Centre on heat stress in canola showed
significant yield losses at high temperatures for all canola species. Plants were grown in
growth chambers with day/night temperatures of 20/15°C until flowering or early pod
development and then subjected to high temperature stress of 28/15°C or 35/15°C
for seven days then allowed to recover at 20/15°C (Figure 10).
 100

Figure 10. Effect of High Temperature Stress on Canola Yield

This research showed that the early flowering growth stage was more sensitive to high
temperature stress than the early pod stage. However, there were differences between
the species and how they reacted to high temperature stress. More drastic yield
reductions occurred in B. rapa with high temperature stress at 35/15°C during early
flower and early pod than in B. napus or B. juncea. B. rapa responded to mild
temperature stress 28/15°C at early flowering better than B. napus or B. juncea. All
species were able to recover from the high temperature stress by continuing to flower
after returning to 20/15°C. However, B. napus was least able to recover from severe
stress at flowering as evidenced by the formation of many abnormal pods during
recovery (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Abnormal Pod Formation in B. napus “Quantum†in Response to

35/15°C Heat Stress at Early Flower

The main stem on the left shows aborted flowers and abnormal pods. Arrows indicate
the beginning and end of the stress period. On the right close-ups of abnormal pods,
seed arranged in abnormal pod and abnormal seeds (top to bottom).

Early to mid-May sown B. rapa flowers early and usually escapes the mid-summer heat.
However, in the semiarid prairies, late seeded B. rapa canola or where reseeding with B.
rapa is required, B. rapa crops may not escape the high temperatures of summer.
 101

Canola is more tolerant to high temperatures when pods are formed than at flowering.
Cooler night temperatures in August may also help the plant recover from extreme heat
or dry weather. Higher rainfall and moderate temperatures (10 to 15°C) during seed
development results in higher yield and oil content. Lower temperatures, rainfall and
shorter days delay maturity increasing the risk of frost damage to seeds. High
temperatures after flowering or during seed maturation result in reduced oil content.
Drought stress after flowering severely reduces yield and oil content. Higher
temperatures, drought and long days hasten maturity, and, in combination, can severely
affect the formation of pods, seeds, seed size and oil content.

Frost

Frost-Free Periods

One of the major factors affecting canola production in western Canada is the short
frost-free period. Killing frosts during seed development or during seed maturation are
especially detrimental. The number of days between the last freezing temperature
(0°C) of the spring and the first frost in the fall is the frost-free period. The frost-free
period varies considerably from location to location in Canada. The long term average
number of frost-free days is shown in Table 4. Significant variations usually occur on a
local scale and extreme variations of the dates of spring and fall frost vary from year to
year.

Table 4. Average Dates of Last Spring and First Fall Frosts and Average Frost-Free
Days

Average Date of Last Average Date of First Average Frost-

Area
Spring Frost Fall Frost Free Days

Guelph, ON May 17 September 27 132

Kempville, ON May 17 September 24 129

New Liskeard, ON June 2 September 10 99

Kapuskasing, ON June 10 September 5 86

Morden, MB May 14 September 27 129

Winnipeg, MB May 16 September 25 123

Brandon, MB May 19 September 19 108

Portage La
May 11 September 29 131
Prairie, MB

Regina, SK May 24 September 11 109

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Table 4. Average Dates of Last Spring and First Fall Frosts and Average Frost-Free
Days

Average Date of Last Average Date of First Average Frost-

Area
Spring Frost Fall Frost Free Days

Watrous, SK May 25 September 10 107

Saskatoon, SK May 21 September 16 117

Indian Head, SK May 27 September 15 110

Scott, SK June 1 September 7 97

Melfort, SK May 28 September 7 101

Lethbridge, AB May 23 September 17 116

Olds, AB May 24 September 11 109

Lacombe, AB May 31 September 8 99

Ellerslie, AB May 24 September 11 109

Vermilion, AB June 1 September 9 100

Beaverlodge, AB May 26 September 4 101

Fort Vermilion, AB May 28 August 30 94

To select a variety compare the heat unit accumulation and frost-free period with the
days to maturity for the variety for the particular location. B. napus varieties are more
suited to areas with higher heat unit accumulation and longer frostfree periods.

Frost Tolerance

Although frosts can occur in any month, it is usually those in late spring and early fall
that are critical. The temperature at which frost injury occurs varies with the plant’s
stage of growth, moisture content and the length of time the temperature remains below
freezing. Frost cover (ice crystals) on a plant does not necessarily mean the plant has
been damaged. Low temperatures injure plants primarily by inducing ice formation
between or within cells. Water that surrounds the plant cells freezes first (at about
0°C), while the water within the cell contains dissolved substances that, depending on
their nature and concentration, depress the freezing point of water several degrees. As
the water around the cells become ice, more water vapour moves out of the cell and into
the spaces around the cell where it becomes ice. The reduced water content of the cells
further depresses the freezing point of the cell water. This could continue, up to a point,
 103

without damaging the cell, but below a certain point, ice crystals form within the cell,
disrupt the cell membrane and injure the cell.

The length of time of freezing temperatures is important. A severe drop in temperature

which only lasts a very short time may not damage canola plants, while a light frost of a
few degrees that lasts all night may cause severe damage. The amount of frost injury
will depend on moisture conditions, rate at which thawing occurs, the growth stage of
the plant, and the amount of cold temperature hardening the plant has experienced.

After several days of near freezing temperatures, fall-sown and early spring-seeded
canola will undergo a gradual hardening process that will allow the plants to withstand
freezing temperatures without serious damage. It is likely that cold weather sets off a
chain of plant gene activities that produce or degrade proteins that protect cells. Plants
growing under these conditions are slower growing, producing smaller cells that have a
higher concentration of soluble substances more resistant to frost damage. Studies at the
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK,
and at AAFC Beaverlodge Research Centre, Beaverlodge, AB have shown that fall-
sown and early-seeded canola seedlings that had undergone hardening could withstand -
8 to -12°C temperatures.

Rapidly growing canola seedlings are more susceptible to frost damage than plants that
are growing slowly under cold conditions, especially when there is ample moisture.
Exposure to warm weather can cause cold hardened plants to lose frost tolerance and
similar to unhardened later-sown canola, be killed by temperatures of only -3 to -4°C.
Canola at the cotyledon stage is more susceptible to frost damage than plants at the
three- to four-leaf stage which can usually withstand a couple of degrees more frost.

Figure 12. Frost Damage to Seeding

Hardened winter canola plants can survive short periods of exposure to temperatures
between -15 and -20°C. Dehydration during sunny and/or windy days while the soil is
frozen can cause extensive winterkill, even when the plants are optimally developed and
fully hardened. Winter types tend to harden faster, achieve a higher degree of cold
tolerance and unharden slower than spring types. Winter canola plants are best adapted
to survive the winter in rosette stage with six to eight leaves. Smaller plants are not
usually capable of surviving over-wintering, while plants with more leaves often start to
elongate prematurely, exposing growing point tissue making it more susceptible to cold
damage. The absence of snow cover during the coldest period of winter or the formation
of ice on the soil surface can damage the crown area of plants and reduce the survival
rate. Unhardening happens fairly fast in the spring after the plants initiate active growth.
 104

Canola seedlings will usually recover from a light spring frost that does not damage the
growing point of the plant. A light frost that wilts the leaves, but does not cause any
browning, will not injure the plants. There may be some discolouration of the leaves,
usually a yellowing or whitening especially under drought conditions (Figures 12 and
13). When a frost does blacken the cotyledons and/or leaves, no action should be taken
for at least four to 10 days (Figure 14).

The extent of killing can be determined only by waiting several days following the frost.
Time is required to determine the extent of the damage and whether or not the growing
point has been killed. If there is any green colour at the growing point in the centre of
the frozen leaf rosette, the plant will recover and yields will be higher than if the field is
worked and reseeded. Under good growing conditions green re-growth from the
growing point should occur in four to five days. Under poor growing conditions— cold
and/or dry—this may take up to 10 days (Figure 15).

Figure 13. Frost Damage to Rosette with Whitening of the Larger Leaves

Figure 14. Frost Damage to Seedling with Blackening of the Cotyledons

Figure 15. Frost Damaged Seedling with Green Re-growth

 105

Figure 16. Frost Damage to Seedling with Blackening of the Cotyledons

Figure 17. Seedling Killed by Frost

Consider the percentage of plants killed, the percentage recovered, the weed population
and the time of year when evaluating frost damaged seedling fields (Figure 16 and 17).

To evaluate a frost damaged field, walk a diagonal path across the field and evaluate all
plants in a 1/4 m2 (3 sq. ft) every 20 paces and note each sample. This should result in
50 to 100 samples. Calculate the percentage of the field that has adequate plant
recovering. For example, 60% of the field has a minimum of 20 to 40 recovering
healthy plants per m2 (18 to 36 per yd2) and a light weed population, and the remainder
of the field has fewer plants (may even be none to spotty). This field still has a higher
yield potential than one that is reseeded, especially if it’s the last week of May or
first week of June. With a moderate weed population that cannot be controlled, the plant
stand should be 60 to 70 recovered plants/m2 (55 to 60 per yd2). The surviving plants
will take advantage of the reduced competition for light, moisture and nutrients, and
grow larger, producing more branches, pods and seeds per pod, compensating for the
lost plants. The surviving plants will require five to eight days longer to mature, but a
re-seeded crop will require an even longer growing period and have a greater risk of fall
frost damage. Frost damage to seedlings in the spring has been only a minor problem in
any one year across western Canada.

Frosts at flowering are rare and usually light and in low areas resulting in slightly
delayed maturity and only minor reductions in yield. Frost during flowering usually
causes flower abortion. Researchers have observed plants in which only those flowers
open at the time of the frost were affected. Pods lower down on the stems and unopened
buds continued to develop normally. Several days after the frost injury, gaps of aborted
pods are evident on the stems. The injury is distinct in that all open flowers at the time
of the frost show the injury.
 106

Frost after flowering, however, can result in significant yield reductions and grade loss.
The amount of fall frost damage to canola depends on its stage of maturity. Dry, mature
seeds can be frozen with little or no effect on seed quality and viability. However, seeds
with moisture content of 20% or more will suffer from frost injury. Generally, the
higher the seed moisture content, the greater the chance of frost injury. A frost of
–3°C is enough to kill immature seeds containing 50 to 60% moisture while those
less than 20% moisture will normally escape damage. Frost does not damage all seeds
to the same degree since the canola plant flowers progressively from the lower to the
upper parts of stems. Frost damaged canola seed analyzed by the Canadian Grain
Commission shows a range of seed damage (Table 5).

Table 5. Frost Damaged Seed Descriptions

Sample Number,
Degree of Frost Damage
Seed
Description # 252 - No # 11 - Severe # 197 - Severe
Categories Frost Damage Damage

Distribution of Seeds in Categories (%)

Normal seed, no white patches 90 22 27

Normal seed with white

0 13 15
patches

Slightly shrivelled seed, no

0 8 11
white patches

Slightly shrivelled seed with

0 35 27
white patches

Severely shrivelled* seed, no

0 3 1
white patches

Severely shrivelled* seed, no

0 11 18
white patches

Cracked seed 10 8 1

Slightly damaged seeds were of normal diameter but had an angular appearance with
obvious patches of white discolouration on the surface. Some severely damaged seeds
had a reduced diameter compared to normal unfrozen seeds, and extensive white
patches sometimes accompanied by white reticulation over much of the surface. Other
severely damaged seeds were of reduced diameter but had collapsed inward, resulting in
a fold. Pronounced white patches were often visible both inside and outside the fold.
The most severely damaged seeds were of reduced diameter and extensively shrivelled.
 107

The seeds had white areas on the surface, particularly on the ridges of the folds, and a
red-brown pigmentation of lighter intensity than normal. As the frost stops the
development of the seed, the degree of shrivelling is an indicator of its stage of
development at the time of the frost. The white patches on the seed surface are starch
granules left after the seed enzyme systems were impaired.

Frost resulting in green seed is the major cause of downgrading in canola. Green seed
occurs due to a failure of the seed to complete the normal chemical processes involved
in degreening. A very heavy frost was experienced in 1992 in Alberta resulting in a
severe drop in canola grades (Table 6).

Table 6. Canola Grades in Alberta for the Years 1991-1993

Average
1991 1992 1993
1984-91
Grade

% of Crop in Each Grade

#1 Canada 94 32 64 78.6

#2 Canada 6 23 27 15.5

#3 Canada 0 26 13 4.4

Sample 0 19 3 1.5

Even the following year experienced lower than average grades for canola due to a
cooler growing season that resulted in later maturity. Many late sown and late maturing
crops were affected by a September 12 killing frost. Frost, even a light frost, can fix the
green colour, preventing additional chlorophyll clearing, regardless of how favourable
following weather conditions may become. Sublethal frosts from 0 to 1°C disrupt the
biological enzyme system in seed nearing maturity that breaks down chlorophyll. Frost
damaged seed dries down or desiccates very rapidly. Once seed moisture content is
down to about 20% the biochemical activities within the seed have slowed to a very low
level so that little or no further enzyme chlorophyll clearing can take place.

Thus it is important to have uniform stands, which ripen uniformly early. Uneven
stands, with a significant portion of late immature seeds, may produce seeds of lower
quality since frozen immature seeds will have lower oil content and retain their green
colour, resulting in reduced grades.

Hail Damage

Fields with hail damage can turn yellow to green as young flower clusters are torn off.
However, researchers at the AAFC Saskatoon, SK Research Centre have shown that
canola plants have a remarkable ability to recover from hail damage at certain growth
stages.
 108

Canola plants injured in the seedling stage may have either one or both cotyledons
missing, the seedling beaten down, or the stem broken at the soil line. Plants with both
cotyledons broken or torn off, and those broken off below the cotyledons, usually do not
survive. Yield losses can be determined by the per cent of the stand that the hail thinned
out. An average stand of 120 to 140 plants/m2 (109 to 127 per yd 2) can be reduced to
fewer than 40 plants/m2 (36 per yd2) before yield losses exceed 10%. The crop recovers
its yield potential because the remaining seedlings take advantage of the reduced
competition for light, moisture and nutrients. As a result, plants grow larger, produce
more branches, and develop more pods and seeds per pod, compensating for the lost
plants.

Plants in the early vegetative stage are occasionally injured at the growing point and
lost. However, the major injury is usually to the leaf canopy. Leaves only bruised or
torn suffer partial loss, while those that are bruised on the main vein or torn, broken and
wilted will be lost. Leaf area is very important for photosynthesis, therefore, leaf area
loss will result in reduced seed yields. The loss in seed yield is equal to about 25% of
the leaf area loss.

Plants injured in the late vegetative or early flowering stages seldom die (Figure 18).

Figure 18. Hail Damaged Plants at the Early Flowering Stage

A well established root system and the ability to develop secondary flower clusters help
the plant recover. When buds and flowers are lost due to injury, the plant recovers
rapidly by the development of flowers that normally would have been aborted. The
plant also develops flowering branches from growth buds lower down on the plant,
replacing to a degree, the lost buds, flowers and pods. Seed yield loss will depend on the
per cent of leaves and branches lost, as shown in Table 7. B. napus varieties have shown
a greater ability to recover from loss of flowering branches than B. rapa varieties.

If hail strikes during pod filling or ripening, plant recovery is not possible (Figures 19
and 20).
 109

Figure 19. Hail Damaged Immature Seed

Figure 20. Hail Damage to Seeds at Podding

Even if the plants do rebranch and flower, there is insufficient growing season left to
allow this new growth to reach maturity before the first killing frost. Seed yield losses
for injury at the ripening stage depend directly on the loss of branches, individual pods
and seeds (Table 7).

Table 7. Yield Loss Due to the Destruction of Branches During Flowering in

Canola

B. napus B. rapa

% of Branches Lost Days From First Flower

-7 0 +7 +14 +21 -7 0 +7 +14

10 0 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 10

20 0 0 13 20 20 0 13 20 20
 110

Table 7. Yield Loss Due to the Destruction of Branches During Flowering in

Canola

B. napus B. rapa

% of Branches Lost Days From First Flower

-7 0 +7 +14 +21 -7 0 +7 +14

30 0 0 12 29 30 6 21 30 30

40 0 0 12 32 40 12 27 40 40

50 0 0 14 36 50 16 32 50 50

60 0 0 18 42 60 19 37 60 60

70 0 0 24 50 70 21 40 63 70

80 0 5 31 60 80 22 42 67 80

90 0 12 40 71 90 22 43 69 90

100 0 20 51 84 100 17 43 70 100

Summary

Know the growing degree days and frost-free period for your location to select the best
adapted variety with the least amount of risk. Use late maturing varieties in areas with
shorter frost-free periods and where lower heat accumulation poses a higher potential
risk. Seed in early spring to reduce this risk.

Spring soil temperatures can be critical in establishing a uniform stand. Determine each
field’s soil temperature before seeding. Keep in mind the optimum soil temperature
for rapid germination and emergence, and the days to maturity of the variety selected.
Waiting for warmer spring soil conditions may increase the risk of fall frost damage.
Frost and hail damage at early growth stages must be carefully evaluated. Know the
plant growth stage, and the effects of frost and hail on plant growth to help decide
whether or not to leave the crop, reseed, or work under.

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on fatty acid composition of rapeseed oil. Proceedings 10th International Rapeseed
Congress, Canberra ACT, 1999.

Thurling, N. 1974. Morphophysiological determinants of yield in rapeseed (Brassica

campestris and Brassica napus). I. Growth and morphological characteristics. Aust. J.
Agric. Res. 25:697-710.

Van Caeseele, L., MacGregor, A.W. and Mills, J.T. 1985. Identification of starch in
frost-damaged Brassica napus (canola) seeds. Amer. J. Bot. 72(5):728-732.

Vigil, M.F., R.L. Anderson, and W.E. Beard. 1997. Base Temperature and growing-
degree-hour requirements for the emergence of canola. Crop Sci. 37:844-849.

Walton, G., Si, S., Tennant, D. and Bowden B. 1999. Environmental impact on canola
yield and oil. Proceedings 10th International Rapeseed Congress. Canberra, ACT, 1999.

Williams, I.H. and Free, J.B. 1979. Compensation of oil seed rape (Brassica napus L.)
plants after damage to their buds and pods. J. Agric. Sci. (Camb.) 92:53-59.

Wilson, R.E., Jensen, B.A. and Fernandez, G.C.J. 1992. Seed germination response
to eleven forage cultivars of Brassica to temperature. Agron. J. 84:200-202.

Wilson, J.W. 1967. Effects of seasonal variation in radiation and temperature on net
assimilation and growth rates in an arid climate. Annuals of Botany. N.S. Vol. 31 No.
121:42-57.

Winfield, A.L. 1962. Effect of early flower-bud removal on subsequent development of

some Brassica plants. Plant Pathology 11:17-22.
 114

Chapter 6 - Acidity, Salinity, Solonetzic

1. Canola Response to Acidity, Salinity and Solonetzic Soil
o Soil pH and Acidity
o Soil Salinity
 Effects of Salinity on Canola Growth and Yield
o Solonetzic Soils
o Summary
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Aluminium Toxicity Symptoms in Canola
o Figure 2. General Relationship Between pH of Mineral Soil and
Availability of Various Elements
o Figure 3. Effects of Liming on Canola Yields at 27 Alberta Sites on
Soils with Different pH Ranges
o Figure 4. Effects of Salinity (dS/m) on % Emergence, Days to
Emergence and Plant Survival
o Figure 5. Canola Yields (Expressed in % of Salt-Free Yields) under
Moderate Root-Zone Salinity (5.6 dS/m)
o Figure 6. Effects of Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) on Yield of
Canola
o Figure 7. Effect of Crust Strength (kPa) on % Seedling Emergence
in B. napus
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Acidity Tolerance of Various Crops
o Table 2. Salinity Rating and Electrical Conductivity Value

Chapter 6 - Acidity, Salinity, Solonetzic

Canola Response to Acidity, Salinity and Solonetzic Soil

Acidity, salinity and solonetzic soil problems can be major limiting factors in canola
production. When severe, they are very visible and easily determined. At less limiting
levels, they may not be as recognizable but still reduce growth and yield. This chapter
discusses these soil problems and how to identify their extent, effects on canola plants
and the steps to modify or reduce their limiting effects.

Soil pH and Acidity

Soil acidity is identified by a pH value. In practical terms, soils between pH 6.5 and 7.5
are considered neutral. Soils in the range 5.6 to 6.0 are moderately acid, 5.1 to 5.5
strongly acid and less than 5.1 are very strongly acid. Soils with a pH greater than 7.5
are called alkaline. A soil with a high degree of alkalinity (pH of 8.5 or higher) is called
an alkali soil. The term alkali generally refers to high sodium soils but is frequently
incorrectly used to refer to saline soils. Most saline soils are neutral to slightly alkaline
(below pH 8.5). Canola will tolerate soils with a pH of up to 8.3 before yield reductions
become serious. A majority of cultivated soils in western Canada are alkaline or neutral
in reaction. However, large areas of soil with a pH of 6.0 or less occur naturally in
 115

Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta and northeast British Columbia. It has been estimated
that medium to strongly acid soils (less than pH 6.0) occupy over 3 million hectares (7.4
million acres) in western Canada.

Soil pH affects the structure, chemical, and biological properties of soils and, therefore,
crop yields. Crops also vary greatly in their tolerance to various components of acidity.
A list of crops and the lowest pH value each will tolerate without yield reduction is
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Acidity Tolerance of Various Crops

Crop pH

Alfalfa, sugar beets 6.5

Barley 6.0

Canola, wheat, corn, red clover 5.5

Potatoes, rye 5.0

Cranberries, oats 4.5

On strongly acid soils with a pH of less than 5.5, canola yields are often reduced
substantially. Canola plant growth on acid soils can be limited by one or more factors,
including:

 toxicity of hydrogen ions, aluminium, iron, or manganese

 deficiency of calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, boron,
nitrogen, or molybdenum
 reduced organic matter breakdown and nutrient cycling by microflora
 reduced uptake by plant roots and inhibition of root growth

Acid soils often contain soluble forms of aluminium and manganese. As soil acidity
increases below pH 5.5 (pH decreases), soluble aluminium and manganese increase to
toxic levels. Aluminium toxicity restricts root growth and phosphorus uptake and
translocation within the plant (Figure 1). While the primary effect of aluminium toxicity
is at the root level, the more visible foliar injury is due to nutrient deficiency, drought
(due to poor root penetration) or pathogens, which are more pronounced on
aluminiumtoxic, acid soils. Manganese toxicity causes chlorosis on leaf margins and
cupping of leaves in canola. Aluminium and manganese often reduce the yields of crops
grown on acid soils.
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Figure 1. Aluminium Toxicity Symptoms in Canola

Soil acidity reduces the availability of essential elements for plant growth such as
phosphorus (P) and molybdenum (Mo) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. General Relationship Between pH of Mineral Soil and Availability of Various

Elements*

Research has shown that canola yields on acid soils can be substantially increased by
lime application. The application of lime to acid soils can affect biological, chemical
and physical properties of soils. The increase in soil pH resulting from lime application
provides a more favourable environment for soil microbiological activity that increases
the rate of release of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen. Reduced soil acidity
following liming also increases the availability of several other plant nutrients, notably
phosphorus. A crop takes up only about 20% of fertilizer phosphorus in the application
year. The remainder is fixed in the soil in various degrees of availability for succeeding
crops. Below pH 6.0, the fixed phosphorus is retained in less available forms than on
slightly acid and neutral soils (pH 6.1 to 7.5). Phosphorus availability is reduced
because of the formation of relatively insoluble compounds through reactions of
phosphorus with iron and aluminium.

pH 7.0, fertilizer phosphorus availability is reduced because of reactions with calcium

and magnesium. Therefore, one of the benefits of liming acid soils is the increased
 117

utilization of residual fertilizer phosphorus by crops. On slightly acid (pH 6.1 to 6.5)
and moderately acid (pH 5.6 to 6.0) soils, liming will have a minor effect on canola
yields (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Effects of Liming on Canola Yields at 27 Alberta Sites on Soils with Different

pH Ranges

However, liming may improve the physical properties of some medium and fine-
textured soils (particularly Grey and Dark Grey Wooded soils). Research at the
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre showed that
liming improved the stability of soil aggregates and, therefore, soil structure or tilth of
Grey Wooded soils. Soils with a stable soil structure are less prone to crusting following
intense precipitation, are well aerated, have a high rate of water infiltration and result in
good germination and stand establishment of small-seeded crops like canola.

On strongly acid (pH 5.1 to 5.5) and very strongly acid (pH less than 5.1) soils, liming
reduces soluble aluminium and manganese to non-toxic levels and increases yield. In a
three-year study (1993-95) at Beaverlodge, liming a pH 5.0 soil raised the pH to 6.5,
increasing plant dry matter production and increasing canola yields by 37% in tilled and
17% in no-till soils. Aluminium stress predisposes plants to infection by brown girdling
root rot (Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn) due to reduced root vigour. The increased growth
resulting from liming was likely due to a decrease in brown girdling root rot, reduced
weed populations and increased pH-related changes in soil fertility, and likely other
factors.

Research shows that the benefits of a single application of lime can last for up to 30
years. Liming is a substantial investment, although by-product liming materials from
municipal and industrial facilities may provide an alternative low-cost liming material
for farmers. It is important to identify the extent and severity of an acid soil problem.
The most reliable method of identifying an acid soil problem is through soil tests. With
careful sampling of fields, soil tests can determine the extent and severity of soil acidity,
the rate of lime required and provide an estimate of crop response to lime.
 118

Soil Salinity

All soils contain soluble salts (those which dissolve in water). When the levels are
sufficient to harm plants, the soils are "saline."

Salinity is the result of excess groundwater moving downward and laterally through the
soil dissolving and transporting soluble salts. Large areas in Canada's prairie regions
contain soil materials relatively high in soluble salts. The redistribution of these soluble
salts by groundwater movement causes some areas to become excessively saline. When
drainage is good, the salts are washed down through the soil and out of the root zone.
When drainage is poor, as in low, flat or depressional areas, or in areas where roads or
other construction interferes with normal drainage, the water table rises. When the water
table rises to within 1 m (3') of the surface, water and salts can rise to the surface by
capillary action. The water evaporates and the salts accumulate at the surface.

Salinity also occurs in saline seeps on hill slopes, often part way up the slope on very
long and high hills. Rainfall on the upslope part of the hill (recharge area) moves down
through the soil, picking up salts on the way. The water not used by crops moves down
until it reaches an impermeable layer, which impedes its progress. The water then flows
laterally (seeps) until it reaches a position lower down the slope (discharge area) where
the water table is closer to the surface. There, seep water causes the water table to rise
allowing the salt laden water to move up to the soil surface by capillary action. The seep
phenomenon can take place over relatively short distances within the same field or over
distances of several miles. Salinity levels vary widely across a saline seep. Salinity also
varies from spring to fall. Salinity usually appears on the soil surface just after spring
thaw.

The dominant salts in prairie "saline seeps" are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sodium (Na) cations and sulphate (SO4) anions. If Na levels are high or not balanced
with the Ca and Mg, soil tilth can also be affected. The positively charged Na cations
attach to the negatively charged clay particles in the soil, causing the soil to be sticky
when wet and hard and impermeable when dry.

Saline soils can be recognized by spotty growth of crops or by white crusts of salt,
which accumulate on the soil surface usually in low-lying areas. Streaks of salt may be
present in the soil even though white crusts may not appear on the surface. In many
saline soils, it is not possible to see the salts and a laboratory soil analysis must be used
to confirm their presence. Plants may develop a blue-green tinge. Salttolerant weeds
such as Russian thistle, kochia, wild barley and goosefoot species are commonly found
in areas of high salt concentration.

The process of salt buildup is reduced when plants intercept the upward flow of saline
groundwater and reduce the amount that reaches the soil surface. When plants are not
present, almost all of the water loss takes place by evaporation at the soil surface.
Summerfallow is a major contributor to salinity as it encourages a build-up of a water
table. Water not used by crops accumulates in the subsoil eventually coming to the
surface laden with salts. These salts interfere with seed germination and crop
establishment.
 119

All irrigation water contains some salt. Over an extended period of irrigation where soil
drainage is inadequate, salts accumulate in the soil and a salinity problem may develop.
Water used in the major irrigation areas of Alberta and Saskatchewan is of high quality
with little risk of salt buildup. Seepage or high water tables resulting from overirrigation
cause most salinity under irrigation.

Effects of Salinity on Canola Growth and Yield

Plant species vary in their tolerance to salt affected soils. Some plants will tolerate high
levels of salinity while others can tolerate little or no salinity. The relative growth of
plants in the presence of salinity is called their salt tolerance. Salttolerant plants avoid
toxicity by the sequestration of the Na+ and Cl- ions into either vacuoles or roots by a
salt exclusion mechanism. Salt tolerances are usually given in terms of stage of plant
growth over a range of electrical conductivity (EC) levels.

The degree of salinity or total soluble salt concentration in a soil is routinely measured
by soil testing laboratories with a conductivity test. Electrical conductivity (EC) is the
ability of a solution to transmit an electrical current. An electrical current is passed
through a soil sample and measured. The units of conductivity are usually given in
deciSiemens per metre (dS/m). Table 2 categorizes salinity into general ranges from
non-saline to very severely saline. These values are used for plant selection for saline
soils.

Table 2. Salinity Rating and Electrical Conductivity Value

Soil Depth Non- Slightly Moderately Severely Very Severely

(cm) Saline Saline Saline Saline Saline

2 to 4
0 to 60 <2 dS/m* 4 to 8 dS/m 8 to 16 dS/m >16 dS/m
dS/m

4 to 8 16 to 24
60 to 120 <4 dS/m 8 to 16 dS/m >24 dS/m
dS/m dS/m

* dS/m = deciSiemens per metre

Excess soluble salts cause osmotic stress and ion toxicity in plant cells. Plants need both
the water and the nutrients dissolved in it for proper growth. The sap in plant roots
contains salt that attracts water into the plant via osmotic pressure. Dissolved salts in the
soil increase the osmotic pressure of the soil solution. This decreases the rate at which
water from the soil will enter the roots. If the soil solution becomes too concentrated,
plants will slowly dehydrate, lose turgor and starve, even though the supply of water
and nutrients in the soil may be quite high. If the salt content of the soil water becomes
too saturated, water may actually be withdrawn from the roots. Osmotic stress also
results from desiccation and, therefore, is a common component of both drought and
salt stress. High concentration of certain salts in the soil may also be toxic because some
plants may absorb an excess amount of the salt, reducing growth or causing death.
 120

Canola is considered moderately tolerant to salt and sodium, and can tolerate moderate
salinity up to levels of 5 to 6 dS/m. In a salinity study by the Agriculture and Agri- Food
Canada Swift Current, SK Research Centre increasing levels of soil salinity reduced
germination, emergence and emergence rate (Figure 4). This greenhouse study showed
that the per cent emergence and plant survival was not significantly affected until
salinity exceeded 5.6 dS/m. Above this value there was an increase in number of days
from seeding to initial emergence. With severe salinity, after emergence began, there
was a rapid number of new plants but over time the percentage that survived dropped
off.

Figure 4. Effects of Salinity (dS/m) on % Emergence, Days to Emerge and Plant

Survival

Salinity under both moderate and severe conditions reduces average plant height, shoot
and root biomass, number of leaves, leaf area, evapotranspiration, and crop yield at
harvest. For example, the average harvest height in the above study averaged 167, 132
and 84 cm (66, 52 and 33"), respectively for the 0.6, 5.6 and 12.4 dS/m treatments. Root
growth is also hindered at salinity above 6 dS/m. At 5.6 dS/m, canola yields in this
study were reduced by 60% (Figure 5) and with severe salinity, canola yields were
reduced by 80%. However, several other research studies have shown there was little
effect on canola yields with salinity levels up to 10 dS/m.
 121

Figure 5. Canola Yields (Expressed in % of Salt-Free Yields) under Moderate Root-

Zone Salinity (5.6 dS/m)

Use soil tests to determine the extent of a salinity problem. Sample both affected and
non-affected areas of the field. Perform analyses for electrical conductivity (EC), pH,
cation base saturation, and calcium, magnesium, sodium and organic matter content.
Soil tests can also identify possible future salinity problems.

Another type of soil problem occurs when sodium levels are high in relation to calcium
and magnesium in the soil. These soils are very sticky and slippery when wet, and very
hard, cloddy and prone to crusting when dry. The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is the
ratio of sodium to the beneficial soil structural cations, calcium and magnesium. When
the SAR value exceeds 13, the soil is "sodic." If the SAR exceeds 13 and the EC is
greater than 4, it is considered a "salinesodic" soil. Use a soil test to determine the SAR
of soils.

Sodium, even with no soil crusting, has been shown by an Argentina study to have a
direct effect on canola emergence with a slight reduction in emergence at SAR values of
20 growing to a 60% reduction at SAR values above 34. At SAR values greater than 20,
main stem growth and yield decreased slightly but an increase in the number of
secondary branches compensated for this reduction. Reductions in number of stems,
seeds per pod on the main stem, pods per stem and canola yields tend to decrease
dramatically when SAR values exceed 34 (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Effects of Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) on Yield of Canola

However, the most important effect of soil sodium is through increased crusting that
reduces emergence. The amount of sodium required to affect emergence is much higher
than that necessary for clay dispersion and crusting. The Argentina study showed SAR
values of eight and even lower can encourage clay dispersion and crusting when
raindrops impact the soil surface. Canola has a small seed and at germination the
cotyledons are pushed through the soil to the surface, making emergence more difficult
 122

in crusted soils. Crusting is also affected by soil particle size distribution as a high
proportion of fine particles enhances soil susceptibility to crusting. Very fine seedbeds
resulting from excessive tillage increase the susceptibility of a soil to form a crust. Crust
strength will greatly influence emergence (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Effect of Crust Strength (kPa) on % Seedling Emergence in B. napus

On soils with moderate salinity, use continuous cropping or at least lengthen the
rotation to the maximum possible. Crops use the water rather than allowing it to move
deeply into the soil or accumulate near the soil surface and contribute to salt movement.

Use shallow tillage and maintain all possible crop residues at the soil surface. Deep
tillage may, in many cases, simply bring more salts to the surface and make problems
worse. Seed canola shallow and early so that seeds may germinate when surface salt
levels are temporarily lowered. Use of fertilizers, as recommended from soil test
analysis, will produce better crops, which extract more moisture and assist in preventing
further salinization. Subsurface drains can sometimes be used to drain water away and
lower the water table, but this can be very expensive.

If soil salinity has already reached the stage where cereal and oilseed crops cannot be
grown, consult qualified soil specialists on management procedures to combat and
reclaim saline land.

Solonetzic Soils

There are about 6 million hectares (15 million acres) of solonetzic land in western
Canada. This includes about 4 to 5 million ha (10 to 12 million ac) in Alberta; 1.5
million ha (4 million ac) in Saskatchewan, and 10,000 ha (25,000 ac) in Manitoba.

Solonetzic soils, often called burnout, blow-out or gumbo soils, are characterized by a
tough, impermeable, high sodium, clay hardpan from 5 to 30 cm (2 to 12") or more
below the surface. This hardpan layer severely restricts root and water penetration
below the topsoil. Solonetzic soils are formed on material that is naturally high in
sodium salts or from materials that have been enriched with sodium salts through the
upward movement of ground water. Aside from variations in depth of topsoil, these
soils vary in the relative degree of formation of the hard pan. Some of these soils have a
tough hardpan and are high in exchangeable sodium. Others have a hardpan that has
 123

been leached of sodium, is not as tough and can be penetrated by some roots and
moisture.

Solonetzic soils usually occur in association with normal soils, that is, a field of good
soil may contain patches of solonetzic soil. These patches may vary from 1 m (3.25') to
several hundred metres (1,000') in diameter and may represent as little as 10% or as
much as 90% of the soil in a particular field. Within a given field, good growth is often
contrasted by thin, stunted growth on the solonetzic patches. Crops tend to develop an
uneven or wavy appearance.

Moisture is generally a limiting factor to crop growth on solonetzic soils. The hardpan
restricts root development and moisture use to the topsoil above the hardpan. The
deeper the depth of topsoil, the greater the moisture storage available. On some of the
weaker solonetzic hardpans, roots and moisture are able to penetrate.

Solonetzic soils usually have a pH between 5.5 and 6.5 in the surface layer, however,
pH values may be 5.0 or lower. Canola yields are reduced when the soil pH is 5.5 or
lower.

Seedbed preparation is relatively difficult on solonetzic soils with shallow topsoil as

they dry out rapidly with cultivation. If tilled when wet the result is the formation of
large, hard clods that are difficult to break down into a good seedbed. This condition
inhibits moisture contact with the seed and results in poor germination. In addition, the
surface soil structure tends to break down easily under rainfall, and dries to form a hard
crust that restricts seedling emergence. Although the exact operations required to
prepare a good seedbed will vary from year to year, working them during cool weather
and when they are moderately dry generally gives the best results. Spring tillage should
be shallow and minimal.

Crop residues are essential for the maintenance of tilth on solonetzic soils. Work all
straw and stubble as well as available supplies of manure into the soil to increase
organic matter content and improve surface structure and tilth. Use forage crops in
rotation. Use blade implements, cultivators and rod weeders rather than disc
implements, except where the trash cover is exceptionally heavy.

Provide surface drainage whenever possible to prevent temporary accumulation of water

(ponding) before and after seeding. This will reduce uneven germination and allow
more timely cultivation of the entire field. Seed as soon as the soil temperature and
moisture conditions are favourable for germination.

Solonetzic soils, like most other soils, will respond to applications of commercial
fertilizer. However, response to fertilizer as with any soil may be limited by a lack of
moisture. Therefore, the optimum rates of fertilizer applications tend to be lower
compared to normal soils because of the lower yield potential on solonetzic soil. Crops
grown on solonetzic soils often suffer from drought in the middle to late growing
season. Therefore, it is important that crops get an early vigorous start.

Deep ploughing and deep subsoiling (ripping) have increased production on some
solonetzic soils. However, not all solonetzic soils are suitable for deep ploughing or
 124

ripping. Consult a qualified soils specialist before a soil is deep ploughed or deep
subsoiled.

Summary

Canola crop growth and yield may be limited by acidity, salinity and solonetzic soil
problems. Farmers must understand these factors to determine whether or not they may
be limiting on their farms. Where these problems exist, use information on how they
develop and affect canola production to modify and reduce their limitations. Consult
with the local agricultural representative and provincial soil specialists to devise
methods to combat these problems.

References

Arshad, M.A. 1995. Liming benefits crop production on an acid soil. Northern
Agriculture Res. Cen & Fort Vermilion Res. Farm. Research Highlights 1995.

Arshad, M.A., Gill, K.S., Turkington, T.K. and Woods, D.L. 1997. Canola root rot
and yield response to liming and tillage. Agron. J. 89:17-22.

Beckie, H.J. and Ukrainetz, H. 1995. Lime-amended acid soil has elevated pH 30
years later. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76:59-61.

Delhaize, E. and Ryan P.R. 1995. Aluminum toxicity and tolerance in plants. Plant
Physiol. (1995) 107:315-321.

Francois, L., 1994. Growth, seed yield, and oil content of canola grown under saline
conditions. Agron. J. 86:233-237.

Grevers, M.C.J. and Taylor, J. 1995. The economic feasibility of subsoiling

solonetzic soils in Saskatchewan. J. Prod. Agric. 8:557-561.

Grevers, M.C.J. and de Jong, E. 1993. Soil structure and crop yield over a 5-year
period following subsoiling Solonetzic and Chernozemic soils in Saskatchewan. Can. J.
Soil Sci. 73:81-91.

Gutierrez Boem, F.H., Scheiner, J.D. and Lavado, R.S. 1994. Some effects of oil
salinity on growth, development and yield of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). J.
Agronomy & Crop Science 172:182-187.

Gutierrez Boem, F.H., Lavado, R.S. and Porcelli, C.A. 1997. Effects of waterlogging
followed by a salinity peak on rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). J. Agronomy & Crop
Science 178:135-140.

Gutierrez Boem, F.H. and Lavado, R.S. 1996. The effects of soil sodicity on
emergence, growth, development and yield of oilseed rape (Brasssica napus). J. Agic.
Sci., Camb., 126:169-173.

Hoyt, P.B. 1981. Improvements in soil tilth and rapeseed emergence by lime
applications on acid soils in the Peace River region. Can. J. Soil Sci. 61:91-98.
 125

Huang, J. and Redman, R.E. 1995. Salt tolerance of Hordeum and Brassica species
during germination and early seedling growth. Can. J. Plant Sci. 75:815-819.

Lickacz, L. 1993. Management of Solonetzic Soils. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural
Development publication Agdex 518-8.

McAndrew, D.W. and Malhi, S.S. 1990. Long-term effect of deep plowing Solonetzic
soil on chemical characteristics and crop yield. Can. J. Soil Sci. 70:565-570.

Morris, D.T. and Daynard, T.B. 1978. Surface application of gypsum and ammonium
nitrate for the amelioration of a black Solonetz soil. Can. J. Soil Sci. 58:279-282.

Nuttall, W.F. 1982. The effect of seeding depth, soil moisture regime, and crust
strength on emergence of rape cultivars. Agronomy Journal 74:1018-1022.

Penny, D. 1996. Liming Acid Soils. Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development
publication Agdex 500.

Penney, D.C., Nyborg, M., Hoyt, P.B., Rice, W.A., Siemens, B. and Laverty, D.H.
1977. An assessment of the soil acidity problem in Alberta and northeastern British
Columbia. Can. J. Soil Sci. 57:157-164.

Porcelli, C.A., Gutierrez Boem, F.H. and Lavado, R.S. 1995. The K/Na and Ca/Na
ratios and rapeseed yield, under soil salinity or sodicity. Plant and Soil 175:251-255.

Redmann, R.E., Qi, M.Q., and Delyk, M. 1994. Growth of transgenic and standard
canola (Brassica napus L.) varieties in response to soil salinity. Can. J. Plant Sci.
74:797-799.

Steppuhn, H. 2000. Salinity delays and restricts the emergence of alternative crops.
Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research Centre, Swift Current, SK. Research Newsletter
No. 6 March 31, 2000.

Steppuhn, H. and Wall, K.G. 1999. Salinity limits grain production from alternative
crops. Semiarid Prairie Agriculture Research Centre, Swift Current, SK. Research
Newsletter No. 7, June 18, 1999.

Volkmar, K.M., Hu, Y. and Steppuhn, H. 1998. Physiological responses of plants to

salinity: A review. Can. J. Plant Sci. 78:19-27.

Zhang, H.X., Hodson, J., Williams, J.P. and Blumwald, E. 1999. Engineering salt-
tolerant Brassica plants: Characterization of yield and seed oil quality in transgenic
plants with increased vacuolar sodium accumulation. PNAS. USA 98:12832-12836.

Wentz, D. 1997. Annual crops for recharge control of saline seeps. Alberta Agriculture,
Food & Rural Development publication Agdex 518-14.
 126

Chapter 7 - Soil Preparation

1. Crop Rotations and Seedbed Preparation
o Rotations and Crop Sequences
o Effects of Preceding Crop on Canola
o Rotational Impacts
o Effects of Canola on Subsequent Crops
 Positive Impact
 Negative Impact
o Seedbed Requirements and Preparation
 Conventional Tillage Seedbed Preparation
 Conservation Tillage Seeding Systems
o Direct Seeding Equipment
 Single and Double-Shoot Systems
 Selecting and Using Ground Openers
o Pre-Seeding Weed Control
o Canola Response to Conservation Tillage Seeding
 Weed Control
 Soil Moisture and Moisture Use
 Soil Temperature
 Canola Yield under Conservation Tillage Seeding Systems
o Net Returns of Different Tillage Systems
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Effect of Incorporated Rapeseed Mature Residue or
Fresh Herbage on Various Crop Plant Densities at Saskatoon, SK in
1977
o Figure 2. Effect of Incorporated Rapeseed Mature Residue or
Fresh Herbage on Various Crop Yields at Saskatoon, SK in 1977
o Figure 3. Single Shoot Opener
o Figure 4. Double Shoot, Paired-row Opener
o Figure 5. Double Shoot, Single Side-band Opener
o Figure 6. Semi-dependent Opener
o Figure 7. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage and Direct
Seeded Systems in the Black Soil Zone of Alberta (AFSC 1999-2001
Data)
o Figure 8. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage Systems in the
Dark Brown Soil Zone of Alberta (AFSC 1999-2001 Data)
o Figure 9. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage Systems in the
Peace River Region Dark Grey and Grey Soil Zones of Alberta
(AFSC 1999-2001 Data)
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Effect of Crop Rotation on Stinkweed at Scott, SK (based
on 1981, 1985 and 1990 plant counts)
o Table 2. Effect of Rotation on Blackleg in Canola at Scott, SK
(1990)
o Table 3. Guide to Field Selection for Canola Crops
o Table 4. Relative Yield of Crops Grown on Various Stubble Types at
Melfort and Aylsham, SK (Moist Black soil zone) 1990-92
o Table 5. Effect of Stubble Type on Canola Yield in Alberta
 127

o Table 6. Relative Yield of Major Crops Sown on Selected Stubble

Types in Rotation in Manitoba during 1994 - 1998 (from Manitoba
Crop Insurance Corporation)
o Table 7. Effect of Stubble Type on Barley and Wheat Yield in
Various Alberta Soil Zones (from Agricultural Financial Services
Corporation)
o Table 8. Residue Left on the Soil Surface after Various Tillage
Operations

Crop Rotations and Seedbed Preparation

Field selection and seedbed quality are two important aspects for productive canola
crops. Good field selection mainly involves proper crop rotation. Seedbed quality is
influenced by the tillage method and timeliness, and includes conventional and direct
seeding methods.

Rotations and Crop Sequence

Crop rotation is an ancient agronomic practice compared to technology such as

herbicides. Since rotation significantly increases yield, it is a cornerstone of farm
management. The benefits to rotation are numerous, complex and still not fully
understood. Studying rotation effects is difficult because long-term experiments are
needed to exclude shortterm influences of weather, soil productivity and management
changes.

Good crop rotation has a beneficial impact on weeds, diseases and insects. When a crop
is grown continuously, pest populations adapted to that crop will increase. Rotating
crops tends to reduce pest build-up, especially immobile types. For example, rotations
with high canola frequency have more cruciferous weeds such as stinkweed, but less
grassy weeds such as green foxtail or wild millet (Table 1).

Table 1. Effect of Crop Rotation on Stinkweed at Scott, SK (based on 1981, 1985

and 1990 plant counts)

Rotation Stinkweed Plants/m2 in Canola Phase

Fallow-canola 190

Fallow-canola-wheat 129

Fallow-canola-barley 27

Fallow-canola-barley-hay 23

Fallow-canola-wheat-barley-hay-hay 50

The impact of crop rotation on weeds is partly due to different herbicides available in
canola compared to cereals. Alternate crops in the rotation allow different herbicides to
 128

be used and thus can provide better overall weed control in the long term. Rotating
crops and herbicides also helps to rotate herbicide groups and thus reduce the build-up
of herbicideresistant weeds. The recent introduction of herbicide-tolerant canola
systems (Roundup Ready, Liberty Link, Clearfield and Navigator) has improved weed
control in canola and provided more options for rotating herbicide group use.

Similarly, crop rotation can lower the risk of diseases. Short rotation canola tends to
have more problems with blackleg and seedling root rot (Table 2).

Table 2. Effect of Rotation on Blackleg in Canola at Scott, SK (1990)

Rotation Blackleg (% of plants with basal lesions)

Fallow-canola 43.5

Fallow-canola-wheat 9.5

Fallow-canola-barley 9.0

Fallow-canola-barley-hay 8.0

Fallow-canola-wheat-barley-hay-hay 4.0

Proper rotation with cereals will reduce canola disease, provided that volunteer canola
and cruciferous weeds are controlled in the cereal break crops. Also, rotation with
canola can reduce many cereal diseases such as common root rot, take-all and tan spot.
Australian research has documented a significant reduction in take-all disease of wheat
following canola, indicating that canola has a "biofumigation" effect.

Rotation also affects water use. Oilseed crops like canola and flax may use less water
than cereals, and thus improve subsequent crop yields in dry areas. Water use is more
efficient when crops with different rooting systems are rotated.

In a diverse rotation of cereals, oilseeds, pulses and forages, the different kinds of
residue returned to the soil can improve soil fertility over the long term. This fertility
increase is due to differences in nutrient cycling, soil aggregation and complex
interactions between plants, soil and microbes. Chemicals naturally present in plants
and released during growth or decomposition can negatively or positively affect
subsequent crops (this phenomenon is termed allelopathy).

Carefully plan crop rotation to avoid a serious build-up of disease, insects or hard-to-
control weeds. Another factor to consider is volunteer growth from previous crops that
may cause serious competition and seeding problems. Herbicide carryover from
previous crops may also adversely affect canola. No single crop rotation will suit all
circumstances. The choice of which crops to grow, and in what sequence, depends to a
large extent on the soil and climatic conditions of a particular farm and also on the
grower's management skills. In areas with adequate moisture, rotations that include
cereals and broadleaf crops maintain pests at lower levels and produce consistently
higher yield. An added benefit is that yields are often more stable because crops differ
 129

in their response to stress at various stages. Therefore, stress may damage one crop
seriously, but others in the rotation may be less affected. Use the information in Table 3
as a guide in selecting a field for canola.

Table 3. Guide to Field Selection for Canola Crops

Crop Before Wait

Remarks
Canola Period

No diseases in common with canola. Can be grown

Barley, canary the year before or after canola. Control stinkweed,
seed, spring rye, cleavers, mustard, volunteer canola and other
fall rye, oats, None problem weeds in these crops. Consider potential
wheat, triticale, herbicide residue carryover problems. A low
winter wheat probability of a volunteer problem for one year for
canola on spring rye and triticale.

A high probability of a volunteer buckwheat

problem exists for one year. A low probability of a
One damping-off and root-rot problem exists for one
Buckwheat
year year. Where wild mustard was a problem in the
buckwheat, a medium probability of a
contamination problem for one year.

A high probability of a disease problem for

sclerotinia for four years, blackleg for three years,
white rust in B. rapa varieties for three years,
alternaria for two years; and a low probability for
Three root rot for two years and damping off for one year.
Canola
years If wild mustard was present, a medium probability
of a contamination problem for several years.
Consider potential herbicide carryover problems. A
high probability of a root maggot problem for one
year following a B. rapa crop.

Consider potential herbicide carryover problems.

Two Soil test to a depth of 60 cm (24") to monitor nutrient
Corn
years levels and avoid over fertilization as corn is usually
heavily fertilized.

A high probability of a volunteer problem for one

One year. A low probability of a disease problem for root
Flax
year rot for two years and damping off and sclerotinia
for one year.

Forage legume One Consider potential herbicide carryover problems. A

 130

Table 3. Guide to Field Selection for Canola Crops

Crop Before Wait

Remarks
Canola Period

(alfalfa, clover) year low probability of a disease problem for three years
for sclerotinia, two years for root rot and one year
for damping off. Available nitrogen may
approximate summerfallow nitrogen levels if
legume breaking is done before June 30. Perennial
legumes have a relatively high sulphur requirement
and may deplete soil supplies. Soil test to determine
sulphur status.

A high probability of a volunteer problem for one

year, followed by a medium to low probability for
two years. Mustard is a contaminant of canola,
therefore, control volunteer mustard in the wait
Two to
period. If wild mustard was present, a medium
Mustard three
probability of a contamination problem for one
years
year. A high probability of a disease problem for
sclerotinia for four years, white rust for three years,
and a low probability for root rot for two years and
damping off for one year.

Consider potential herbicide carryover problems. A

low probability of a disease problem for three years
for sclerotinia, two years for root rot and one year
One for damping off. If wild mustard was a problem in
Potato
year the potatoes, a medium probability of a problem
for one year. Soil test to a depth of 60 cm (24") to
monitor nutrient levels and avoid over fertilization as
potatoes are usually heavily fertilized.

Consider potential herbicide carryover problems. A

Pulse (pea, bean, One low probability of a disease problem for three years
lentil) year for sclerotinia and one year for root rot and
damping off.

Cyst nematodes infest sugar beets causing root

deformity, reducing production and sugar content.
Three Nematodes may lie dormant in soil for several years
Sugar beet
years as cysts (also attacks canola/rapeseed and
mustard). Three- to four-year rotations among sugar
beets, canola/rapeseed and mustard reduce
 131

Table 3. Guide to Field Selection for Canola Crops

Crop Before Wait

Remarks
Canola Period

nematode populations in the soil. A low probability

of a disease problem for one year for root rot and
damping off.

A high probability of a volunteer problem for one

year. Consider potential herbicide carryover
Three
Sunflower problems. A high probability of a disease problem
years
for sclerotinia for four years, and a low probability
for root rot and damping off for one year.

Effects of Preceding Crop on Canola

Growing canola on canola stubble usually results in reduced yield compared to canola
on cereal, pulse or flax stubble.

Studies by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada at Melfort and Aylsham, SK in the Moist
Black soil zone have shown a large yield reduction in growing canola on canola (Table
4).

Table 4. Relative Yield of Crops Grown on Various Stubble Types at Melfort and
Aylsham, SK (Moist Black soil zone) 1990-92

Stubble Peas Flax Canola Wheat Barley

% Yield of check (crop on own stubble = 100%)

Cereal 125 111 152 98 109

Other oilseed 114 109 177 131 138

Pea 100 142 196 147 152

Source: Adapted from Townley-Smith Report to Saskatchewan Pulse Crop

Development Board, 1994.

Alberta Management Insights summarized the effect of stubble type on canola yields
using crop insurance records from 1992-1998 (Table 5). Three million acres of data are
included in this study.

Table 5. Effect of Stubble Type on Canola Yield in Alberta

 132

1992-98 Avg. Yield % Range of

Soil Zone Stubble Type
Canola on Canola Annual Avg.

Wheat 107 96-130

Barley 115 99-127
Black (south-central)
Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 118 99-139

Wheat 106 87-133

Black - Dark Grey Barley 125 109-158
(north-central) Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 121 97-155

Wheat 138 94-172

Dark Grey - Grey Barley 129 113-150
(north-central) Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 134 112-157

Wheat 109 96-120

Barley 115 103-131
Thin Black
Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 125 107-136

Wheat 116 96-152

Barley 119 97-164
Dark Brown
Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 152 123-219

Wheat 103 94-109

Dark Grey - Black Barley 101 91-122
(Peace region) Canola 100 -
Summerfallow 110 105-119

In addition, similar data from Manitoba is summarized in Table 6.

Table 6. Relative Yield of Major Crops Sown on Selected Stubble Types in

Rotation in Manitoba during 1994-1998 (from Manitoba Crop Insurance
Corporation)

Stubble Type

Brassica napus
Wheat Barley Oats Flax Peas
Canola

Relative % yield (crop on own stubble=100%)

 133

Table 6. Relative Yield of Major Crops Sown on Selected Stubble Types in

Rotation in Manitoba during 1994-1998 (from Manitoba Crop Insurance
Corporation)

Stubble Type

Brassica napus
Wheat Barley Oats Flax Peas
Canola

Relative % yield (crop on own stubble=100%)

Wheat 100 109 110 118 114 120

Barley 115 100 110 119 122 122

Oats 114 103 100 124 123 115

Brassica napus
114 115 117 100 118 128
canola

Flax 148 148 146 133 100 **

** Insufficient Data

In general:

 Canola yield is generally better on cereal stubble than canola. The

exception appears to be in the Peace River region, perhaps due to the
longevity of established canola diseases there (blackleg and brown
girdling root rot) and the prevalence of canola.
 In Alberta, canola on barley appears to be slightly better than on wheat
except in the Peace and Dark-Grey zones. Although the increased
canola yield on cereal stubble is less than found in scientific experiments,
this may be due to limiting factors of weeds, diseases and fertility in some
commercial fields.
 In Manitoba, canola on flax and pea stubble had the highest yields.
 Yearly yield variation in the Alberta study is very large, indicating a strong
weather influence on rotation response.

Rotational Impacts

Growing canola on canola stubble promotes disease and insect build-up. Light disease
or insect levels will usually do little damage in the first crop of canola. However, their
build-up in that crop can result in significant damage and yield losses in following
canola crops. Yield reductions may occur when canola is grown on other crops
susceptible to the same diseases and insects, such as flax, mustard, sweet clover,
soybeans, field beans, lentils and sunflowers. As shown in the above tables, canola does
well on cereal stubble if volunteer plants are controlled. Also, if cruciferous weeds or
 134

volunteer canola were a problem in the preceding crop, disease and insect problems
could persist into the canola crop. If the preceding crop is a hay or pasture crop, use an
early partial fallow period to facilitate seedbed preparations in the next spring. This will
allow some weed control and soil moisture build-up. Late summer timing of sod-
breaking may limit subsequent canola production because of depleted soil stored
moisture, poor fertility and weed control, and the difficulty in preparing a good seedbed
with sod clumps.

Another rotational impact of other crops on canola is the potential for toxins that inhibit
the growth and yield of subsequent crops (allelopathy). Research around the world has
documented that leachates from wheat, alfalfa and some forage grasses can be toxic to
canola seedlings. Recent Australian research has found that wheat varieties can differ in
the toxicity of their residues to canola. Wheat residue phytotoxicity may partly explain
occasional poor emergence and vigour of canola direct seeded into heavy wheat straw.
To reduce residue toxicity, spread wheat straw and chaff evenly behind the combine,
and in cases of extreme straw production, bale wheat straw. Growing semidwarf cereal
varieties may also reduce straw load.

Effects of Canola on Subsequent Crops

Positive Impact

Canola is an excellent break crop for cereals. However, when pre-emergent herbicides
are used in the canola crop, sow oats and small seeded grasses next. Some studies have
found higher soil moisture and nitrogen reserves on canola stubble than cereal stubble.
Cereal root and foliar diseases are usually reduced after canola. The reduction in cereal
diseases arises because canola is not a host of cereal diseases and thus their field
populations tend to decline.

Also, recent Australian research indicates that canola actually kills certain cereal
pathogens such as take-all root rot due to release of inhibitory compounds such as
isothiocyanates during decomposition. This direct disease reduction has been termed
biofumigation.

Commercial field data from provincial crop insurance departments confirm cereal yield
advantages after canola. The benefit of canola stubble on subsequent wheat yield has
also been confirmed in Manitoba from crop insurance records (Table 6).

Cereal yield response to canola stubble from these crop insurance records is lower than
found in research experiments. This may be due to limiting factors of weeds, disease
and fertility in some commercial fields. Rotations with canola have been shown to
reduce year-to-year yield variability. In areas with adequate moisture for continuous
cropping, a good rotation is cereal-broadleaf-cerealbroadleaf- for example, wheat-
canola-barley-peas.

Negative Impact

The phytotoxic effect of canola residues has been documented in Canada by several
researchers (Figure 1 and Figure 2) and is attributed to toxins leached from residues as
well as toxins produced during microbial decomposition.
 135

Figure 1. Effect of Incorporated Rapeseed Mature Residue or Fresh Herbage on Various

Crop Plant Densities at Saskatoon, SK in 1977

Figure 2. Effect of Incorporated Rapeseed Mature Residue or Fresh Herbage on Various

Crop Yields at Saskatoon, SK in 1977

Table 7. Effect of Stubble Type on Barley and Wheat Yield in Various Alberta Soil
Zones (from Agriculture Financial Services Corporation)

1992-98 Avg. Yield % 1992-98 Avg. Yield %

Soil Zone Stubble Type
of Barley on Barley of Wheat on Wheat

Wheat 105 100

Black (south-
Barley 100 120
central)
Canola 111 119

Wheat 98 100
Black - Dark Grey
Barley 100 127
(north-central)
Canola 104 120

Wheat 115 100

Dark Grey - Grey
Barley 100 **
(north-central)
Canola 111 **

Wheat 105 100

Thin Black Barley 100 106
Canola 112 105

Wheat 94 100
Dark Brown Barley 100 107
Canola 104 105
 136

Table 7. Effect of Stubble Type on Barley and Wheat Yield in Various Alberta Soil
Zones (from Agriculture Financial Services Corporation)

1992-98 Avg. Yield % 1992-98 Avg. Yield %

Soil Zone Stubble Type
of Barley on Barley of Wheat on Wheat

Summerfallow 118 117

Wheat 93 100
Dark Grey - Black
Barley 100 107
(Peace region)
Canola 122 128

** Insufficient Data

Phenolic compounds are considered to be the main class of phytotoxic compounds that
reduce the growth rate of roots and shoots. Isothiocyanate, a breakdown product of
glucosinolate, has been shown to reduce weed seed germination, especially with small
weed seeds such as spiny sow thistle and flixweed. The phytotoxicity is greatest with
fresh residues and young tissue (herbage). Mature canola residue does not normally
cause subsequent crop germination and growth reductions except for nitrogen
deficiency due to immobilization by the decomposing residue and colder soil
temperature. This is likely due to leaching of the phytotoxins out of the residues by rain
and snow before the next crop is seeded.

Therefore, problems may occur in situations where thick volunteer canola is worked
under in the spring before seeding flax or a cereal crop. Also, poor straw and chaff
spreading with the combine may result in an N deficiency and toxicity problems in the
chaff row for the next crop, especially if heavy volunteer canola growth occurs in the
chaff row. Stress conditions such as an N deficiency and high temperatures can increase
the allelopathic effect. The allelopathic nature of canola and other Brassica species have
potential to be used in green manure systems for weed control.

Canola may reduce beneficial organism populations such as rhizobia and vesicular-
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (VAM) in following crops. These microorganisms do not
colonize canola and thus their populations will decline after a canola crop. However, the
breakdown products of glucosinolates may also reduce the populations with a result
similar to the effect on take-all disease. A recent Australian study found that VAM
colonization in wheat and flax was generally lower following Brassica crops, but this
did not negatively affect crop uptake of P or Zn, or affect crop yield. Further research is
needed.

An average canola crop provides less trash cover than an average cereal crop because it
produces slightly less residue and breaks down more quickly. Recent research at the
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) Lethbridge, AB Research Centre found that
crop residue losses during fallow were lentil>canola>rye>barley>wheat>flax. Lentil
and canola residues often break down twice as fast as wheat. Thus, wind or water
erosion risks increase with canola especially when it is followed by summerfallow.
When land is frequently cropped to canola, there is a slight risk that soil structure may
 137

deteriorate because of the short residue life. However, crop rotations with canola are
much less damaging to soil quality than rotations with summerfallow. Such cropping
practices lead to poor soil tilth and an increased tendency to crust after heavy rains,
especially on soils with high clay and low organic matter contents (such as Grey-
Wooded soils). Studies at AAFC Melfort, SK and Beaverlodge, AB Research Centres
have shown an advantage for a grain-forage rotation on degraded and Grey-Wooded
soils. Several years of other crops like cereals and forages will build up or maintain soil
organic matter due to crop residues with slower decomposition rates. This will promote
better soil structure and tilth, and reduce soil erosion when a trash cover is maintained.
Researchers at Beaverlodge have also reported that canola is a suitable companion crop
for grass establishment.

Frequent canola production can also increase hard-tocontrol volunteers and weeds like
stinkweed, cleavers, wild mustard and Canada thistle. Ensure fields considered for
conventional (non-herbicide-tolerant) canola production are as free as possible of wild
mustard, stinkweed, cleavers and cow cockle. B. napus varieties have little or no seed
dormancy and usually pose little problem for long-term volunteering. However, seeds of
B. rapa varieties, buried by deep tillage and exposed to certain temperature and moisture
conditions, may develop dormancy similar to wild oats. The seed can stay dormant for
many years then germinate, causing volunteer and contamination problems. One way to
reduce this problem is to keep the seed on or near the soil surface to promote
germination and mortality and prevent induced dormancy.

Seedbed Requirements and Preparation

Canola emergence is greatly influenced by seedbed conditions. Good seedbed

conditions are more important for canola than cereals due to the shallow planting depth
necessary for this small-seeded crop. A good seedbed will:

 supply enough moisture for germination and seedling establishment

 provide adequate warmth and aeration
 have minimal physical resistance for the seedling to emerge
 be relatively free of weeds and disease
 offer some resistance to erosion

The wide range of soil characteristics, residue levels and weather across the prairies has
caused a corresponding evolution of a wide range of tillage implements, seeding
systems and ground openers.

Conventional Tillage Seedbed Preparation

Prior to the widespread adoption of conservation tillage or direct seeding, canola

seedbed preparation involved numerous tillage operations for the following reasons:

 to bury previous crop residues that interfere with herbicide/fertilizer

application or seed placement
 to control weeds which have germinated
 to place soil-applied herbicides or fertilizers
 to create a fine soil structure in the zone of seed placement that
balances water infiltration and storage, and for adequate air movement
 138

Although tillage can help prepare a good seedbed and control weeds, there are
disadvantages. Excessive or untimely tillage can:

 deplete seedbed moisture

 degrade soil structure that encourages crusting
 contribute to soil compaction
 create large lumps
 increase soil organic matter losses and erosion

Unnecessary tillage adds unnecessary fuel, machinery and labour cost. Use just enough
tillage with conventional tillage seeding systems to achieve a reasonably level, uniform,
wellpacked, granular surface structure with a mix of granules in the 1 to 5 mm size. The
small granules will provide good seed to soil contact for water absorption, while the
larger granules will provide some wind erosion protection. Achieving this mix of soil
granules without increasing the soil erodability is a challenge since granules smaller
than 0.84 mm are susceptible to wind erosion. Leave enough residue on the soil surface
to reduce wind and water erosion without interfering with seeding operations.

Several factors must be considered to achieve a good seedbed in conventional tillage

systems:

 the tillage implement is suitable for the soil and residue conditions
 the soil moisture content is suitable ("timeliness")
 the implement is properly adjusted for depth and speed

Considerable experience is needed to select the most suitable implement, to properly

adjust it for the correct uniform depth and to begin tilling at the right soil moisture
content in order to achieve a granular seedbed rather than a powdery or lumpy one.
Sandy soils are easily worked into a fine seedbed with minimal tillage. However, the
workability of sandy soils leaves little margin for error-overworked sandy soils quickly
become very fine structured and susceptible to water and wind erosion.

In contrast, clay-textured ("heavy") soils cannot be worked under wet conditions

because large lumps or clods develop which prevent good seed to soil contact.
Subsequent tillage to break up the lumps can pulverize the remaining soil and thus make
the soil prone to crusting. Crusting of low organic matter clay soils (Grey-Wooded) is a
major challenge for canola germination and establishment. Work clay soils at moisture
contents slightly drier than field capacity-at this stage, the moist clay can be squeezed
by hand into a pliable ball but no free water appears on the soil or hand.

Medium textured ("loam") soils are more forgiving than clay or sandy soils and are best
worked when moist. Loam soils worked wet can still create clods, while excessive
tillage can reduce them to a very fine structure that can crust or be vulnerable to erosion.

Ensure the spring tillage depth is shallow-2.5 to 5 cm (1 to 2")-since soils tend to dry
out quickly to the depth of tillage. Canola is different than cereals. You can't seed to
moisture if the top 5 to 7.6 cm (2 to 3") of soil have dried out. A common mistake is to
cultivate deeply or an excessive number of times in the spring, then try to firm up the
seedbed by several harrow/packing operations. This dries out the seedbed and often
pulverizes the surface structure, creating a significant crusting and erosion risk. Grower
 139

surveys have reported that minimum shallow tillage (one to two operations) before
seeding results in the highest yields on stubble.

A firm, well-packed seedbed will:

 provide good seed to soil contact for moisture absorption during

germination
 retain moisture in the seed zone
 provide adequate aeration
 facilitate uniform shallow seeding depth

Excessive tillage can create loose, dry seedbeds that are difficult to firm up and
susceptible to erosion. Ensure the seedbed is firm enough that footprints are not deeper
than the thickness of the sole of a boot. Packing operations mainly reduce the granule
and pore sizes in the surface soil, which will reduce moisture loss. However, do not
pack the soil too much because the granules can be pulverized, restricting water
infiltration, aeration and predisposing the soil to crusting and erosion. On-row packing
during seeding is beneficial, especially for canola. The decision about how much extra
packing should occur when seeding canola is a difficult one. Too little packing could
result in poor emergence if dry conditions prevail after seeding while too much could
result in erosion or crusting if wind or heavy rain follows seeding. This variable effect
of extra packing on canola germination, establishment and yield has been shown in
research trials. The Canola Council of Canada Crop Production Centres have conducted
many experiments comparing post- and pre-packing prior to 1997 and found varying
results. Generally, pre-packing is more desirable than post-seeding packing in
conventional tillage systems because it will enable more uniform, shallow seeding.
Post-seeding packing by rolling is occasionally used to firm up the seedbed and push
down rocks. However, the extremely smooth surface left after rolling makes these fields
very prone to wind erosion.

Fall tillage has declined dramatically over the past decade as producers strive to
increase water capture from snow, retain surface residues for erosion control, and to
lower fuel, labour and machinery costs. One fall tillage operation to place fertilizer,
control weeds or work in heavy residue can still be beneficial if it avoids extra spring
tillage that can dry out the seedbed. Fall fertilization also can take advantage of lower
fertilizer prices and reduce the workload in the busy spring seeding period.

If canola is planted on summerfallow, enough residue must be left on the soil surface to
reduce erosion and crusting potential. The reasons to summerfallow include:

 weed control
 soil moisture conservation
 increased short-term nutrient availability
 reduced residue-borne plant diseases
 reduced risk of crop failure due to drought

Conservation summerfallow maintains sufficient plant residues on the soil surface to

prevent soil erosion while controlling weeds and increasing stored soil moisture. Tillage
operations are reduced in number or intensity, and are replaced with herbicides. By
using residue-conserving practices, adequate cover can be maintained through the
 140

fallow period until the next crop is sufficiently established to protect the soil from
erosion. Use a minimum residue cover of 1,513 kg/ha (1,350 lb/ac) to protect most soils
from serious wind or water erosion. This is roughly equivalent to the residue left after
harvesting a wheat crop yielding 785 kg/ha (14 bu/ac) of grain. In practice, most cereal
fields will have crop residues that exceed this level. Residue levels are reduced through
natural decomposition (sunlight, oxidation, and microbial activity). Canola residue
breaks down about twice as fast as wheat, and this is why summerfallow after canola is
not a wise practice. Residue cover declines after each tillage operation (Table 8).

Table 8. Residue Left on the Soil Surface after Various Tillage Operations

% Residue Left After % Residue Left After

Tillage Implement
One Pass Four Passes

Wide-blade cultivator 90 60-65

Chisel plow with low-crown shovel 85 40-45

Chisel plow with normal shovels 80 35-40

Chisel plow with normal shovels plus

60 10-15
mounted harrows

Heavy tandem or offset disc 35-65 5-15

Moldboard plow 0-10 0

Tillage operations can be managed to maintain surface residues while preventing

serious erosion. Residue left standing will help trap snow and increase spring soil
moisture. Usually 45% of soil moisture conserved in an 18- month fallow period is
received over the first fall and winter. By trapping snow more effectively, more soil
moisture can be conserved. This increased moisture conservation can reduce the need
for summerfallow and allow more stubble cropping.

Conservation Tillage Seeding Systems

Conservation tillage seeding systems (direct seeding, no-till or zero-till, minimum or

reduced tillage) aim to improve or maintain soil quality and conserve soil moisture. The
development of these tillage-seeding systems has been one of the major changes in
agriculture during the past two decades. The major advantages of these conservation
tillage systems are:

 less soil erosion by wind and water due to retention of surface residue
 maintained or increased soil organic matter contents
 increased soil microbial and faunal populations
 increased soil moisture storage and infiltration rate
 improved soil tilth
 reduced N and S leaching losses
 141

 reduced root diseases

 reduced salinization
 reduced overall machinery investment
 reduced labour needs
 reduced energy requirements
 comparable to better yields and net returns

In contrast, the following disadvantages of conservation tillage have been raised,

although many have been resolved through new technology or management practices:

 inadequate and expensive seeding equipment for direct drilling into

heavy residue conditions
 poor weed control
 lower spring soil temperatures that reduce and delay seedling
emergence
 increased foliar disease from residue borne inoculum
 poor fertilizer efficiency due to placement difficulties and increased N
denitrification with higher soil moisture
 delayed seeding in spring due to high soil moisture
 increased surface soil compaction
 greater management skills needed since fewer alternatives are
available for weed control and fertilizer application
 increased herbicide usage
 poorer yields and net returns, particularly in wet years

Direct seeding is more flexible than no-till since some tillage can solve immediate weed
problems and deal with high moisture and heavy clay soil conditions. In direct seeding,
soil is not tilled in the spring before seeding to conserve seedbed moisture. Any fall
tillage performed must leave the soil surface compact and level to preserve soil
moisture. Most of the crop residue is retained on the surface with at least half the
stubble remaining upright and anchored to trap as much snow as possible. Typical
operations are fall fertilizer banding with knives, and redistributing crop residue and
incorporating herbicides with heavy or rotary harrows.

The amount of soil disturbance during direct seeding varies with the type of opener.
With low soil disturbance direct seeders, less than 40% of the soil surface is physically
worked by the openers to form the seedbed furrow. Some soil from the opener's action
may be deposited between furrows, giving the appearance of more soil disturbance.
Low soil disturbance can be expected from 75 cm (3") wide openers spaced at 22.5 cm
to 30.0 cm (9 to 12"). Soil firmness, moisture conditions and planter speed affect the
amount of soil disturbance. Low disturbance direct seeding systems are very much like
no-till systems except that some tillage options remain available in direct seeding.

High soil disturbance direct seeders disturb more than 40% of the soil surface. If fall
tillage was done, then spring seeding occurs in loosened soil and most of the surface is
disturbed. Wide ground openers that overlap will disturb the entire soil surface to some
degree. Sweep openers produce high disturbance. They give varying degrees of weed
control, so a pre-seeding herbicide application may not be needed. However, they may
stimulate weed growth since weed seeds and volunteer seeds from the previous crop
will be incorporated into moist soil. High disturbance openers may require additional
seedbed finishing to cover the seed and to improve weed control.
 142

In no-till or zero-till systems, seeding is the only operation that disturbs the soil. Only
25 to 35% of the soil surface is disturbed, just enough to place the seed and fertilizer
into a seedbed. No-till is similar to low disturbance direct seeding except that direct
seeding systems allow some tillage to deal with unusual conditions. No-till aims to
minimize soil disturbance and maintain as much crop residue cover as possible because:

 low disturbance reduces soil moisture loss

 weed seeds are less likely to survive and grow on the undisturbed soil
surface
 crop residue cover protects soil from wind and water erosion
 standing stubble traps snow

Residue management is a crucial aspect for successful conservation tillage seeding.

Successful residue management needs to consider various factors, including:

 crop residue amounts and condition, particularly green, lodged or damp

straw
 capability of the seeding machine and other implements to clear
through the crop residue without plugging or "hairpinning"
 combine or swather cut width compared to the spread width of straw
and chaff behind the combine
 alternative uses for straw when residue is plentiful
 weed control methods

In direct seeding systems, begin residue management at harvest with a wide and even
spread of straw and chaff behind the combine. Extra operations after harvest to manage
heavy residue are time consuming and costly. Most new combines are equipped with
good straw and chaff spreaders or are easily adapted with after-market units. Converting
older combines to a better spreading system is usually more difficult. The cost,
horsepower needs, type of drive and spread width varies between the different after-
market units.

Residue clearance is the ability of seeding equipment to allow crop residue to pass
through without bunching. Ground openers and shanks are shaped to prevent dragging
and subsequent bunching of straw residue. The opener must prevent chaff residue from
falling into the seed furrow and causing poor seed cover and poor furrow closing.
Critical dimension is the distance between two points in a machine where plugging with
straw is likely to occur. The most common locations for plugging in the seeder are:

 between the underside of the shank (may be the spring trip supporting
mechanism) and the soil surface
 between one ground opener and the next
 between a ground opener and a wheel or some other adjacent
structural member

The critical dimension may vary with the amount of crop residue on the surface, the
moisture content of the residue or even the air humidity. Damp straw plugs the seeder
quite easily. Fluffed up straw plugs more easily than straw lying on the soil surface. Dry
straw on a warm, breezy day will pass through a seeder while damp straw may not.
Changing speed and direction of travel may help a seeder to clear crop residue.
 143

The straw handling performance of many seeders may be improved by modifying the
location where plugging most often occurs. The space between the opener and "plug
point" may need to be increased, sometimes greatly, to prevent plugging. Four-rank
cultivator units on air-drills will plug less than three-rank units.

Direct Seeding Equipment

Air seeders and air drills have become common machines on both conventional and
conservation tillage farms. An air seeder uses a medium or heavy-duty cultivator, a
central pneumatic seed and fertilizer delivery system and a ground opener for seed
and/or fertilizer placement. This system offers many options and adaptations to meet a
variety of conditions. The seeder's mainframe is carried and controlled by wheels inside
the frame. Levelling (fore-aft) is controlled by caster wheels in front of the frame
(floating hitch type). This method of depth control is superior on land with sharp hills or
gullies. Install seed row finishing equipment on the rear of the air seeder. Separate soil
finishing passes may be needed over the seeded field to ensure good seed placement
depth.

An air drill is an adaptation of the air seeder. The main difference is that air drills do not
have wheels inside the frame carrying the ground opener hardware. Machine support
and depth control comes from dedicated packer wheels on the rear of the drill. The front
is carried and controlled by forward caster wheels as with any floating hitch cultivator.

An air drill has all the advantages of an air seeder including:

 good seed depth control

 wing-up convenience for transport
 a central seed and fertilizer metering system
 excellent field efficiency and capacity

It also has two main advantages over an air seeder--the relatively constant packing force
delivered by each on-row packer, and the increased residue clearance made possible by
the absence of inside-the-frame wheels.

One key aspect of direct seeding units is ground opener selection. The ground opener is
the part that penetrates the soil to place seed and fertilizer. It has a soil-breaking wear
point, a soil dividing body, and delivery tubes to guide seed and fertilizer to the furrow
bottom. Also, deflecting surfaces may be present to guide soil back around the fertilizer
bands and seed rows.

A ground opener must:

 leave at least 15 mm (0.6") of soil between the fertilizer bands and seed
rows
 not allow seeds to fall in a concentrated fertilizer zone
 create a good soil structure (fine aggregates) in the seed zone
 have low draft requirements and resist wear
 scour well in moist and high clay content soils-many openers tend to
build up with soil, causing the furrow opening to be too large resulting in
the seed not being covered with sufficient soil
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 leave the soil surface smooth enough for subsequent operations like
crop spraying and harvesting
 adequately "blacken" the soil surface over the seed row if there is a
concern about soil temperature for seed germination

Opener performance is influenced by:

 soil moisture content

 soil texture
 soil density
 seeding depth
 forward speed

Choosing ground openers to suit the conditions on a farm will be difficult but
manageable. Seed must be placed into moist soil and surrounded by soil particles small
enough to reduce open spaces in the seedbed. Coarse soil lumps in the seedbed increase
soil moisture loss and reduce seed germination. For good seed-to-soil contact, ensure
the ground opener either causes very little soil movement so that the soil profile is
fractured very little, or causes enough agitation to create soil particles small enough to
fall in around the seed. The latter case may require harrowing to spread the soil over the
seed row. Soil cover depth is measured after the last implement passes over the seeded
field.

Every ground opener design creates its own particular flow of soil around it. Therefore,
each opener design results in a different furrow opening, seed placement and soil cover.
The furrow from a specific opener is affected primarily by the soil's clay and moisture
content. Additional passes with equipment using on-row packing wheels, harrows, or
other soil levelling and packing equipment, will change the soil cover depth above the
seed.

Soil must be repacked around and above the seed to prolong seed contact with moist
soil. Packing reduces moisture loss from the seedbed by creating a denser soil layer at
the surface with fewer large air spaces. A fine balance often exists between packing
enough to reduce moisture loss and packing too much, which in some soils may
promote crusting that hinders seedling emergence. Adequate packing is achieved when
all the soil lumps are crushed both around and above the seed.

Most ground openers require a packer to close and pack the soil in the furrow to create a
good seedbed. The packer's shape and width must conform to the furrow and the
location of the seed underneath. A direct, minimum disturbance seeder requires an on-
row packer. A wide sweep opener that cuts the full width of the seedbed requires a
harrow, rod-weeder, packer or a combination of several systems to finish the seedbed.

Fertilizer must be placed near enough to the seed to supply nutrients for good early
growth but not too close for crop safety. Too much fertilizer placed too close to the seed
can cause injury to the germinating seeds, resulting in reduced crop emergence (see N
and S sections in Soil Fertility chapter).

In a double-shoot system (Figure 4), the soil buffer is a zone between the fertilizer band
and seed row where there is neither seed nor fertilizer. The opener, since it is placing
 145

both the seed and the fertilizer, must leave a soil buffer of at least 1.3 to 2.0 cm (0.5 to
0.75"). To achieve this buffer width, the spacing between the centres of the fertilizer and
seed outlets has to be at least 5.0 cm (2").

The soil buffer zone can be lost if the scatter of seed and fertilizer increases when
planting in clay or wet soil, from travelling too fast and from too much fan speed on an
air cart. Seed that lands in the fertilizer band may not germinate or the seedlings may
emerge later.

The greater the number of tasks the opener must perform, the more complicated the
opener and the seeding operation become. Complicated ground openers are usually
more sensitive to varying soil conditions.

Single and Double-Shoot Systems

The terms "single shoot" and "double shoot" refer to how material (seed and fertilizer)
is delivered by the planter to the ground opener. The differences are:

 A single-shoot system has only one delivery line going to the ground
opener. The line carries seed and possibly some granular fertilizer (Figure
3).
 A double-shoot system has two lines going to the ground opener. These
may be two airflow lines or an airflow line and a liquid fertilizer or
anhydrous ammonia (NH3) line (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Single Shoot Opener

Figure 4. Double Shoot, Paired-row Opener

Most often, a double-shoot system has a ground opener, which opens two separate
furrows so the seed is placed in one furrow and the fertilizer in the other. This type of
fertilizer placement is called double-shoot side banding. The fertilizer band is usually
placed deeper than the seed, usually about 2.5 cm (1"). Seed is placed either in one row,
above and to the side of the fertilizer band, called single side banding, or in two rows
 146

above and on both sides of the fertilizer band, called paired-row double shooting
(Figure 5).

Figure 5. Double Shoot, Single Side-band Opener

A semi-dependent opener (Figure 6) is a variation on the double-shoot, single side-band

opener. It forms distinct furrows and leaves a seed row slightly narrower than the
opener. The seed opener follows behind and slightly to the side of the fertilizer point,
ensuring that soil covers the fertilizer band before the seed is placed. There is little
chance of fertilizer and seed mixing. The advantage of the semi-dependent opener is
that the seeding depth more closely follows the land contours.

Figure 6. Semi-dependent Opener

Selecting and Using Ground Openers

All commercially available openers work under some conditions, but few, if any, work
well under all conditions. How does a grower know if a particular opener design will
work well under the conditions on the farm? Begin by discussing ground opener
performance with neighbours to learn more about options suited to the conditions in the
area. Next, determine which openers will likely meet the requirements for seed and
fertilizer placement, handle the amount of residue cover that usually exists on the farm,
and meet other requirements specific to the operation (such as providing some weed
control). Seedbed utilization (SBU) (see N section in Soil Fertility chapter 9) is an
important consideration. Install one or more of these openers on the seeder, try them in
several typical conditions on the farm and assess the results.

Ground opener design is often influenced by soil and crop residue conditions in the area
where the opener was developed. If these conditions are similar to the grower's farm,
chances are better that the opener will do a good job. Therefore, ask the manufacturer
about the conditions in the area where the opener was developed.

Opener comparison tests have been conducted by government engineering research

agencies. For example, the Alberta Farm Machinery Research Centre at Lethbridge, AB
 147

(now called the Ag-Tech Centre) has conducted performance tests on a wide variety of
ground openers. "Testing of Double Shoot Openers" (AFMRC Report 721) provides
comparative data on seed band depth, seed band width, fertilizer band width, spacing
between the fertilizer and seed bands, opener wear, draft, power requirements and other
characteristics for 15 ground openers. Check with provincial departments of agriculture
for information applicable to your area.

Although it takes experience and perseverance to make ground openers work in direct
seeding, many growers have developed successful direct seeding systems. Here are
some tips for ground opener use:

 Check the planter's adjustments in each new field and in areas of the
field where conditions are very different. Compromising here can be
costly in terms of stand establishment and often in yield.
 No particular opener works well on all soil textures. If the farm has a
variety of soil textures, openers may have to be changed to suit certain
fields.
 Double-shoot openers may require frequent adjustment of depth and
forward speed to ensure good placement of seed and fertilizer.
 When soil conditions are very moist, particularly in fine clay soils, ensure
the seed row furrow is sealing adequately to preserve seedbed moisture.
 When assembling components from several sources, pay special
attention to ensuring good mechanical arrangements of the planter.
Poor assembly causes costly downtime and repairs.

Pre-Seeding Weed Control

The reduction in tillage with direct seeding results in a heavier reliance on herbicide
weed control. Winter annual and early spring germinating weeds will compete strongly
with canola and, therefore, pre-seeding herbicide application (burn-off) is a common
practice. If pre-seeding herbicides are not applied, the initial weeds become large and
often pass the growth stages needed for good control by in-crop herbicide applications.
Each direct seeded field must be scouted for weed emergence-scouting must be done on
foot, and sometimes on hands and knees, to find and identify weed seedlings. Although
there are no published threshold numbers of emerged weeds for preseeding herbicide
applications, experience has shown that growers tend to underestimate the tiny weed
seedlings present before seeding in early spring.

The best time to control annual weeds with a non-residual herbicide is usually just
before seeding. Spraying too early before seeding can allow new weed seeds to
germinate before the crop emerges. In conditions of heavy weed infestations and low
soil moisture, it may be necessary to spray early to stop soil moisture depletion.
Spraying after seeding can be effective, but there is a risk that bad weather could
prevent or delay the burn-off herbicide application, and lower crop yields. Also, soil
particles on weed leaves from the seeding operation may reduce herbicide performance.

Several effective pre-seeding weed control herbicides are available. Glyphosate is the
active ingredient in most preseeding burn-offs, and is sold under several different
brands and formulations (for example, Roundup Original, Victor, Renegade, Roundup
 148

Transorb, Touchdown, Touchdown iQ and Glyfos). The reasons for glyphosate's

popularity in burnoff sprays are:

 no herbicide residues to harm seeded canola emergence and growth

 a wide range of annual weeds is controlled and most perennial weeds
are suppressed
 herbicide rotation options are increased with minimal resistance
concerns
 cost is very affordable

Phenoxy herbicides such as 2,4-D and MCPA are also used occasionally in pre-seeding
herbicide mixes. Research has shown that significant canola stand thinning and yield
loss can result if dry conditions occur between burn-off and crop emergence.

Canola Response to Conservation Tillage Seeding

Several research reports have been published on the response of canola to different
tillage seeding systems. However, firm conclusions are difficult to draw from the
research for several reasons. First, some of the research was conducted on plots that
were previously in conventional tillage systems and, therefore, results may not indicate
the outcome on long-term direct-seeded fields. Secondly, direct seeding equipment has
evolved significantly and early research will not reflect these advances. Finally,
herbicidetolerant canola systems have been recently developed and widely adopted
which improve weed control and thus may affect the performance under direct-seeded
systems.

Weed Control

In addition to equipment concerns, weed control is often stated as a major obstacle that
hinders adoption of directseeded systems. Initially, a change to direct seeding was
expected to bring more weed problems, especially perennials and wind disseminated
species. For example, at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Scott, SK Research
Centre a 12-year (1979-1990) study comparing zero tillage (ZT) with conventional
tillage (CT) in two rotations found that ZT only increased yield by increasing soil
moisture where weed control was adequate. Yield decreases with ZT were associated
with poor control. However, during this period, suitable post-emergent herbicides to
control annual broadleaf weeds such as stinkweed, wild buckwheat, lamb's quarters and
red root pigweed were not available.

At the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre a study

compared CT, ZT and reduced tillage (RT) on clay Grey-Wooded soils from 1989-
1991. As this short study progressed, there was a trend of relatively greater weed
density under ZT and a shift in species composition. The weeds that increased in density
under ZT canola were stinkweed, wild oat, smartweed, field horsetail and dandelion
while wild buckwheat decreased. However, canola yields were not significantly reduced
under ZT compared to CT.

In contrast, other recent research on the prairies has found that clear changes in weed
communities do not generally occur with adoption of conservation tillage seeding.
Weed communities are more influenced by locations, rotations and years than by the
 149

tillage system. For example, an Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada study at Rycroft, AB
from 1989-1993 compared the impact of three tillage systems (CT, RT and ZT) on the
weed population during early crop growth. The study found that the relative
contributions to the size and diversity of weed flora are likely to be greater by common
species under CT and by rare species under RT and ZT. No consistent increase in the
weed population occurred with time under all three systems. Similarly, a study by
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada at three Saskatchewan locations from 1986-1990 did
not find any increase in perennial and annual grass weeds with ZT. Weed community
changes were influenced more by location and year than by tillage system.

Potentially, certain weeds can proliferate under direct seeding if management is not
careful-examples are dandelion, narrow-leaved hawk's beard and foxtail barley. Given
the different environment found in direct-seeded fields, it should not be surprising that
different weed species with adaptation to residue-covered habitats will become
dominant over species commonly found in conventional, cultivated fields. But research
indicates that weed shifts are manageable by careful attention to rotations, herbicide
selection and timing (especially pre-harvest glyphosate for perennials). Herbicide-
tolerant canola systems have recently added effective options for improved weed
control in directseeded systems.

Soil Moisture and Moisture Use

Many studies in western Canada and world-wide have reported higher soil moisture
under conservation-tillage seeding compared to conventional tillage. The improved soil
moisture under conservation tillage is due to reduced evaporation from residue-covered
soil as well as increased infiltration rates. Higher soil moisture will often improve
germination, emergence, early crop growth, moisture use efficiency and yield. For
example, in the 12-year study by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada at Scott,
comparing ZT with CT in two rotations with fallow, canola and wheat, yield increased
with ZT where spring soil moisture was increased. In the 36 comparisons over three
rotation phases, ZT increased spring soil moisture in nine cases and there were no
decreases. Yield was increased in nine cases but decreased in three, and moisture use
efficiency increased in six cases with two decreases. The Beaverlodge, AB tillage study
found that ZT and RT increased soil moisture in the top 10 cm (4") in dry periods. In
excessively wet years, canola growth, moisture use efficiency and yield can suffer under
direct seeding.

Soil Temperature

Spring soil temperatures are often cooler under conservation-tillage seeding systems
than conventional tillage. Most of the western Canadian research studies have found
that residue covered soil is 0 to 2°C cooler (daily average temperature) than cultivated
soil. In some cases (sunny days), temperatures during midday can vary by 5°C. The
colder soil is due to increased soil moisture (water is slower to warm up than air) and
more heat reflectance by the residue. Although emergence is sometimes several days
longer with direct seeding compared to conventional tillage, the delay usually
disappears after canopy closure. Increased soil moisture usually improves yield in spite
of the initial cooler temperatures.
 150

In most cases, the cooler soils will not hamper final crop stands or yield. Direct seeders
often can seed shallower (which is warmer) due to better moisture, and this largely
compensates for temperature differences. However, experience has shown that
excessively wet springs can negatively affect canola growth and yield, partly due to
temperature effects. Also, frost damage to canola seedlings has been more severe on
residue-covered fields when frost followed a warm sunny day. The greater injury was
likely due to lower heat radiation in the critical early morning period under residue-
covered soil compared to bare soil. Pay very close attention to achieving uniform
residue spreading, preferably with the combine, to reduce cold temperature problems
and enable good ground opener performance and seed placement. Research in the Peace
River, AB region by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada found that a narrow strip of
bare soil over the seedbed can overcome most of the cold temperature and excessive
moisture disadvantage of direct seeding in unfavourable situations.

Canola Yield Under Conservation Tillage Seeding Systems

Research conducted on the prairies has reported variable success with conservation
tillage seeded canola-ZT or direct-seeded canola has yielded less, the same or more than
conventionally seeded canola. The many changes in direct-seeding technology and
variable weather effects makes it difficult to apply some of the past research findings to
the farm level. Perhaps the best indication of canola performance under direct seeding
compared to conventional and reduced tillage is from hail and crop agency records.
Three years of recent records (1999-2001) from the Agriculture Financial Services
Corporation in Alberta shows that direct seeding and reduced tillage produced 109%
and 108% yield of conventionally seeded canola on average in the major canola
growing areas. Based on 4.6 million insured canola acres seeded on stubble over these
three years, 29%, 43% and 28% were conventional tillage, reduced tillage and direct-
seeded, respectively. This shows that conservation-tillage seeded systems are more
popular now than conventional-tillage systems. Figures 7-9 illustrate the yield
comparisons between tillage systems reported in the major canola growing soil zones in
Alberta.

Figure 7. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage and Direct-Seeded Systems in the
Black Soil Zone of Alberta (AFSC 1999-2001 Data)
 151

Figure 8. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage Systems in the Dark Brown Soil
Zone of Alberta (AFSC 1999-2001 Data)

Figure 9. Canola Yield Comparisons Between Tillage Systems in the Peace River
Region - Dark Grey and Grey Soil Zones of Alberta (AFSC 1999-2001 Data)

Net Returns of Different Tillage Systems

Compared to yield, there have been fewer studies that investigated canola net returns
seeded with the various tillage systems. Such studies are difficult since there are
numerous combinations of machinery and, therefore, production costs can vary
dramatically. Many other confounding variables, other than the tillage seeding system,
can also significantly affect the net returns. While direct seeding systems can reduce
labour, fuel and some equipment costs, herbicide and other equipment costs may
increase. With the widespread adoption of air-drills, the equipment cost has become less
of an issue.

Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development conducted a survey of 185 growers in
1994 and 1995 to assess the short-term economics of conservation-tillage practices.
Based on growers' costs and returns, partial budgets were compared between the
systems. Machinery fixed costs were estimated through mathematical formulae. The
main report findings were:

 Zero-and reduced-tillage systems, on average, may have slight

economic advantages over conventional-tillage systems.
 152

 Zero-and reduced-tillage systems had marginally better contribution

margins, and returns to land, labour and management on average,
compared to conventional-tillage systems.
 Contrary to expectations, herbicide costs did not vary consistently
between the tillage systems.
 Fuel, repair and depreciation costs increased as the tillage intensity
increased. While this is an economic advantage for zero tillers, the more
expensive machinery needed for direct seeding tends to offset this.

Overall, conservation tillage systems are suitable for canola production. The higher
seedbed moisture can encourage better canola emergence. However, heavy residue
fields can create significant problems for good canola seed placement, and increases the
risk of frost mortality. Canola seedlings are sensitive to seed placed fertilizer, therefore,
ground openers need to be chosen carefully. Further information on conservation tillage
practices can be obtained from provincial and federal soil conservation agencies.

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 154

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 155

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 156

Chapter 8 - Crop Establishment

1. Crop Establishment
o Pedigreed Seed
o Seed Classes
o Plant Breeders' Rights
o The Canada Seeds Act
o Seed Vigour
o Seed Size
o Seed Source
o Date of Seeding
o Date of Seeding and Quality
o Fall Seeding Canola
o Target Plant Populations
o Recommended Seeding Rates
o Seeding Rate Effect on Maturity and Quality
o Reseeding
o Seeding Depth
o Broadcast Seeding
o Row Spacing
o Coated Seed
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Effect of Seeding Date on Crop Yield in Manitoba Based
on Insurance Records
o Figure 2. General Response of Canola Yield to Plant Population
o Figure 3. Initial Frost Injury
o Figure 4. Recovery Two Weeks after Last Frost
o Figure 5. Plant Stand Two Weeks after Last Frost
o Figure 6. Recovery by Flowering Stage
o Figure 7. Recovery by Podding Stage
o Figure 8. Recovery by Ripening Stage
o Figure 9. Effect of Seeding Depth on Plant Density
o Figure 10. Effect of Depth on Emergence in a Grey-Wooded Soil
o Figure 11. Effect of Row Spacing on Canola Yield Under
Conventional Tillage
o Figure 12. Effect of Row Spacing on Direct-Seeded Canola Yield
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Seed Grade Standards for Canola (Table VII from
Schedule 1 of Seeds Act)
o Table 2. Date of Seeding Effect on Canola Maturity at Edmonton,
AB and Brandon, MB
o Table 3. Dates of Seeding and Swathing
o Table 4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fall Seeding Canola
o Table 5. Plant Population Effect on Canola Plants
o Table 6. Canola Seeding Rates: Approximate Seeds per Unit Area
and Length of Drill Row
o Table 7. Example of Reseeding Yields with Argentine Canola
 157

Crop Establishment

Uniform, vigorous crop establishment is one of the keys to achieving high yielding
canola crops. This chapter describes crop establishment factors such as pedigreed seed,
seeding date, rate and depth of seeding, and row spacing.

The previous chapter emphasized the critical requirement for an ideal seedbed for
canola. Altering practices such as seeding date have relatively little effect on input costs
but can have a large impact on yields and, therefore, the profit from the crop. Successful
stand establishment results from rapid, uniform seedling emergence, which depends
partly on high quality, genetically pure seed. In Canada, the genetic purity of canola
seed is controlled by the pedigree system, whereas the physical and biological quality of
seed is maintained through standards in the Canada Seeds Act.

Pedigreed Seed

The genetic characteristics of a seed influence its response to environmental conditions.

Plant breeders develop varieties with the desired genetic traits for optimum yield in
certain environments and to meet quality specifications demanded by the marketplace.
The small amount of seed for each new variety produced by plant breeders must be
multiplied rapidly with a minimum of genetic change or contamination before release to
commercial canola growers. In Canada, this is achieved with a pedigreed seed
production system.

The Canadian Seed Growers' Association (CSGA) is designated by the Canada Seeds
Act to be the sole pedigreeing agency for most crops in Canada. The CSGA establishes
genetic standards and ensures that these standards are maintained. The CSGA's
responsibility covers varieties developed by the public and private sectors.

There are two stages in the production and identification of pedigreed seed. First is the
production and inspection of the seed crop. Approved crop inspectors inspect pedigreed
seed crops and report to the CSGA on the conditions of these seed fields. The inspectors
verify the variety sown, previous land use, isolation, weed infestation, plants of other
crop kinds, and the degree of contamination with other varieties or off-types. Crops that
meet the standards are issued a crop certificate by the CSGA.

The second stage is the inspection of the seed by a licensed grader at an Authorized
Establishment or by an inspector to determine the grade under the Canada Seeds Act.
Factors assessed include germination, freedom from weed seeds, sclerotia bodies, other
Brassica crop kinds and overall quality.

Pedigreed canola is multiplied through the following seed classes:

 breeder
 select (synthetic)
 foundation
 certified
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Seed Classes

Breeder seed refers to seed of a variety produced by the plant breeder or a breeder
responsible for maintenance of that variety. Breeder seed is the source for all future
multiplication of that variety. The breeder determines the number of generations of
breeder seed produced. Breeder seed is supplied to certain pedigreed seed growers
authorized by the CSGA to produce the next class of seed.

Select (synthetic) is a physical blend of either Breeder or Foundation seed used in the
production of some certified canola varieties. Due to obligate cross pollination (or
"outcrossing") in B. rapa, a mixture of parents will result in some hybridity. A breeder
wishing to produce this type of seed must notify the CSGA with the details of the
varieties being mixed, including the proportion of each. There are now a few synthetic
B. napus varieties, but the level of hybridity will be lower than with B. rapa synthetics.

Foundation seed is the seed produced from crops grown with breeder or select seed by
foundation seed growers who have served a three-year probation period in plot
production. Unlike breeder seed, only one generation of foundation seed is allowed.

Certified seed can be grown from breeder, select or foundation seed and is the class
recommended for commercial canola production. Only one generation of certified seed
is allowed. Commercial canola growers in Canada use a higher percentage of certified
seed compared to growers of other field crops. Seed produced from a crop grown from
certified seed is no longer pedigreed and it is illegal to advertise or sell it under a variety
name. Such seed is classed as "common seed."

This short multiplication chain for pedigreed canola seed maintains the genetic purity of
each variety and its agronomic/quality characteristics. B. rapa canola must
crosspollinate, while B. napas canola typically has 20 to 30% outcrossing. This ability
for cross-pollination is why there are fewer pedigreed classes for canola than many
other crops. With cross-pollinated crops, the more generations removed from the
original breeder seed, the greater the likelihood that outcrossing will have occurred and,
therefore, some of the seed may no longer carry the genetically superior qualities.

Certified seed provides an extremely close copy of the genetic characteristics of the
original breeder seed, as well as strict standards for weeds (especially wild mustard and
cleavers) and high germination. Non-pedigreed or common seed provides no assurance
of either genetic purity or quality. Crops grown from non-certified seed may have
outcrossed with volunteer or neighbouring plants that lack the desired quality or
agronomic traits. Certified seed has a low tolerance for contamination by other varieties.
The current tolerance is 1.5 plants for every 10,000 plants. Although this tolerance is
very low, the number of off-types or other varieties in a field planted with certified seed
could be noticeable. For example, given a 107.6 plants/m2 (10 plant/ft2) stand
establishment, and a maximum contamination of 1.5/10,000 in the seedlot, this would
create 160.6 off-types/ha (65 off-types/ac). The off-types could be herbicide-tolerant
(HT) varieties in a conventional variety. This explains why some growers find HT
volunteers after seeding a conventional variety from a certified seedlot on land that was
not previously seeded to HT varieties or close to a field of HT canola.
 159

Plant Breeders' Rights

Plant breeders incur substantial costs to develop valuable varieties and thus they wish to
protect them from pirating. Canada's Plant Breeders' Rights Act, enacted in 1990,
allows plant breeders to control the seed of new varieties that they develop and collect
royalties on them for 18 years. Similar to a copyright or patent, Plant Breeders' Rights
(PBR) protect the research investment made to develop new crop varieties. Proponents
of PBR contend that plant breeding is the most cost-effective way to achieve increases
in yields, quality and disease resistance.

PBR protection is an exclusive right to sell and produce the seed in Canada. Further
sales for propagation purposes are not allowed without the approval of the breeder.
Farmers are allowed to save some seed for their own replanting purposes, but sales to
other individuals or corporations are prohibited. Seed companies are taking action to
protect their investments. Twenty-one of these companies have formed the Canadian
Plant Technology Agency (CPTA). The agency has a mandate to educate and help
enforce the intellectual property rights of member companies.

The Canada Seeds Act

All canola seed sold in Canada must meet minimum standards for physical purity and
germination as set under the federal government's Canada Seeds Act, which is
administered by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada.

Seed which has received CSGA pedigreed status must be analyzed by an accredited
seed grader for weed seeds, other crop kinds and general quality before the seed can be
sold. The accredited grader obtains a germination test of the sample from an accredited
lab before grading the seedlot. If the seed meets all standards, it is bagged and sealed
under the direction of an inspector or accredited grader with each bag tagged with the
appropriate seed grade designation.

The Act sets the maximum tolerances (Table 1) for primary noxious weed seeds such
as:

 wild mustard
 secondary noxious weed seeds such as stinkweed, Canada thistle and
wild oats
 other weed seeds such as green foxtail
 seeds of other crops

Table 1. Seed Grade Standards for Canola (Table VII from Schedule I of Canada Seeds
Act)

Maximum Number of Seeds Per 25 g Maximum Minimum %

Number Germination
 160

B.
rapa Other
Primary + in B. Brassica Non-
Primary Total
Secondary napus Crops Brassica
Noxious Weeds
Noxious or Including Crops
Vice S. alba
Versa

Canada
Foundation 0 0 5 0 0 1 1 90
No. 1

Canada
Foundation 0 0 10 2 1 2 2 75
No. 2

Canada
Registered 0 0 5 0 0 1 1 90
No. 1

Canada
Registered 0 0 10 2 1 2 2 75
No. 2

Canada
Certified 0 1 5 5 1 1 1 90
No. 1

Certified
0 2 10 10 5 2 2 80
No. 2

Common 1 3 15 20 15 2 2 90

Seed shall be free from seeds of cleavers (Galium aparine L. and G. spurium L.)

The benefits of certified seed from a weed control perspective alone are evident when
the tolerances under the Act are reviewed. At a seeding rate of 5.6 kg/ha (5 lb/ac) using
common seed containing the maximum allowable number of weed seeds, a farmer could
plant 80 primary noxious, 240 secondary noxious and 2,965 total weed seeds per ha
(1,200 total weed seeds per acre). The lower tolerance for weed seeds in the certified
class would result in far fewer weed seeds being sown.

When considering a purchase of certified seed, ask the seed supplier for the weed seed
analysis of the seedlot. Talk to your seed supplier well in advance so that the
information is available before purchase. Access to the results of such an analysis done
by an accredited seed laboratory is a right for all seed buyers as specified in the Canada
 161

Seeds Act. This information can help growers avoid the introduction of new weeds to
their farms.

Seed Vigour

Growers and agri-retailers often associate seed quality with germination percentage.
However, the standard germination test does not consistently predict the field
performance of a seedlot. For example, in a three-year study on the prairies, Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada researchers planted different seedlots of certified Westar and
Tobin canola, and found yield differences up to 14% between Westar seedlots and 22%
between Tobin lots. Stand establishment was related to the germination percentage for
Westar but not for Tobin. Neither germination nor stand establishment accurately
predicted seed yield of either variety. Therefore, there are significant differences in
seedlot yield potential that cannot be predicted by the standard germination test.

Another seed quality measure often emphasized is "vigour," which is defined as "those
seed properties that determine the potential for rapid uniform emergence and
development of normal seedlings under a wide range of field conditions." Seedlots with
low vigour will result in poor establishment under adverse seedbed conditions such as
low temperatures and crusting.

Unfortunately, consistent tests for seed vigour haven't been developed. Accurate seed
vigour assessment requires an understanding of the potential causes of seed
deterioration for each seedlot. Seed quality loss may be due to:

 immaturity at harvest
 weathering during ripening
 physical seed injury during harvest and transport
 improper storage and overall age

Seed stored at low moisture and temperature will retain vigour the longest. In the above
study, one of the certified Westar lots maintained its above average performance over
the three years, indicating that a superior seedlot can retain its high yield potential over
several years with proper storage. Dr. Bob Elliott of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Saskatoon is finishing a multi-year study on seed vigour in canola. Preliminary results
indicate that seed vigour is probably best estimated by measuring actual seedling
growth. Germination up to five or seven days may also be a reasonable measure of
seedlot vigour.

Seed Size

Seed size has been related to subsequent plant development and yield in many crops.
However, in canola, research on the effect of seed size on subsequent yield has been
contradictory. In a review of seed size research on the prairies, larger seed produced
higher yield in five of 11 siteyears. In some cases, larger seed produced more vigorous
seedlings, but this advantage wasn't carried through to seed yield. There is good
evidence that large seed produces seedlings more resistant to flea beetle attack and thus
is higher yielding in situations with flea beetles.
 162

Seed Source

Consider the following factors in seed and variety selection:

 will the variety grow and mature uniformly within the expected growing
season
 does the variety have resistance to local diseases
 does the variety have herbicide-tolerant traits that match the
anticipated weed spectrum
 does the seedlot have high germination (tested recently) or tests that
suggest good vigour
 does the seedlot contain weed seeds not found in your area
 is the seedlot pedigreed to ensure true varietal characteristics
 do the seed bags show signs of improper storage
 does the seed treatment appear uniformly applied

Canola seed quality is affected by the environment under which it was produced.
Purchase plump, well matured seed from known suppliers. Seed from a local supplier is
less likely to introduce a new weed or disease to your farm.

Date of Seeding

Seeding date affects many aspects of canola growth:

 germination
 emergence
 plant density
 vegetative growth
 time of flowering
 branching
 plant height
 growth rate
 maturity
 yield
 quality

The optimum seeding date for canola depends on many factors such as:

 the earliest date that the field can support tractor traffic, which depends
on the amount of snow and runoff, soil texture, spring precipitation and
temperature, slope, residue, etc.
 weather pattern for the growing season, including date of last lethal
spring frost and first fall frost
 precipitation amounts and timing
 temperature patterns, especially heat stress during flowering and pod
filling period
 timing of disease, weed or insect outbreaks
 weed control methods (for example, tillage requirements for
conventional seeding or for preemergent herbicides will delay early
seeding)
 163

 maturity of different canola species/varieties

 farm and equipment size

Weather patterns vary dramatically across western Canada from year to year and area to
area. Conditions in one year may benefit early seeding while the opposite may be true in
another year. This variation is evident in research on seeding dates for canola in western
Canada. Accurate long-term (several months ahead) weather forecasting for
precipitation and temperature for specific areas is not a reality and may never be.
Therefore, plan operations based on the most probable growing season weather for the
area based on long-term records. This gives the best results over the long term, but may
not be optimal for years with unusual weather.

All factors must be considered to identify the seeding date that will produce high yield
with acceptable risk. Ensure that the variety chosen consistently matures within the
average frost-free period of the area.

Generally, early seeding is desirable. This is especially true in short frost-free areas due
to the risk of fall frost damaging yield and quality or in arid areas where high summer
temperatures adversely affect flowering and pod development. However, early seeded
stands are often thinner due to frost mortality or cold soil conditions that promote more
seedling disease. Under cold soil conditions, canola seedlings are also poor weed
competitors because of slow growth. For fast germination and emergence, ensure the
soil temperature is above 10°C.

A review of 16 different B. napus spring seeding date experiments (total of 70 site

years) across western Canada indicates that early seeded canola yields the highest on
average. In 55% of the trials, early seeding produced the highest yield, whereas normal
seeding dates yielded highest in 30% of the cases. Late seeding produced the highest
yield in only 5% of the cases. Approximately 10% of the time, seeding date did not
significantly affect yield. The yield advantage of early seeding is supported by crop
insurance records. The Management Plus Program in Manitoba shows that seeding B.
napus by mid-May produces the highest yields (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Effect of Seeding Date on Crop Yield in Manitoba Based on Crop Insurance

Records

In a review of eight B. rapa seeding date trials (total of 32 site-years) across western
Canada, there was not a consistent effect on yield. In about 50% of the cases, seeding
date did not significantly affect yield. Highest yields were produced about 25% of the
 164

time with early seeding, 10% of the time with normal dates, and 15% of the time with
late seeding. Although seeding date does not consistently affect B. rapa yield, seed early
to avoid midsummer heat stress and to enable early harvest.

The time period defined as "early seeding" depends upon the geographic area. Growers
in each area know from experience what is considered early seeding. Soil temperature is
not a reliable indicator to start seeding because cold weather often occurs after early
seeding. In early seeding risk assessments, consider the probability of severe or
sustained cold weather occurring after seeding from local weather records. Although
germination begins at soil temperatures around 2°C, there is slow emergence and higher
mortality at this temperature (see section on temperature). If soil temperatures are cold
during seeding, then other seeding practices (treated seed, pedigreed seed, good seed-
soil contact, proper fertilizer placement, correct seeding depth and rate) become even
more important. Generally, early seeding is mid- to late April in the Brown and Dark
Brown soil zones, the beginning of May in Black and Thin Black zones, and early to
mid-May in Dark Grey to Grey soil zones.

The yearly variation in yield with different seeding dates is primarily related to:

 differences in lethal spring or fall frosts

 spring soil temperatures
 crusting affecting emergence
 the timing of rainfall
 stressful periods of hot, dry weather

Early seeding increases the risk of stand loss due to lethal spring frosts, but decreases
the risk of yield and quality loss due to fall frost. Experience in most areas indicates that
fall frosts are more probable and damaging. As well, spring stands severely damaged by
frost still have ample time to be reseeded, which creates more flexibility for growers.

Seeding date also affects maturity. Generally, maturity shortens with later seeding, as
illustrated in Table 2 with research from Edmonton, AB and Brandon, MB.

Table 2. Date of Seeding Effect on Canola Maturity at Edmonton, AB and

Brandon, MB

Average Days to Maturity

Seeding Date Brassica na Brassica rapa

Edmonton Brandon Edmonton Brandon

May 1 120 105 98 90

May 7 123 103 94 85

May 15 123 100 90 70

May 21 120 94 89 73
 165

Table 2. Date of Seeding Effect on Canola Maturity at Edmonton, AB and

Brandon, MB

Average Days to Maturity

Seeding Date Brassica na Brassica rapa

Edmonton Brandon Edmonton Brandon

May 30 113 90 89 70

June 7 108 86 87 70

June 12 101 81 85 69

While late seeding reduces the actual number of days to maturity, this usually does not
entirely compensate for the late seeding dates. The reduction in maturity is often about
half of the delay in seeding. Therefore, late seeded canola matures later than early sown
canola (Table 3). Consequently, there is greater risk of frost and weather damage with
late seeding. The days to maturity of canola and all crops vary from year to year due to
variations in growing degree days and rainfall.

Table 3. Dates of Seeding and Swathing

Range of Swathing Date

Seeding Date
Beaverlodge* Edmonton Brandon

Brassica napus

May 1 Aug. 18-Sept. 14 Aug. 27-Sept. 13 Aug. 12-16

May 15 Sept. 1-19 Sept. 10-26 Aug. 21-26

May 30 Sept. 13-Oct. 2** Sept. 12-26 Aug. 17-Sept. 7

June 12 Oct. 5-25** Sept. 16-26 Sept. 10-17

Brassica rapa

May 1 Aug. 5-18 Aug. 9-14 July 29-Aug. 2

May 15 Aug. 11-29 Aug. 12-17 Aug. 2-3

May 30 Aug. 16-Sept. 13 Aug. 21-31 Aug. 4-17

 166

Table 3. Dates of Seeding and Swathing

Range of Swathing Date

Seeding Date
Beaverlodge* Edmonton Brandon

June 12 Aug. 31-Sept. 30 Aug. 29-Sept. 9 Aug. 20-25

* Alberta
** Frozen canola experienced

Optimum canola seeding dates in Ontario are slightly earlier than western Canada-late
April to early May. Significant yield reductions occur if seeding is delayed after mid-
May. Early seeding in Ontario and the southern parts of western Canada allows the
plants to flower before the hot and frequently dry weather in late June and July.

Date of Seeding and Quality

Early seeding generally produces higher quality canola. Late seeding normally
decreases oil content levels by 1 to 2% compared to early planting. Oil and protein
content often have an inverse relationship, and, therefore, early seeded canola tends to
have lower protein. Seeding date also affects oil quality. The oil unsaturation level,
which is important to the edible oil industry, increases with early seeding. Specifically,
oleic acid increases with early seeding while linoleic and linolenic acids decrease. Also,
early seeded canola matures more consistently before fall frost damage and, therefore,
the oil has lower chlorophyll content. The time of planting does not significantly affect
the erucic acid or glucosinolate content of canola. In years with hot, dry weather in late
summer, early seeding can result in lower free fatty acids than later seeding.

Fall Seeding Canola

Seeding a spring canola cultivar in late fall was first studied in the early 1970's at the
University of Saskatchewan. The idea was to imitate the observed early germination,
growth and maturity seen with volunteer canola. This early emergence and maturity
could reduce losses from weeds, diseases, insects, summer drought and early fall frosts.
While the early research identified some potential, there were several problems that
prevented the widespread adoption. For example, inadequate control of winter annual
weeds and fall germination were significant problems.

With the advent of herbicide-tolerant canola, researchers began to re-evaluate fall-

seeded canola in the 1990's. More recently, seed coatings with polymers have been
developed that show promise in reducing undesirable fall germination. However,
preliminary research suggests that polymercoated canola seeded late in the fall under
dry fall/ spring conditions can decrease germination and stand establishment.

Research conducted by various agencies over the past decade generally shows a two- to
three-week maturity advantage for fall-seeded canola over mid-spring seeding dates,
 167

and about one week over early spring seeding. Fall seeded yields tend to be between
normal and early spring seeding.

There are several recommendations to capture the most benefit from fall seeding:

Field selection-

Avoid fields with many low spots that flood in spring or windswept slopes
with insufficient residue. Avoid summerfallow or heavily fall worked fields,
which tend to have more spring crusting problems that will reduce
emergence. Avoid fields with residue management problems. Try it on
small fields first.

Variety selection-

Unless the field is unusually free from weeds, use a herbicide-tolerant

variety since fall seeding stands tend to be thinner and weed control
needs to be optimum. Fields with flushing weeds may need multiple
herbicide applications and this affects the system choice.

Seeding-

Seed just prior to freeze-up or two weeks prior with polymer-coated seed.
Seed to soil contact must be obtained, and try to retain surface residue
to prevent spring crusting. However, the residue must be spread evenly.
Seed shallow 1.3 cm to 1.9 cm (0.5" to 0.75") and avoid leaving furrows
that fill in over winter, increasing the actual seed depth. Avoid
broadcasting seed, which tends to increase mortality on the surface. Use
typical rates of good quality seed. Fall banding of the fertilizer usually
provides the best efficiency and yield response.

Table 4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fall Seeding Canola

Advantages Disadvantages

Untimely germination due to warm

weather after fall seeding, or winter
Early maturity which reduces risks of
Chinooks, causing low spring plant
yield or quality damage due to early fall
populations. Early spring germinated
frost. Allows use of higher yielding late
stands can suffer damage due to
maturing species/varieties. Produces
subsequent heavy spring frosts.
bigger seed with higher oil content and
Polymer-coated seeds show promise
allows earlier harvest and marketing.
to reduce the untimely germination
but carry extra costs.

Reduced losses due to pests. The early Increased losses due to pests. The
maturity may allow the fall-seeded early germinating canola can be
canola to avoid insect or disease more prone to seedling disease
 168

Table 4. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fall Seeding Canola

Advantages Disadvantages

conditions. For example, fall-seeded complex and flea beetles. In some

canola may have less sclerotinia due to cases, fall-seeded canola may have
shorter, more open canopies and more sclerotinia. Early flowering
perhaps flowering prior to heavy spore canola may also be more attractive
release periods. Preliminary research to lygus bugs and the cabbage
suggests that fall-seeded canola may seedpod weevil.
have less blackleg. Many canola insects
such as diamondback moth and bertha
armyworm normally affect yield in mid
to late August, and, therefore, early
maturing fall-seeded fields may avoid
damage.

Sparse stands of fall-seeded canola in

Early competition with weeds by early
the spring can make superior weed
germinating canola will reduce losses.
control more necessary, resulting in
Early harvest of fall-seeded crops can
extra costs due to herbicide-tolerant
provide more post harvest opportunities
systems, extra herbicides or
for weed control.
applications.

Certain fields may not be suitable for

Early season moisture utilization provides fall seeding due to tendency for spring
for better germination and higher yields flooding or saturation, frost history and
in certain situations. susceptibility to erosion or crusting
when residue is limiting.

Certain operations may coincide

Workload can be spread out by
causing time management problems
seeding in late fall rather than the
such as fall-seeded canola requiring
hectic spring period, and by harvesting
herbicide application during seeding
earlier.
of spring crops.

Target Plant Populations

Canola is often called a very flexible or "plastic" crop because individual plants can
change the number and size of branches and pods in response to available moisture,
light and nutrients. Therefore, canola normally compensates for variations in seeding
rate or plant population over relatively wide ranges with very little effect on final yield.

At lower plant populations, between plant competition is reduced. Individual plants then
grow larger, have bigger stems, branch more profusely and produce more pods that
generally extend lower on the plant (Table 5).
 169

Table 5. Plant Population Effect on Canola Plants

Plants per m2

60 120 180

14 8 5
Individual plant weight g (oz)
(0.5) (0.3) (0.2)

8 7 6
Stem diameter mm (")
(0.3) (0.27) (0.23)

Branches per plant:

B. napus 5 4 3
B. rapa 10 8 6

Pods per plant:

B. napus 90 60 35
B. rapa 280 180 130

4.3 2.2 1.4

Seed yield per plant g (oz)
0.15 oz 0.8 oz 0.5 oz

Seed yield per 255 260 255

unit area g
kg/ha 2544 2595 2544
(bu/ac) (45.4) (46.3) (45.4)

As plant density increases, each plant produces less dry weight, thinner stems, fewer
branches, fewer pods and fewer seeds per plant due to increased competition from
adjacent plants. However, fewer seeds per plant are offset by a higher number of plants,
resulting in a similar seed yield per unit area compared with lower plant populations.
Moderate to high plant densities in early growth stages, therefore, can be greatly
reduced by frost, hail, diseases or insects, and still produce similar seed yields to
undamaged crops.

Research studies on the Canadian prairies have shown that established plant densities
ranging from 40 to 200 plants/m2 (4 to 19/ft2) often result in similar yields for both
species. In a small number of cases, even lower or higher densities have resulted in
highest yield. However, very low or high densities also have a risk of significantly
lower yield. Therefore, aim to establish plant populations of 40 to 200 plants/m2.
 170

Figure 2. General Response of Canola Yield to Plant Population

At very low densities, individual plants may not be able to fully utilize the available
light, moisture and soil nutrients, reducing yields. In addition, low densities often
mature later and, therefore, have a higher risk of lower quality due to damage from fall
frosts. Many research studies were conducted on hand-weeded plots, but commercial
fields often have a significant weed load that would likely cause greater yield reductions
with low plant populations. Low plant population crops are slower to cover the ground
and provide less competition to weeds in the early growth stages while permitting more
evaporation of soil moisture. Better weed control with herbicide-tolerant canola systems
should allow more stable yield at low densities and provide more growers the possibility
of using lower seeding rates.

At high densities, competition between plants results in fewer and smaller pods
concentrated on the upper part of the plant. The high position of the seed bearing pods,
combined with thinner stems, frequently results in lodging problems, especially with
stem diameters less than 6 mm (0.24"). Lodged crops are prone to severe sclerotinia
infection. For these reasons, very high densities frequently produce lower yields.

Recommended Seeding Rates

The seeding rate, seed size and germination percentage determine the number of viable
seeds planted per unit area.

The actual plant population that becomes established is extremely variable due to:

 strong influences of seedbed firmness

 moisture
 temperature
 soil texture
 depth of seeding
 seed vigour
 amount of fertilizer with the seed
 seed treatment
 insects
 diseases
 other climactic factors

The seeding rate chosen, therefore, depends somewhat upon conditions at the time of
seeding.
 171

Canola seedlings experience higher mortality than cereals. Germinated seeds that fail to
emerge have been mechanically stopped by soil crusts or killed by disease. Under very
good conditions, about 60 to 80% of the seed will produce viable plants in most areas.
Under average conditions, about 40 to 60% of the seed sown will produce plants in
most areas. In the Peace River region of Canada, only 20 to 40% of B. rapa and 25 to
30% of B. napus seeds can be expected to produce plants. Obviously the level of
mortality greatly influences the stand establishment. For example, in a situation where
only 40% of the seed produces plants, a 5.6 kg/ha (5 lb/ac) seeding rate of B. napus
would place 142 seeds/m2 (13 seeds/ft2) of which only 57/m2 (5 ft2) would produce
plants. In this situation, use a higher seeding rate to achieve a moderate stand density.

Thick canola stands often decrease in density over the growing season due to excessive
competition between plants ("self-thinning"). This is another compensation mechanism
by canola. For example, a study at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Beaverlodge,
AB Research Centre in 1982 found about 35% of a dense B. napus stand had died
before maturity, whereas in the following year a thinner stand suffered about 20%
postemergence mortality.

Determining a precise recommendation for seeding rate in canola is a difficult task for
the following reasons. The information in the section "Target Plant Populations"
indicates that canola yields are not highly correlated with established plant density over
the many site years of research-there is no "magical" target plant density for highest
yield that covers all sites and years. And there is not enough data to determine under
which environmental conditions high or low densities are consistently beneficial.
Therefore, we can only identify a rather broad range of plant densities to target. Also,
the degree of seedling mortality varies greatly from year to year and site to site. In short,
we can't predict exactly how many canola plants will emerge or exactly how many we
should target.

The most realistic recommendation for canola is a range that normally will provide
adequate plant numbers to achieve high yield with minimal risk. Seeding rate outside
this range may still produce high yields in some cases but there is also a higher risk of
poor yield. A review of 27 seeding rate studies on the Canadian prairies showed that
seeding rate was not highly correlated with yield. Of the 65 site-years of data for B.
napus, 23 showed no effect of seeding rate on yield, 11 had highest yields with rates
lower than 6.7 kg/ha (6 lb/ac), 17 had highest yields with normal rates of 6.7 to 9 kg/ha
(6 to 8 lb/ac), and 14 had highest yields with rates greater than 9 kg/ha (8 lb/ac). A
similar trend was found in a review of 11 studies of seeding rate for B. rapa: of 30 site-
years, 15 cases showed no significant effect on yield; and low, normal and high seeding
rates produced highest yields in five cases each.

In most cases on the prairies, growers should seed 5.6 to 9 kg/ha (5 to 8 lb/ac). In
Ontario, seeding rates should be 4.5 to 6.7 kg/ha (4 to 6 lb/ac). If seeding less than the
recommended rate [for example, 3.4 to 4.5 kg/ha (3 to 4 lb/ac)], for best success look
for the following conditions:

 the intended field is relatively free of weeds or treat with an effective

herbicide system at early timing
 the seedbed is moist and warm with little crusting potential
 the seedlot is vigorous
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 seed placement is accurate and shallow with good seed to soil contact

In contrast, in situations of poor seedbed condition, increase the rate above 6.7 kg/ha (6
lb/ac).

A canola field with low plant density takes longer to close the canopy, allowing more
weed growth and soil moisture evaporation. Studies in western Canada have found
higher canola yields and lower weed production with higher canola seeding rates in
weed competition plots. Therefore, higher rates may be desirable in fields with heavy
weed pressure. Higher rates may compensate for low germination seed, cold soil, deep
seeding or excessive fertilizer applied with the seed. When seeding on soils with a
tendency to crust, higher rates than recommended can be justified. Some growers in the
northern areas use higher rates for the B. napus varieties to hasten maturity and facilitate
swathing by reducing plant height and the amount of straw that must be handled.
However, very heavy stands may increase lodging, especially in the higher rainfall
areas, leading to more disease and even more difficulty harvesting.

B. napus seed is large with an average of about 250,000 seeds per kg (115,000/lb),
while B. rapa seed is smaller, averaging about 420,000 seeds per kg (190,000/lb).
Hybrid varieties of B. napus typically have larger seed size than open pollinated
varieties, and have fewer seeds per pound. The approximate number of seeds per unit
area and per length of drill row for several seeding rates are given in Table 6.

Table 6. Canola Seeding Rates: Approximate Seeds per Unit Area and Length
of Drill Row

Seeding
Brassica napus-Seeds Per: Brassica rapa-Seeds Per:
Rate*

Yard of Metre of Yard of Metre of

lb/ac kg/ha ft2 m2 ft2 m2
Row** Row** Row** Row**

2 2.2 5 12 57 13 10 22 105 24

3 3.4 8 18 85 19 15 33 158 36

4 4.5 11 24 114 26 20 44 211 48

5 5.6 13 30 142 32 24 55 264 60

6 6.7 16 36 171 39 29 66 316 72

7 7.9 18 42 199 45 34 77 369 84

8 9.0 21 48 227 52 39 88 422 96

9 10.1 24 53 256 58 44 99 475 108

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Table 6. Canola Seeding Rates: Approximate Seeds per Unit Area and Length
of Drill Row

Seeding
Brassica napus-Seeds Per: Brassica rapa-Seeds Per:
Rate*

Yard of Metre of Yard of Metre of

lb/ac kg/ha ft2 m2 ft2 m2
Row** Row** Row** Row**

10 11.2 26 59 284 65 49 110 527 121

* 1 lb/ac = 1.12 kg/ha

** Based on 9" row spacing

To calibrate the drill:

1. measure out 30.5 m (100 ft)

2. collect the seed from one drill run over this distance
3. calculate the seeding rate

grams of seed ÷ row spacing

(inches) x 12 = seeding rate (lbs/ac)

or

ounces of seed ÷ row spacing

(inches) x 342 = seeding rate (lbs/ac)

or

grams of seed ÷ row spacing

(cm) x 34.14 = seeding rate (kg/ha)

for example: collect 3.75 g or 0.13 oz

or
3.75 ÷ 9" row spacing x 12 = 5.0 lbs/ac
0.13 ÷ 9" row spacing x 342 = 5.0 lbs/ac
3.75 ÷ 22.9 cm row spacing x 34.14 = 5.6 kg/ha

This seeding rate would place about 32 seeds/m (30 seeds/yard) of seedrow. Minimize
gaps in the seed row. Gaps of a foot or so between plants in a row can result in costly
yield reductions.

Seeding Rate Effect on Maturity and Quality

The rate of seeding affects crop maturity. Higher seeding rates produce plants with
fewer branches that mature earlier than those at low seeding rates, especially under high
levels of nitrogen. In the Peace River region of Canada, an Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada study reported that increasing the seeding rate from 5 to 18 kg/ha (5 to 16 lb/ac)
 174

reduced the maturity by five to seven days. A reduction of two to three days in maturity
has been reported in the Edmonton, AB and Melfort, SK areas with seeding rate
increases from 5 to 12 kg/ha (5 to 11 lb/ac). The seeding rate effect on maturity is more
pronounced under cool, late summer conditions than under warm conditions. The slight
gain in maturity at higher seeding rates must be weighed against possible increases in
lodging and sclerotinia.

Higher seeding rates will have variable effects on oil quality. Research has occasionally
found highest oil contents and lowest free fatty acid levels at lowest seeding rates. In
cases where high seeding rates decrease maturity enough to avoid fall frost, this can
result in reduced green seed and chlorophyll contents compared to low seeding rates.

Reseeding

Each year there are fields that suffer from poor emergence or damage after emergence
by frost, hail or insects. The grower often has difficulty deciding whether to replant. To
aid in the decision, carefully consider the cause and severity of damage, soil moisture,
reseeding costs, potential herbicide residues, and the date. The key question is: will
reseeding likely result in greater net income without significantly increasing risk?

The first crucial step in the reseeding decision is to accurately assess the crop injury
then estimate the yield potential of the surviving stand. Growers often overrate the
injury and thus underestimate the potential of canola seedlings to recover. Canola
seedlings injured by hail, wind or frost need several days of recovery before accurate
assessments of survival can be made. Severe damage to cotyledon and true leaves that
causes yellowing/browning/ blackening does not mean the seedling is dead. A seedling
can survive as long as the growing point and the hypocotyl (the stem from the seed to
the above-ground growing point) remain intact and turgid. In the seedling stage,
canola's small growing point is at the plant tip in the centre between the leaves. After
several days of recovery, a small leaf will begin to emerge from the growing point,
indicating survival. Also, the stem should have remained turgid and can vary in colour
from white to purple.

In years with successive nights of frost, the recovery period may be one week or more
from the initial injury before new leaves begin to be noticeable. Seedlings that have
been mortally injured will have pinching and browning of the stem below the growing
point. In some cases, only the top of the stem is pinched causing the top to lean, but in
other cases the whole stem withers and the seedling collapses on the ground. In
summary, to assess seedling survival, look closely at the stem for pinching/withering,
and look for new growth out of the growing point several days after the last damaging
event.

During early growth, most canola stands can sustain substantial seedling mortality
without significantly affecting yield due to compensatory branching of surviving plants.
Make random plant density counts from the damaged field. The larger the area of
damage, the more counts made. If the field is poor due to uneven emergence, then make
an allowance for later emerging plants. To justify leaving a poor field, ensure the
majority of the field contains the minimum plant number that can produce an acceptable
yield. Remember there is no single number that represents a minimum number of plants
 175

as growing conditions can have a significant impact on the ability of the plant to
compensate.

As a guide, a reasonable threshold is 32 to 43 plants/m2 (3 to 4 plants/ft2) for fields with

conventional varieties early in the seeding season. However, with herbicide-tolerant
systems or late in the seeding season or with dry seedbed conditions, 11 to 22 plants/m 2
(1 to 2 plants/ft2) can be adequate. Thin stands such as these probably will yield 90% of
the normal stand seeded at an early date but will be later in maturity. Crops replanted
late in the season typically yield less than earlier plantings that had poor stands.
Although some reseeded crops manage to yield the same as very thin crops not
reseeded, they incur more costs due to reseeding and, therefore, result in lower net
returns. For an example of reseeding yields, see Table 7. In addition, late seeded crops
will mature later and thus have a higher risk of fall frost damage.

Table 7. Example of Reseeding Yields with B. napus Canola

Emergence Yield
Date Seeded
plants/m2 plants/ft2 kg/ha bu/ac

May 6 35 3 1456 26

May 18 79 7 1232 22

May 31 70 6 1400 25

May 6, reseeded 31 62 6 1512 27

Least significant difference 17 2 168 3

Farmers in central Alberta experienced a record string of killing frosts in late May to
early June, 2000. Seedling canola was severely injured by these frosts and significant
reseeding occurred. However, many growers overestimated the mortality and probably
reseeded unnecessarily. The following is an actual field situation followed over that
growing season. A grower requested the local extension crop specialist to look at a
frozen canola stand. The field was seeded in early May to a Roundup Ready B. napus
canola, had good straw cover and suffered severe visible damage from the late spring
frosts (Figure 3). The producer was not sure if there were enough survivors to produce a
reasonable crop and had already reseeded another damaged field. Close inspection of
the damaged seedlings indicated that the surviving density was on average 32 to 43
plants/m2 (3 to 4 plants/ft2) and about 11/m2 (1/ft2) in the worst areas. He was
encouraged to leave the field considering the fact that good weed control could be
obtained with the herbicide-tolerant system. Continuing frosts hampered the recovery of
the canola seedling but eventually new growth appeared after 10 days. The canola stand
began to recover slowly over the next few weeks but initially looked quite poor (Figures
4 and 5). By flowering, the stand began to fill in but differences in maturity were
evident between areas that suffered different amounts of stand thinning (Figure 6). The
stand continued to improve through flowering and pod fill (Figures 7 and 8). The crop
 176

matured in September with the thin areas maturing later than the better areas by one to
two weeks. Plant counts at harvest averaged 43 plants/m2 (4 plants/ft2). The thin crop
that was questioned in spring eventually yielded 2,128 kg/ha (38 bu/ac) gross with 2 to
3% green. Although this crop probably would have yielded higher if frost had not
occurred, the yield was satisfactory and equivalent or better than reseeded B. rapa
canola.

Figure 3. Initial Frost Injury

Figure 4. Recovery Two Weeks after Last Frost

Figure 5. Plant Stand Two Weeks after Last Frost

Figure 6. Recovery by Flowering Stage

 177

Figure 7. Recovery by Podding Stage

Figure 8. Recovery by Ripening Stage

Thus the decision to reseed is often difficult and must be based on thorough agronomic
and economic assessments, including accurate evaluation of seedling mortality,
surviving stand density, and yield potential of the existing stand versus reseeding.

Seeding Depth

Seeding depth greatly influences the number of seedlings that emerge and their rate of
development. Ideally, place canola seed into warm, moist soil with good seed to soil
contact. Canola seeds are small with limited energy reserves and, therefore, cannot push
to the surface from deep depths. Canola seed sown 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1") deep into a
firm, moist, warm seedbed germinates rapidly with a high percentage of emergence.

A four-year study at Beaverlodge, AB showed that emergence was highest at the 12 mm

(1/2") depth and the rate of emergence was often fastest at the 25 mm (1") depth
because of better soil moisture conditions (Figure 9). Rapid emergence of a uniform
stand with optimum density will compete better with weeds, develop more leaf and
plant growth, yield higher, mature earlier and more evenly.

Figure 9. Effect of Seeding Depth on Plant Density

A review of western Canadian research confirms that the optimum seeding depth for
canola is 12 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1")-18 of 25 site years had statistically highest yields for
 178

that depth. On average, seeding at 51 mm (2") yielded 10% lower, but in two cases it
was 40% lower, which points out the potential for disaster with deep seeding.

Shallower depths may be used if seedbed and moisture conditions are optimum or if the
soil is prone to crusting. A firm seedbed is needed to keep moisture around the seed
long enough for germination and root growth into stored soil moisture. Excessive tillage
frequently reduces establishment of canola on dry soils. Soils worked deep in the spring
have dry seedbeds and are often difficult to firm up. This makes it difficult to avoid
deep seeding. On sandy soil or in environments where the topsoil dries quickly, seed
slightly deeper.

Seeds placed deeply have colder soil to germinate in and further to emerge. Seeds sown
75 mm (3") deep may require three to five days longer to emerge than seed sown at 25
mm (1"). With delayed emergence, there is more opportunity for disease organisms to
attack the germinating seedlings. Slow emergence also allows weeds to be more
competitive by getting ahead of the slow growing seedlings. Deep seeding also
produces plants that flower and mature four to five days later and, therefore, increases
fall frost risks. Avoid deep seeding to reach moist soil since canola seeds do not have
sufficient stored energy to push their cotyledons to the surface from depths at which
cereals are normally sown. If sufficient moisture is not available at the 50 mm (2")
depth, seed shallow and wait for rain.

Excessive tillage can create very powdery seedbeds, especially on Grey-Wooded soils
and other low organic matter, fine-textured soils. Surface crusting can occur after a
heavy rain and can severely inhibit emergence. On soils where crusting is a problem,
seed shallow to improve emergence (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Effect of Depth on Emergence in a Grey-Wooded Soil

Finally, measure the seeding depth carefully during the first few passes in a field. Seed
depth is the actual depth of the soil over the seed after the opener and packers have
passed. Seeding openers that leave a trench or furrow are prone to filling in with soil
after rain increasing the true seeding depth. Openers are affected by wear, soil types,
moisture and ground speed. Therefore, check the true seeding depth several times in
each field or when conditions change.

Broadcast Seeding

Broadcast seeding has gained popularity in certain areas due to the availability of large
equipment such as truck floaters with local fertilizer dealers. The speed of seeding, low
relative cost to conventional seeding and the ability to seed on fairly wet fields makes
 179

this practice attractive. However, broadcast seeding usually performs poorer than
placing the seed uniformly at a 13 to 25 mm (1/2 to 1") depth. In 18 site-years of
research on the prairies, broadcast canola seeding was inferior to 25 mm (1") drilled
seeding nine times, and superior only twice. Overall, broadcast seeding yielded 5% less
than drilled seed, but in several cases the yield loss was 20%. This indicates that
broadcast seeding is a higher risk practice than drilled methods. In Grey-Wooded soil
prone to crusting, broadcast seeding has sometimes been superior to drilled seed.

In order to avoid disasters with broadcast seeding, the following factors are important.
The soil must be firm before broadcasting. This allows the seed to be placed relatively
shallow during the subsequent incorporation. Broadcasting into a loose, fluffy seedbed
causes a wide range of final seed depths and rapid drying of the loose layer. The result
is uneven germination. Shallow pre-seeding tillage will help maintain the seedbed
firmness and moisture.

Good soil moisture, especially following seeding, is required for broadcasting to be

successful. Packing after the seeding incorporation may improve the success of
broadcast seeding, but use caution with low organic matter soils that are prone to
crusting. Post-seeding rolling can increase wind erosion and seedling damage. If mixing
canola with a fertilizer formulation such as 11-51-0 for seeding through a fertilizer
attachment, only do so immediately prior to planting. Experience has shown that seed
viability is not extensively damaged if seeding is delayed for a few days due to adverse
weather, provided the mixture is stored under dry conditions.

Row Spacing

Seed row spacing is the distance from the centre of a seed row to the centre of the
adjacent one. This can be confused with seed row width, which is the distance across an
individual seed row and, therefore, indicates how wide the seed is scattered in each row.
Seed row scatter width affects the impact of row spacing-more seed scatter reduces the
gap between rows. A better method to describe seed row spacing and seed row scatter
width is seedbed utilization (SBU). SBU is the ratio of seed row scatter width to row
spacing-for example, a 7.5 cm spread on a 23 cm row spacing (3" spread on a 9"
spacing) gives a 33% SBU.

In theory, narrow row spacing should produce highest yields for several reasons.
Planting patterns that create an equal distance between all plants (in rows and between
rows) will produce the least competition between crop plants for water, light and
nutrients. Also, equidistant crop patterns maximize the competition with weeds. Wide
row spacings often result in higher mortality within the row and lower overall plant
densities. The higher competition between plants within rows on wide spacing can lead
to thinner stems and increased lodging. Reducing gaps between seed rows will reduce
soil moisture losses by evaporation before canopy closure.

In the past, the majority of canola in Canada was planted with disc or hoe press drills
with row spacings varying from 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12") and fairly narrow row widths.
Research on the prairies during the conventional tillage era showed that narrow row
spacing was beneficial. Over 15 site years, the narrowest row spacing consistently
produced the highest yield. The yield increase with row spacing narrower than normal
15 to 23 cm (6 to 9") ranged from 10 to 30%. Figure 11 illustrates the effect of row
 180

spacing on canola yield under conventional tillage from a four-year study in

Saskatchewan.

Figure 11. Effect of Row Spacing on Canola Yield Under Conventional Tillage

The introduction of pneumatic seeding equipment (air seeders/drills) and direct seeding
changed things and reignited the controversy over row spacing. Pneumatic seeding
equipment became predominant in the 1990's due to improved capacity, transportability
and adaptability for direct seeding. The retention of residue for soil conservation creates
clearance problems in seeding equipment and sparked interest in wide row spacing.
Wide row spacing also reduces machinery costs and draft requirements. In addition, the
residue layer between seedrows in directseeded systems influences soil moisture
evaporation, weed germination and growth, and could affect the optimum row spacing.
However, wide row spacing can increase injury from excessive amounts of seed placed
fertilizer, and create lower emergence rates.

Recent research on row spacing with modern equipment and conservation practices
suggests that optimum row spacing may be wider than in the past. Similar yields were
reported in 12 of 15 site years of research during the 1990's that compared 15 to 30 cm
(6 to 12") spacings in directseeded systems. Very wide spacing of 41 cm (16") produced
lower yields in five of 12 site years, and was 10% lower yielding on average. However
seven of the site years involved broadcast nitrogen to avoid seed row toxicity and this
probably negatively affected the performance of wide row spacings. New seeding
openers with band placement near the seed row would reduce the weed access to the
fertilizer and may improve crop yields under wider spacings. For example, canola yields
under 30 cm (12") row spacings were found to be statistically similar to 23 cm (9") (13
of 15 site years) by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada researchers at Melfort, SK,
Beaverlodge, AB and Brandon, MB using side-banded N placement. In contrast, recent
research at Lethbridge, AB, Blackie, AB and Edmonton, AB showed an emergence and
yield benefit with narrow rows under direct seeding and side-banded N at two of the
sites. A wide row width or seed scatter would also help offset negative consequences of
wide row spacings. Figure 12 illustrates the effect of row spacing on the yield of direct
seeded canola with broadcast nitrogen (from Canola Council of Canada Crop
Production Centre reports).
 181

Figure 12. Effect of Row Spacing on Direct-Seeded Canola Yield

Coated Seed

Coated seed is pedigreed canola treated with fungicide and possibly an insecticide,
usually some phosphate and lime, and an outside protective coating. Coated seed is
normally 25% larger in size than uncoated seed. Consequently, the use of coated seed
can make it easier to accurately adjust the seeding rate, a problem with older equipment.
However, because of the significant difference in coated seed size, it is important to
adjust the seeding rate and accurately calibrate equipment to ensure that the desired
number of seeds is seeded.

Trials measuring yield response to coated seed have demonstrated a slight yield
advantage. In a review of 44 trials in western Canada, coated seed produced higher yield
in 28 cases, similar yield in 10 cases, and lower yield in nine cases. Overall, coated seed
produced 7% higher yield than normal treated seed. Perhaps the most significant
advantage to coated seed is the reduced dust and increased safety because the coating
reduces user contact with fungicidal or insecticidal seed treatments. However, higher
seed cost is a disadvantage for coated seed.

References

Austenson, H.M. 1972. Plant rapeseed in the fall? Information... field crops. S.M.C.R.
No. 1906. Extensions Division, University of Saskatchewan.

Brandt, S.A. 1985. Influence of dates of seeding and seeding rates on agronomic
performance of some oilseed crops. Research Highlights, Agriculture Canada,
Saskatoon.

Canola Council of Canada. Production Centre Annual Reports.

Christensen, J.V. and Drabble, J.C. 1984. Effect of row spacing and seeding rate on
rapeseed yield in northwest Alberta. Can. J. Plant Sci. 64: 1011-1013.

Christensen, J.V., Legge, W.G., DePauw, R.M., Hennig, A.M.F., McKenzie, J.S.,
Siemans, B. and Thomas, J.B. 1985. Effect of seeding date, nitrogen and phosphate
fertilizer on growth, yield and quality of rapeseed in northwestern Alberta. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 65:275-284.
 182

Clarke, J.M., Clarke, F.R. and Simpson, G.M. 1978. Effects of method and rate of
seeding on yield of Brassica napus. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58: 549-550.

Clarke, J.M. and Simpson, G.M. 1978. Influence of irrigation and seeding rates on
yield and yield components of Brassica napus cv. Tower. Can. J. Plant Sci. 58: 731-737.

Clayton, G. W., Harker, K.N., Johnston, A.M. and Turkington, K.T. 1999.
Response of hybrid canola to seeding rate, fertility and time of weed removal. In: 10th
Int. Rapeseed Congress, CGIRC, Canberra, Australia.

Degenhardt, D.F. and Kondra, Z. P. 1981. The influence of seeding date and seeding
rate on seed yield and yield components of five genotypes of Brassica napus. Can. J.
Plant Sci. 61:175-183.

Gan, Y., Zentner, R. and McConkey, B. 2000. Wise seeding date decisions - discover
the hidden value. Research newsletter No. 7, Semiarid Prairie Agricultural Research
Centre.

Gross, A.T.H. 1964. Effect of date of planting on yield, plant height, flowering, and
maturity of rape and turnip rape. Agron. J. 56:76-78.

Gross, A.T.H. and Stefansson, B.R. 1966. Effect of planting date on protein, oil, and
fatty acid content of rape seed and turnip rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 46: 389-395.

Irvine, R.B. 1998. Effect of early seeding and seeding rates on yield of canola. Page 32
In: Saskatchewan Irrigation Development Centre Annual Report 1997-98.

Irvine, R.B. 1998. Fall seeding of canola. Page 30 In: Saskatchewan Irrigation
Development Centre Annual Report 1997-98.

Keri, M., Kutcher, H.R., Kirkland, K. and Johnson, E. 2000. Effect of early spring
seeding on diseases of canola. In: Soils & Crops 2000 proceedings, Saskatoon.

Kirkland, K.J. and Johnson, E.N. 2000. Alternative seeding dates (fall and April)
affect Brassica napus canola yield and quality. Can. J. Plant Sci. 80:713-719.

Kondra, Z.P. 1975. Effects of row spacing and seeding rate on rapeseed. Can. J. Plant
Sci. 55: 339-341.

Kondra, Z.P. 1977. Effects of planted seed size and seeding rate on rapeseed. Can. J.
Plant Sci. 57: 277-280.

Kondra, Z. P. 1977. Effects of planting date on rapeseed. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57:607-609.

Mahasi, M.J. 1986. The effects of row spacing and seeding rate on seed yield and crop
maturity of rapeseed (Brassica napus L. and B. campestris L.) M.Sc. thesis, Plant
Science department, University of Alberta.

May, W.E., Hume, D.J. and Hale, B.A. 1994. Effects of agronomic practices on free
fatty acid levels in the oil of Ontariogrown spring canola. Can. J. Plant Sci. 74:267-274.
 183

McGregor, D.I. 1987. Effect of plant density on development and yield of rapeseed and
its significance to recovery from hail injury. Can. J. Plant Sci. 67:43-51.

McKay, K.R., Schneiter, A.A., Johnson, B.L., Hanson, B.K. and Schatz, B.G. 1992.
Influence of planting date on canola and crambe production. North Dakota Farm
Research Bimonthly Bulletin, Vol. 49, No. 4.

Morrison, M.J., McVetty. P.B.E. and Scarth, R. 1990. Effect of row spacing and
seeding rates on summer rape in southern Manitoba. Can. J. Plant Sci. 70: 127-137.

Morrison, M.J., McVetty. P.B.E. and Scarth, R. 1990. Effect of altering plant density
on growth characteristics of summer rape. Can. J. Plant Sci. 70: 139-149.

O'Donovan, J.T., Newman, J.C., McAndrew, D.W. and Blackshaw, R.E. 1997.
Integrating agronomic practices with herbicides for effective and sustainable weed
management. Pp. 51-54 In: Western Canada Agronomy Workshop, Saskatoon.

Penney, D.C., Helm, J. and McKenzie, R.H. 1994. Intensive crop management
systems for dryland and irrigated barley, wheat and canola production. Final report,
Farming for the Future #87-0163. Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development.

Scarisbrick, D.H., Daniels, R.W. and Noor Rawi, A.B. 1982. The effect of varying
seed rate on the yield and yield components of oilseed rape (Brassica napus). J. Agric.
Sci. Camb. 99: 561-568.

Ukrainetz, H. 1990. Effect of row spacing and rates of seeding on response of canola to
rates and placement of phosphate fertilizer 1985-1989. Final report to Canola Council of
Canada.

Van Deynze, A.E., McVetty, P.B.E., Scarth, R. and Rimmer, S.R. 1992. Effect of
varying seeding rates on hybrid and conventional summer rape performance in
Manitoba. Can. J. Plant Sci. 72: 635-641.
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Chapter 9 - Soil Fertility

1. Soil Fertility and Canola Nutrition
o Basic Plant Nutrition
 Essential Plant Nutrients
 General Nutrient Uptake
o Soil Properties that Affect Plant Nutrition
o Soil Testing for Nutrition
 Soil Sampling Plan
 Proper Soil Sampling Equipment
 Proper Sampling Date
 Correct Sampling Depth
 Proper Sample Handling
 Consistency of Soil Test Lab Recommendations
o Plant and Tissue Testing
o How to Diagnose Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
o Nitrogen
 Role of Nitrogen in the Canola Plant
 Nitrogen Effects on Canola Growth
 Canola N Deficiency Symptoms
 Canola Response to Fertilizer N
 Effect of N Fertilizer on Canola Quality
 Supply of N by Soil and Fertilizer to Canola
 N Cycle and Transformations
 Transformations that will Supply Plant Available N
 Transformations that Reduce Plant Available N
 Denitrification
 Immobilization
 Leaching
 Volatilization
 Weeds
 Erosion
o Nitrogen Fertilizer Management for Canola
 Seed Row Placement
 Band Placement
 Broadcast Incorporation
 Foliar Application
 Time of N Fertilizer Application
 Date of Fall Banding
 Nitrification Inhibitors
 Urease Inhibitors
o Phosphorus
 Role of Phosphorus in the Canola Plant
 Characteristics of Phosphorus Uptake by Canola
o Phosphorus Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency Symptoms
 Canola Response to P Fertilizer
o P Fertilizer Effect on Canola Quality
 P Cycle
 Phosphorus Fertilizer Management for Canola
 Timing of P Fertilization
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 P Fertilizer Placement
o Non-Traditional Sources of P Nutrients
 Rock Phosphate
o Potassium
 Role of Potassium in the Canola Plant
 Potassium Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency
Symptoms
 Canola Response to K Fertilizer
 Potassium Supply from the Soil
 Potassium Fertilizer Management for Canola
o Sulphur
 Role of Sulphur in the Canola Plant
 Characteristics of Sulphur Uptake by Canola
 Sulphur Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency
Symptoms
 Canola Yield Response to S Fertilizer
 S Fertilizer Effect on Canola Quality
 Sulphur Supply from the Soil
 Sulphur Fertilizer Management for Canola
o Sulphate S
o Elemental S
o Nitrogen: Sulphur Ratio
o Calcium (CA)
 Role of CA in the Canola Plant
 Characteristics of CA Uptake by Canola
 Canola Response to CA Fertilizer
o Magnesium (MG)
 Role of MG in the Canola Plant
 Characteristics of MG Uptake by Canola
 Canola Response to MG Fertilizer
o Micronutrients
o Boron (B)
 Role of Boron in the Canola Plant
 Boron Supply from Soil and Uptake by Canola
 Canola Response to Boron Fertilization
o Copper (CU)
 Role of CU in the Canola Plant
 Copper Supply from Soil and Uptake by Canola
 Canola Response to Copper Fertilization
o Iron (FE)
 Role of FE in the Canola Plant
o Manganese (MN)
o Molybdenum (MO)
 Role of Molybdenum in the Canola Plant
o Zinc (ZN)
 Role of Zinc in the Canola Plant
 Uptake of Zinc by Canola
o Other Micronutrients
o References
2. List of Figures
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o Figure 1. Effect of Sub-Sample Number on Percent Accuracy of

Composite Sample for Nitrate-N with 80% Precision
o Figure 2. Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
o Figure 3. Nitrogen Partitioning in Canola
o Figure 4. Canola Leaf Area Response
o Figure 5. N Fertilizer Effect on Pod, Seed Number and Yield
o Figure 6. Effect of N on Flowering Branches
o Figure 7. Canola Response to N Fertilizer
o Figure 8. Canola Response to N and Moisture at Outlook, SK
o Figure 9. Effect of Added N on Yield and Quality of Canola
o Figure 10. Nitrogen Cycle and Transformations
o Figure 11. Seed Row N Fertilizer Effect on Canola Emergence
o Figure 12. Effect of Moisture and SBU on Canola Emergence
[101kg N/ha (90 lb N/ac)] in Alberta
o Figure 13. Effect of Moisture and SBU on Canola Yield [101kg N/ha
(90 lb N/ac)] in Alberta
o Figure 14. Approximate Maximum Rates for Seed Row Placement
in Canola with Good to Excellent Seedbed Moisture
o Figure 15. Effect of Waiting Period after Anhydrous Ammonia
Banding on Canola Stand and Yield
o Figure 16. Canola Seedlings with Sufficient N (left) versus those
with an N Deficiency
o Figure 17. Progressively less N deficient leaves (left to right)
o Figure 18. N-sufficient (left) flowering plants and deficient plants
o Figure 19. N-sufficient raceme (left) and deficient raceme
o Figure 20. N-sufficient pods (left) progressing to deficient pods
o Figure 21. Phosphorus Content (%) and Uptake by Canola over
the 1998 Growing Season, Melfort, SK
o Figure 22. Effect of P Fertilizer Rate kg/ha (lb/ac) of P2O5 on
Canola Dry Matter after Emergence
o Figure 23. Phosphate Fertilizer Recommendations for Canola on
Medium to Fine Textured, Neutral Soil under Medium Moisture
o Figure 24. The Soil Phosphorus Cycle
o Figure 25. Effect of Seed-Placed P Fertilizer on Canola Emergence
o Figure 26. Canola Yield Response to Different P Fertilizer
Placements
o Figure 27. B. Rapa Yield Response to Rock Phosphate and P
Fertilizer
o Figure 28. Canola Yield Response to Inoculation with Provide at P-
Responsive Sites
o Figure 29. P-Sufficient Canola (left) compared to P-deficient
Canola
o Figure 30. P-Sufficient Canola at flowering (left) compared to P-
deficient Canola
o Figure 31. P-Sufficient Canola Pod (top) compared to a P-
deficient Canola Pod
o Figure 32. Potassium Content (%) and Uptake by Canola over the
Growing Season
o Figure 33. Potassium Soil Cycle
o Figure 34. Leaf Edge Scorch due to K Deficiency
o Figure 35. Scorched Leaf due to Severe K Deficiency
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o Figure 36. Severely K Deficient Pods (top) and Sufficient (bottom)

o Figure 37. Sufficient Pod (left) and Severe K Deficient Pods
o Figure 38. Sulphur Content (%) and Uptake by B. Napus over the
Growing Season
o Figure 39. Effect of S on Rapeseed Shoot and Root Growth
o Figure 40. Interaction of N and S on Canola at Porcupine Plain, SK
o Figure 41. S Variability
o Figure 42. Soil Sulphur Cycle
o Figure 43. Canola Yield Increase from Sulphate S Fertilizer Applied
at Different Growth Stages
o Figure 44. Effect of Elemental S Granule Exposure to Weathering
and Sulphate Release
o Figure 45. Sulphur Sufficient Seedlings (left) and deficient
o Figure 46. Leaf Cupping due to S Deficiency
o Figure 47. Leaf Purpling due to S Deficiency
o Figure 48. S -Sufficient Flowering Plant (left) and Deficient Plant
o Figure 49. Stem Leaf Cupping due to S Deficiency
o Figure 50. Pod Purpling due to S Deficiency
o Figure 51. Aborted Pods due to S Deficiency
o Figure 52. Boron Deficient Canola Leaves
o Figure 53. Boron Deficient Flowering Canola (left) Compared to
Boron Sufficient Flowering Canola
o Figure 54. Boron Deficient Podding (left) Compared to Boron
Sufficient Flowering Canola
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Essential Plant Nutrients
o Table 2. Approximate Amount of Nutrients in the Above Ground
Portion of a 1960kg/ha (35bu/ac) Canola Crop
o Table 3. Plant Tissue Analysis Interpretative Criteria for Canola
(whole above ground plant at flowering)
o Table 4. Seedbed Utilization (SBU) of Various Openers
o Table 5. Relative N Efficiencies of Various Placements and Timings
o Table 6. Effect of N and S Fertilizer on Canola Oil, Meal Protein and
Glucosinolates (trials in NE SK. 1980-83)
o Table 7. Effect of S Fertilizer Form and Placement on Canola Yield

Soil Fertility and Canola Nutrition

Profitable canola production relies heavily on adequate plant nutrition, which in turn is
affected by management of soil fertility. In addition, the nutritional level of the plant
will affect the crop response to stress factors such as disease and adverse weather.
Balanced, effective fertilizer management not only contributes to profitable canola yield
but also helps to maintain the productivity of the soil resource.

Basic Plant Nutrition

The living plant depends on a number of basic factors for normal growth:

 light
 air
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 water
 nutrients
 physical support

Soil plays an important role in all these factors except for light. If any of these basic
factors are limiting, plant growth will be reduced or the life cycle may not be
completed– this is called the principle of limiting factors. In other words, plant
growth potential is limited by the factor in shortest supply.

Yield may be reduced when one nutrient reaches excessive levels that cause toxicity, so
the proper balance of nutrients is important. Also, other factors such as improper
management or pests can lower yield. Therefore, a systems approach is necessary to
integrate all the factors in the best combination to achieve the most economic yield.

Essential Plant Nutrients

The plant’s mineral composition does not simply reflect the elements needed for
growth. Plants can selectively absorb required elements for their growth. But they also
can take up elements not needed for growth.

The terms essential plant nutrient or essential mineral element were formed to describe
the minerals needed by plants to grow and complete life cycles. Essential plant nutrients
must be directly involved in some aspect of the plant metabolism such as structural
material, enzymes or hormones, and they must not be totally replaceable by another
mineral element. For higher plants such as canola, there are 14 essential nutrients
(besides CO2, oxygen and water).

Table 1. Essential Plant Nutrients

Macronutrients N, P, K, S, Mg, Ca

Micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl and Ni

Table 1 also indicates that plant nutrients are often classified by the relative amounts
needed. Macronutrients are needed in large amounts relative to micronutrients. Table 2
shows the relative amounts of nutrients contained in a typical canola crop. Some
nutrients can be accumulated in plants much higher than necessary for growth.

Table 2. Approximate Amounts of Nutrients in the Above- Ground Portion of a

1,960 kg/ha (35 bu/ac) Canola Crop

Element kg/ha lb/ac

Nitrogen (N) 112-134 100-120

Phosphorus (P) 1-28 15-25*

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Table 2. Approximate Amounts of Nutrients in the Above- Ground Portion of a

1,960 kg/ha (35 bu/ac) Canola Crop

Element kg/ha lb/ac

Potassium (K) 67-134 60-120*

Sulphur (S) 22-28 20-25

Calcium (Ca) 45-67 40-60

Magnesium (Mg) 13-20 12-18

Iron (Fe) ~1 ~1

Chlorine (Cl) ~0.8 ~0.7

Manganese (Mn) ~0.2 ~0.2

Zinc (Zn) ~0.2 ~0.2

Boron (B) ~0.2 ~0.2

Copper (Cu) ~0.7 ~0.06

Nickel (Ni) ~0.004 ~0.004

Molybdenum (Mo) ~0.004 ~0.004

* P X 2.3=P2O5; K X 1.2=K2O
**Crop uptake of nutrients is greatly affected by conditions in the soil or
weather (dry, wet, cold, compaction, nutrient imbalances, salinity, etc.).

General Nutrient Uptake

The following discussion outlines nutrient movement into and through the canola plant.
The level of most nutrients in the plant sap is much higher than in the water surrounding
the roots. For example, a typical N content in a canola plant at the rosette stage would
be 5 to 6% N, whereas a fertile soil in the spring would contain about 0.0002% N in a
plant available form on a dry weight basis. The N level in the soil solution would be in
the range of 0.00002%. Therefore, plant nutrient uptake must be highly selective.

Nutrient uptake begins when plant available forms move from the soil water through
pores in the root skin (exodermis) into the free space of the roots. This free space
comprises about 5 to 10% of the root’s internal volume. This movement is a passive
process (doesn’t require energy from the plant) driven either by diffusion
(movement due to differences in concentration) or mass flow (simply carried by water
flowing into the roots). The movement is selective since pores into the free space act as
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a size filter. Many nutrient ion diameters are much smaller than the pores. For example,
potassium and calcium are only 10 to 20% of the pore size, and have easy access to the
free space. Large diameter substances such as metal chelates, viruses and fungi are
restricted from entry by the small pore size.

As plant roots grow, the soil volume and surface area explored increases, which
increases the capacity for nutrient absorption. In addition, roots possess a cation
exchange capacity (CEC) due to negative charges in cell walls. This root CEC attracts
positive ions (cations) like ammonium (NH4+) but repels negative ions (anions) such as
nitrate (NO3-). (For details on CEC, see section “Soil Properties that Affect Plant
Nutrition.†)

After entry into the free space, nutrients move into the cell interior by crossing a plasma
membrane found on the inside of cell walls. Another similar membrane is found
surrounding a large central storage compartment (vacuole) that usually fills more than
80% of the total cell volume. The plasma and vacuole membranes are effective barriers
and are the main sites for nutrient uptake selectivity. These membranes contain carrier
systems or ion pumps that transport certain nutrients. Such systems are called active
since they require energy from the plant to work. This energy demand for ion uptake by
roots is considerable, taking up to 1/3 of the energy during rapid growth. The energy for
root activity arises from respiration, which requires carbohydrates and oxygen. This
explains why nutrient uptake often stops in flooded soils—there is a lack of oxygen.

Some active uptake systems are constant while others have a rate that can be regulated.
As the plant level of nutrients and related compounds increases, the root uptake rate can
decrease (negative feedback). In contrast, as plants build tissue, the level of nutrient
“building blocks†decreases, and the roots are signalled to increase the uptake rate
(positive feedback) for nutrients. Passive ion channels through the membranes allow for
selective nutrient movement.

The selectivity of the various transport systems across the membranes is not absolute.
There is often competition between ions of similar size and charge. For example,
chloride (Cl-) competes with nitrate (NO3-). This competition between Cl- and NO3 - is
important in certain saline soils with Cl- as a major component of the salt. Most prairie
soils contain salt with sulphate as the main anion.

Since cation and anion uptake are regulated differently, plants must be able to
compensate for differences in electrical charges that arise from disproportionate uptake
of cations and anions. Plant cells maintain a pH in the range 7.3 to 7.6 by either
releasing or consuming hydrogen cations (H+), which is achieved by formation or
removal of organic acids.

The nutrient journey continues in a path from cell to cell through tiny connecting tubes
(plasmodesmata), although some nutrients can continue to move between cells through
the free space. The next barrier occurs at the waxy layer (Casparian band) that
surrounds the central vascular tissue (phloem and xylem). The phloem and xylem are
special tissues that act like highways for nutrient transport from roots to leaves (xylem)
and from leaves to growing points and roots (phloem). In young root tips, the Casparian
strip is not well formed and thus is an incomplete barrier. The mechanism how ions pass
through the Casparian strip and into the xylem (“xylem loading†) is not well
 191

understood. There is probably a combination of active (ion pumps) and passive channels
for ion movement into the xylem. Xylem loading is regulated separately from root
uptake, thus creating a control system for nutrient movement. Nutrients are carried by
water up through the xylem. Water flows up through xylem tissues due to a suction-like
force created when water evaporates from the leaves, and from slight pressure produced
by roots. Once inside the xylem sap, nutrients can be unloaded and reloaded before
reaching the end growing points.

Once nutrients reach their targets, there often is considerable recycling, especially for
the mobile nutrients such as N. For example, a normal feature of plants appears to be
simultaneous import and export of nutrients from leaves. This dynamic nutrient cycling
is termed remobilization or retranslocation. In young vegetative plants, nutrient
recycling occurs from the mature leaves to roots and young leaves through the phloem.
The remobilization ability of different nutrients affects where deficiency symptoms
occur. Deficiency symptoms of mobile nutrients such as N will first appear in old
tissues. In contrast, deficiency symptoms of nutrients with limited mobility such as
sulphur and copper will occur in young tissue, and can hinder flower/seed development.

Nutrient remobilization is particularly important when seeds are forming. At this stage,
mobile nutrients are being exported from ageing leaves while nutrient imports are
decreasing. Also, root activity and nutrient uptake generally decrease by this stage due
to drying soils, nutrient depletion in the soil and a relative shift in the energy supply
from roots to developing pods and seeds. Plant parts with a strong energy or nutrient
demand are called “sinks.†As a result, old leaves are sacrificed to supply pod and
seed growth. Mobile nutrients in the seed have mostly been transferred from other plant
tissue—in canola the sources are pods, stems and leaves.

Roots are not the only sites where nutrient uptake can occur. Some nutrients can be
absorbed by leaves and other above ground plant parts. Nutrients in the gas
form—NH3 (ammonia), NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) and SO2 (sulphur dioxide)—can
enter leaves through leaf pores (stomata) and then be changed into organic forms. These
gases are major air pollution components and in some areas contribute considerably to
plant nutrition. In areas with intensive livestock operations, NH3 uptake can contribute
10 to 20% of the nitrogen for adjacent crops. SO2 is readily absorbed by leaves. In a
European field experiment, almost half of the total sulphur (S) taken up by vegetative
rapeseed came from atmospheric S compounds, probably SO2. This may partly explain
why S deficiencies have increased in western Canada after environmental regulations
enforced cleanup of S emissions from gas plants.

Soil Properties that Affect Plant Nutrition

Soil is a complex mixture of non-living substances (minerals, organic matter, gases and
liquids) and living organisms (bacteria, fungi, insects, worms, etc.). These factors
influence soil fertility either directly or indirectly.

Soil solids consist of mineral particles, organic matter in varying stages of

decomposition and living organisms. Solids make up about half the soil volume, while
water and gases make up the other half in the pore space.

Soil mineral particles vary widely in size and are classified by size:
 192

 rocks are larger than 2 mm in diameter (0.08")

 sand particles range from 0.05 to 2 mm (0.002 to 0.08") in diameter
 silt particles range from 0.002 to 0.05 mm (0.00008 to 0.002") in diameter
 clay particles are smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter—(0.00008") in
diameter

These particles are made from various mineral types with different elemental
composition, which affects weathering processes and thus the release of certain
nutrients. Two soils with identical texture could be drastically different in fertility due
to differences in mineral composition. Potassium is an example of a plant nutrient
whose supply arises from mineral weathering in soil.

The soil colloidal fraction refers to microscopic particles of clay and organic matter.
The surface of the colloidal fraction is where most soil chemical reactions occur and it
is very important in nutrient supply.

The proportion of sand, silt and clay determines the texture of a soil. Soil texture is
grouped into five or more classes (see Chapter 6 for details). The texture influences
fertility by affecting moisture holding capacity, air exchange and the CEC. Adequate
moisture is key to fertilizer response and potential yield for canola in western Canada
(Chapter 4 is devoted to this topic).

The CEC is an important property that influences the soil storage of many plant
nutrients. Most nutrients are present in the soil water as positively charged cations. A
few are negatively charged anions. The CEC indicates a soil’s ability to hold or
store cations. Prairie soil particles typically have a negative charge. The process of
electrical attraction that holds cations to negative surfaces of soil colloids is called
adsorption (not absorption). The cations are not permanently stuck to the colloidal
surface and can be exchanged with other cations. With time certain cations may become
“fixed†into forms that are not easily removed from the exchange complexes.
Adsorbed cations are not removed by water moving through the soil and can be
accessed by plant roots. Cations with a higher positive charge (for example Ca+2) are
held more tightly than those with a lower charge (for example K+).

Soil negative charges arise due to substitutions in the mineral crystals by elements with
smaller positive charge, and due to reactions at the edges. Organic particles also contain
a significant number of negative charges. The total particle surface area in a soil
increases as particle sizes get smaller. Therefore, a soil high in clay has a much greater
surface area than a sandy soil.

A high clay soil also has a bearing on the surface area and negative charge. Clay
minerals are microscopic layers of aluminium and silicon crystals formed by weathering
of other minerals. Thus clays are called secondary minerals. The type of clay depends
on the original minerals and the weathering extent. Fairly “young†clays common
in western Canada (such as montmorillonite) have a 2:1 arrangement of silica:alumina
crystal sheets, while older clays have a 1:1 arrangement. Generally, 2:1 clays have 10 to
100 times more surface area, negative charges and, consequently, a higher CEC than 1:1
clays. Organic colloids have 10 to 100 times more negative charges and higher CECs
than the 1:1 clays. Therefore, soil organic matter levels greatly influence the CEC.
 193

The CEC strongly influences soil fertility. A higher CEC means that more cations,
including plant nutrients, can be loosely stored in a plant available form, giving the
plant a greater pool of nutrients to draw from. Since most cations are not highly soluble,
only small quantities can be dissolved in the soil solution at one time. The CEC soil
property allows a reservoir of nutrients to be stored then released to plant roots. This
continuous replenishment of nutrients in soil water is very important for several
nutrients, including potassium. A high CEC also means that fewer cations will be lost
through leaching out of the root zone.

Since soils are predominantly negatively charged, anions [such as nitrate (NO3-) and
sulphate (SO4-2)] are repelled by soil colloids and tend to stay in the soil water. They
will flow with water and are potentially subject to leaching loss.

Soil organic matter (OM) plays an important role in soil fertility as a plant nutrient
storehouse. Not only does OM adsorb many cations due to a high CEC, it also stores
nutrients as part of its structure. As the OM is decomposed by soil microbes, nutrients
are released from the organic structure into plant available forms—this process is
called mineralization. Mineralization from OM is the primary natural source of plant
available N and S in prairie soils, and also influences P availability. Mineralization of
individual nutrients will be described in later sections. Soil OM also plays a secondary
role in soil fertility by improving physical properties such as water holding capacity,
infiltration, aggregation (tilth) and buffering pH.

Soil Testing for Nutrient Content

Plant nutrient content in soil varies over years, between fields and even within fields
that appear uniform. Soil sampling and analysis methods (“soil testing†) were
developed to assess the fertility level and to predict crop response to applied fertilizer or
manure. Soil testing is not an exact science due to nutrient variability inherent in most
fields and the inability to predict growing season weather. Although soil testing is not
exact, it can help estimate soil fertility and give reasonable guides for profitable
fertilizer application.

Spatial nutrient variability in fields creates problems for soil testing and fertilizer
application. The variability makes it difficult to obtain representative soil samples.
Using single fertilizer rates across variable fields results in over-fertilized and under-
fertilized areas within the field. Although variable rate fertilization is being researched
and developed, most fields still are fertilized with a single rate. In addition, fertilizer
response calibrations developed from research sites with low variability will under-
predict the optimum fertilizer rate for larger farm fields with more variability.

For meaningful soil test results proper soil sampling is necessary. A sampling error in
the field is usually much greater than the analytical error in the lab. Ensure soil samples
accurately reflect the overall field. However, intensive soil sampling is not convenient,
cost effective or practical. Research shows that the accuracy of a composite soil sample
increases with the number of sub-samples taken (see Figure 1). Accuracy refers to how
similar the soil sample value is to the true field average (is the sample representative).
Precision describes how often the same value can be obtained when repeating the
procedure (reproducibility). The common recommendation to sample a field 20 times
and mix all the samples into one composite, produces an accuracy of about ±17% for
 194

NO3-, assuming 80% precision. This is an acceptable level of accuracy and precision for
fertilizer recommendation purposes in most cases.

Figure 1. Effect of Sub-Sample Number on % Accuracy of Composite Sample for

Nitrate-N with 80% Precision

In addition to adequate sample numbers, proper soil sampling techniques include:

 where and how to sample each field (sampling plan)

 proper equipment
 proper sampling time
 correct depth
 proper sample handling

Soil Sampling Plan

Sample individual fields separately. The first step is to assess the field variability and
identify representative areas. The type and level of variability can influence the choice
of sampling plan. Consider the four basic sampling plans:

1. Random soil sampling uses a random pattern across a field, generally

avoiding unusual or problem areas such as hilltops and potholes. Bulk
together 20 soil cores into one composite sample, air-dry then send to a
soil test lab. This common method is adequate for smaller, relatively
uniform fields.
2. Topographic sampling involves separating sets of samples based on
topography. Identify the dominant topographic features such as hilltop,
midslope and bottom slope, and take 20 core samples for each type.
Bulk sub-samples from each type into one composite sample for each
landscape type. Send several samples to the testing lab. This method
can provide more meaningful results for variable fields, but at additional
expense and labour. You must be willing and able to apply different
fertilizer rates in the separate landscape areas.
3. Benchmark sampling expands on the topographic sampling concept by
considering unique areas based on topography, soil texture and type
and typical crop growth. Once these unique areas are identified, each
year the samples are taken from the same spot within each benchmark
area. There may be one or more benchmark sites within a field,
depending on the variability. Each benchmark area then becomes a
reference area on which fertilizer recommendations are based. The
benchmark sampling area is much smaller than the whole field, and
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together with sampling in the same spot from year to year, this is
assumed to reduce variability of the test results. If the benchmarks are
carefully selected to represent the majority of the field, then good soil
test results can be obtained.
4. Grid or systematic sampling follows an organized grid pattern, perhaps
every 0.2 to 2 ha (0.5 to 5 acres). This method can reveal field nutrient
variability and allow for variable rate fertilization and precision farming
techniques. However, the sampling and analysis costs are not economic
with current field crop prices on the prairies.

Proper Soil Sampling Equipment

Soil sampling to a 60 cm (2') depth can be done with a probe or auger. Do not use flight
or screw sampling augers if samples need to be separated by depth since mixing will
occur. If testing for micronutrients, ensure the sampling tool is chrome plated or
stainless steel and rust-free. Do not bulk samples in metal pails. Clean plastic pails
labelled for location and depth work well.

Information sheets, sample bags and shipping boxes are available from soil testing labs
and most fertilizer dealers.

Proper Sampling Date

The most accurate sampling time is just prior to seeding. However, this isn’t
practical because time is needed to purchase and perhaps place the fertilizer before
seeding. Sampling is commonly done in the spring or fall. Spring sampling is done after
the soil has thawed and is no longer saturated from snow melt. Fall sampling can begin
once the soil has cooled to 5 to 7°C. This helps reduce nutrient content changes due to
microbial activity.

The old assumption that N availability does not change over the winter has been proven
wrong. Research in Alberta found that available N increased by 56 kg/ha (50 lb/ac) in
stubble fields from fall to late winter while the soil was frozen. Summerfallow fields
increased by 73 kg/ha (65 lb/ac). This overwinter gain in available N is apparently due
to death of soil microbes and subsequent release of available N forms from their
ruptured cells. However, the available N gained over the winter was temporary as it was
mostly lost in the spring, probably through denitrification. The stubble fields lost 45
kg/ha (40 lb N/ac) in the spring while summerfallow fields lost 73 kg/ha (65 lb/ac).
Therefore, the net change from late fall to late spring was minimal.

Late fall sampling tends to more accurately reflect spring NO3- (nitrate) contents than
early fall sampling, especially for Black soils. Alberta research in the 1980’s
compared soil samples taken in the fall (early October and early November) ' to spring
samples for 26 stubble fields. Early fall samples averaged 34 kg/ha (30 lb/ac) less
nitrate N thanspring samples, while late fall samples averaged only about17 kg/ha (15
lb/ac) less. The early fall samples were also more variable in relation to spring samples.
Overall, late fall samples more accurately predicted spring nitrate contents and grain
yields than early fall. Spring samples were slightly better than late fall samples for
predicting grain yield and N uptake.
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In contrast, recent research in Manitoba measured very little change in soil nitrate levels
in cereal stubble from early September to freeze-up. North and South Dakota extension
soil scientists recommend early fall sampling in view of time constraints, but reduce the
N recommendation by 0.2 kg (0.5 lb) for each sampling day prior to September 15.

Another experiment in central Alberta compared the effects of sample timing on

phosphorus (P) soil test values. On average over 27 sites, the extractable P increased
from 28 kg/ha (25 lb/ac) in early October to 49 kg/ha (44 lb/ac) by early November, and
to 50 kg (45 lb) by spring (late April to early May). The relationship between early fall
and spring P values was not close and, therefore, it was not possible to simply correct
the early fall values. In contrast, research on a Brown soil in Saskatchewan over 24
years found both overwinter increases and decreases in soil P tests, but relatively few
were significant. An experiment on irrigated alfalfa on a Dark Brown soil near
Lethbridge, AB found significant overwinter increases in organic P. The conflicting
results may be related to the differences in soil organic matter content and biological
activity, and, therefore, potential for microbial changes to the plant available P pool.

In conclusion, early fall sampling can create higher than necessary fertilizer N and P
recommendations due to an underestimation of spring nitrate N and available P,
especially in the Black and Gray soil zones. Fertilizer response curves have been
calibrated only against spring nutrient contents.

One disadvantage to late fall sampling after soil has cooled to 5 to 7°C is that fall
fertilizer banding opportunities become more limited. By the time the samples are
taken, dried, sent to the lab, analyzed and results returned, the soil may have become
frozen or covered with snow. On average over the prairies, soil cools by 1°C every
five days in the fall.

Correct Sampling Depth

The appropriate sampling depth depends on the nutrients to be tested. For mobile
nutrients such as N and sulphur (S), sampling to the 60 cm (2') depth is usually the most
accurate according to research conducted in the 1960’s. The fertilizer response
database for N was developed with 0 to 60 cm (0 to 24") samples. However, recent
research in Saskatchewan and North Dakota indicates that the 0 to 30 cm (0 to 12")
depth may be more accurate for N than either 0 to 15 cm (0 to 6") or 60 cm samples.
This recent research and the fact that sampling 60 cm is considerably more difficult,
supports the 0 to 30 cm depth as a reasonable recommendation for these areas. In
contrast, research in Manitoba has documented that the 0 to 15 cm depth is inferior.
Separate samples for 0 to 15 cm, 15 to 30 cm and 30 to 60 cm was often recommended
in the past, but was rarely done due to additional expense and time.

For immobile nutrients such as P and potassium (K) and most micronutrients, the ideal
depth is 0 to 15 cm because the fertilizer response calibrations are based on that depth.
If only the 0 to 30 cm depth is sampled, the soil testing labs must use a correction factor
to estimate the value for the 0 to 15 cm depth. Since these nutrients are relatively
immobile, they tend to remain at the fertilizer application depth. Therefore, the 0 to 30
cm depth may underestimate these nutrients and lead to high fertilizer
recommendations.
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Proper Sample Handling

Handle samples carefully to prevent accidental mixing and contamination. Mix each
sample and spread on separate pieces of clean paper to dry at room temperature. Use a
fan if required and avoid additional heat sources. Once dry, fill soil sample cartons or
bags with about 0.5 kg (1 lb) of soil, and label with field number and depth.

Consistency of Soil Test Lab Recommendations

Soil sampling, analysis and interpretation is not an exact science. However, reasonable
precision and accuracy is needed in order to make costly fertilizer decisions. Over the
years, various growers, agencies or companies have sent duplicate samples to different
labs to compare their analysis and recommendations. Unfortunately, widely differing
results and recommendations have occurred, causing growers to question the credibility
of the labs or the soil testing practice.

Two fundamental reasons contribute to differences in results. First, labs may be using
different analytical procedures to measure soil nutrient content. For example, there are
several methods to extract soil phosphorus. Or the technique may differ slightly when
using a particular method. Over time, labs are harmonizing their test methods and in
time this problem may disappear.

Variations in soil test recommendations arise mainly due to the differences in each
lab’s interpretation. The recommended fertilizer amounts at the same soil test level
can vary significantly from lab to lab. This may be due to using:

 different critical (deficient) soil levels being used

 regional fertilizer response (calibration) data but modifying
recommendations to fit a particular philosophy of fertilizer use or
economic payback
 recommendations from other regions or countries
 a unique system of fertilizer recommendation not based on regional
calibration data or economics

Although consistency among labs has been improving since the first comparison studies
in the 1980s, further improvements are needed. Calibration data must continue to be
collected to account for changes in fertilizer application techniques and changes in other
agronomic practices.

Overall, soil testing is a useful agronomic practice. Use labs that base fertilizer
recommendations on economics using regional calibration data. Be prepared to question
unusual recommendations based on experience and the local knowledge of qualified
agronomists. Keep in mind that the accuracy of fertilizer recommendations will always
be limited by sampling challenges and the inability to predict the weather of the
upcoming growing season.

Plant and Tissue Testing

Crop nutritional status also can be assessed by plant and tissue analyses. These methods
can supplement, but not replace, soil testing. Plant and tissue analyses measure the
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nutrient content of above ground plant parts during growth. The values are compared to
established ranges for inadequate, adequate and excess levels.

Plant tissue testing is suitable for diagnosing crop problems that may be nutritionally
related and to identify any nutrients that may be limiting yields. Plant analysis can
determine if the fertilizer rate and method of application were adequate to meet crop
needs. The disadvantage of tissue sampling is timing—after tissue samples are taken
and analyzed, it may be too late to correct deficiencies in the current crop. No reliable
interpretative criteria exist for nutrient ranges in seedling canola. Also, nutrient contents
usually differ greatly between different plant parts and ages. Therefore, the proper part
must be sampled at the proper growth stage.

An adequate sample will contain 50 to 80 plants, depending on the nutrients to be tested

and plant part/age. Avoid unusual, dead or stressed plants, as well as those covered with
soil or recent sprays. Cut samples with a clean, rust-free knife or scissors. Dry the plant
samples on clean paper or plastic at room temperature (do not oven dry). After drying,
keep the samples in a paper bag. The following table shows sufficiency levels for most
plant nutrients in flowering canola.

Table 3. Plant Tissue Analysis Interpretative Criteria for Canola (whole above
ground plant at flowering)

Nutrient Sufficiency Level

Nitrogen (N) % > 2.4

Phosphorus (P) % > 0.24

Potassium (K) % > 1.4

Sulphur (S) % > 0.24

Calcium (Ca) % > 0.49

Magnesium (Mg) % > 0.19

Zinc (Zn) ppm > 14

Copper (Cu) ppm > 2.6

Iron (Fe) ppm > 19

Manganese (Mn) ppm > 14

Boron (B) ppm > 29

Molybdenum (Mo) ppm > 0.02

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Comparing the plant analysis results from two areas of a field that differ visibly in
growth can be difficult to interpret because nutrient content differences can be
confounded by growth differences. If the two areas differ mainly in deficiency
symptoms, then comparative sampling can be useful. In this case, collect the samples
soon after the symptoms appear and before major differences in growth and maturity
occur. Plant and tissue analyses need to be interpreted by experienced individuals.

How to Diagnose Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

In moderate to severe nutrient deficiencies, visible symptoms can indicate the specific
nutrient that is lacking. Nutrients that are only slightly limiting often do not show
visible symptoms, a situation that has been termed “hidden hunger.â€

A systematic diagnosis of visible symptoms is needed to correctly identify limiting

nutrients. Symptoms usually appear on either old or young leaves depending on the
mobility of the nutrient in question. Chlorosis (loss of green colour, yellowing) and
necrosis (death of plant tissue, often leading to white or brown colour) are important
visible symptoms. Diagnosis under field situations can be complicated by high field
variability, multiple deficiencies, and other causes such as weather, pests and herbicide
injury. For example, a sulphur deficiency can easily be confused with Group 2 herbicide
injury due to similar symptoms.

The diagnosis of nutrient deficiency symptoms is outlined in the Figure 2 flowchart.

Nitrogen (N)

Nitrogen is the most common limiting nutrient (other than water) for canola production.
Therefore, a good understanding of this nutrient is needed to efficiently manage
fertilizer N and maximize economic returns.
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Figure 2. Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms

Role of Nitrogen in the Canola Plant

As shown in the previous section (Table 3), canola, like most crops, contains large
amounts of N. Nitrogen is a part of many critical plant components: amino acids and
proteins (which form enzymes); genetic material (nucleotides and nucleic acids); and
other components found in membranes (such as amines), co-enzymes and others. The
majority of the N in green plant tissue is present as enzyme protein in chloroplasts
where chlorophyll is located. By harvest, the majority of the N in a canola plant is found
as seed protein. The relative N proportions in the plant changes over time and growth
stage. The N proportioning closely resembles the dry matter partitioning as shown in
Figure 3.

The N level in canola plants is highest in the early seedling stage when young leaves are
the majority of the plant’s dry matter. As the plant grows into flowering stages, the
overall N level declines due to stem material and leaf loss. By maturity, canola straw
contains just 0.5 to 1.5% N while the seed contains 3.4 to over 4% N.
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Figure 3. Nitrogen Partitioning in Canola

Nitrogen Effects on Canola Growth

The most obvious N effect is an overall increase in plant growth (height and dry
matter). This stimulation occurs early in the vegetative stage and continues into the
reproductive stage. Research in England illustrates the canola leaf stimulation, leaf area
and pods/seed production by fertilizer N (Figures 4, 5, 6).

Figure 4. Canola Leaf Area Response

Other research generally confirms that N fertilizer mainly increases canola leaf area
index, leaf duration, plant weight, growth rates, number of flowering branches, plant
height, number of flowers, number and weight of pods and seed yield. Therefore, good
N fertility is necessary to produce a large, photosynthetically efficient leaf area that will
support high numbers of flowers, pods and seed yield.

Canola Nitrogen Deficiency Symptoms

Healthy canola plants with adequate N have dark green leaves. Nitrogen is mobile
within the plant and can be moved from older to younger leaves and pods. Therefore, N
deficiency symptoms first show up in older leaves as pale green to yellow colouring,
and sometimes purpling. These older leaves tend to die early, turn brown and drop off
 202

prematurely. Overall plant growth is slow, with short thin stems, small leaves, and few
branches. The amount and time of flowering is restricted, and pod numbers are low.
Nitrogen-deficient canola pictures are shown in Figure 19. In healthy canola, plant
tissue tests of above ground material at flowering will show more than 2.5% N.

Figure 5. N Fertilizer Effect on Pod, Seed Number and Yield

Figure 6. Effect of N on Flowering Branches

Canola Response to Fertilizer Nitrogen

Canola responds well to applied fertilizer N on deficient soils. Most stubble fields have
insufficient N for high canola production and thus require fertilizer or manure
application. Research data has been collected that describes crop response to fertilizer in
relation to initial soil reserves in western Canada and around the world. This data is
used by soil testing labs to predict fertilizer requirements. Research on the prairies has
found that profitable dryland canola yield response to fertilizer N is unlikely when the
soil contains more than 34 to 45 kg nitrate N/ha (75 to 100 lb nitrate N/ac) in the top 60
cm (2').
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Higher yielding winter canola types typically respond to more N fertilizer than winter
wheat. In contrast, spring canola types have a similar N fertilizer response to high
yielding CPS wheat in western Canada.

An example of typical canola response to fertilizer N on a deficient stubble black soil in

Alberta is shown in Figure 7. The vertical line represents the economical level of N
fertilizer under medium moisture with $265/tonne ($6/bu) canola, $0.88 kg ($0.40 lb) N
and a 2:1 risk ratio.

Figure 7. Canola Response to N Fertilizer

The previous crop influences the crop response to N fertilizer. Different preceding crops
vary in the amount of available N removed from the soil and the amount released from
crop residue. In addition, the disease break with different rotational crops can affect the
yield potential and, therefore, the economic response to fertilizer.

Moisture availability greatly affects the yield response to N fertilizer. Conversely,

adequate N is needed for crops to respond to moisture. Canola yield is reduced under
extremely dry or wet conditions. Research at Outlook, SK illustrates the synergistic
response of canola to moisture and N over eight years (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Canola Response to N and Moisture at Outlook, SK

Under dry soil conditions, root growth and activity are reduced, resulting in less N
uptake. In addition, soil microbial growth is slower, which reduces N release from soil
organic matter, but also reduces temporary tie-up by soil microbes. Normally, more
plant available N is left in the soil after a dry growing season than after wet seasons.

Drought and high temperature stress near flowering and podding dramatically reduce
both water and N fertilizer efficiency. This is true for both stubble and fallow crops,
 204

although moisture is more often limiting for stubble crops. Unfortunately, crops use the
most water during the flowering and podding period when soil moisture reserves and
rainfall are usually low. Therefore, the amount and timing of rainfall are important.
Studies in western Canada generally find that growing season precipitation increases
grain yield two to three times more than equivalent amounts of stored soil moisture.

Heavy N fertilization can reduce canola yields when excellent spring moisture
conditions are followed by drought. Under this condition, the N stimulates larger leaves,
increases transpiration and moisture use. As a result, soil moisture can be depleted,
leaving little for flowering, podding and seed fill. Excessive N fertilization can also
reduce yields by promoting lodging, delaying maturity that may increase fall frost
damage, and increase foliar disease due to the dense canopy and lodging.

Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on Canola Quantity

N fertilization generally increases the protein content of canola seed and meal.
However, when N fertilizer is added under conditions of S deficiency, there may not be
a protein increase but a rise in free amino acids due to hampered protein synthesis.

In contrast, N fertilization may slightly decrease the canola seed oil content, especially
at higher rates. Plant breeders report that oil and protein contents are often inversely
related—any attempt to change one causes an opposite change in the other component.
Although the seed oil content may decrease at high N rates, the total oil yield per acre
still increases because yield increases more than oil level decreases. The overall effect
of N fertilization on yield and canola quality based on research in Manitoba is
illustrated in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Canola Response to N and Moisture at Outlook, SK

Supply of Nitrogen by Soil and Fertilizer to Canola

Canola plants obtain N from several sources:

 soil supply of nitrate and ammonium arising from soil organic matter
decomposition and fertilizer residues of previous years
 205

 nitrate and ammonium released through mineralization during the

current growing season
 fertilizer or manure N additions to the current crop
 other minor sources such as available forms deposited during rainfall and
lightning, nonsymbiotic N fixation in the root zone, and ammonia uptake
by foliage

Since canola plants obtain most of their N from the soil environment, understanding the
N cycle is very important to managing N fertilizer effectively.

Nitrogen Cycle and Transformations

Nitrogen is subject to many different processes in soil due to microbial activity and
physical forces (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Nitrogen Cycle and Transformations

Transformations that Supply Plant Available Nitrogen

Soil organic matter is a major N reservoir containing several thousand pounds of

organic N per acre. This large organic N storehouse needs to be decomposed by soil
microbes before becoming available for root uptake. The decomposition process is
called mineralization.

The decomposition rate is fairly slow and variable, ranging from about 0.4 to 5% per
year. As shown in Figure 10, organic N is first slowly changed to ammonium by
 206

bacteria. Then different bacteria rapidly change the ammonium to nitrate, in a two-step
process called nitrification. The ammonium is first changed to nitrite (NO2 -), then to
nitrate. Under normal soil conditions, the bacterial oxidation of ammonium to nitrite is
much slower than nitrite to nitrate. Therefore, very little nitrite is normally found in soil.
This is fortunate since nitrite is toxic to plants. The result of these rate differences is that
most of the plant available N in the soil tends to be nitrate. This is also why most soil
testing labs analyze soil for nitrate and don’t include ammonium.

Since N transformations result from soil microbial activity, soil conditions such as
temperature, moisture and acidity will strongly affect the rates at which these processes
occur. If soil is cold, saturated or very acidic, then mineralization and other microbial
activities will proceed slowly. Cultivation stimulates organic matter decomposition and
mineralization of N by improving aeration and physical mixing that gives soil microbes
access to new organic matter supplies.

There are several sources of plant available N to the soil system, in addition to soil
organic matter decomposition and fertilizer additions (Figure 10). The atmosphere
contains 78% N2 and thus is a huge source of N. But it first must be changed to plant
available forms through biological or industrial processes called N2 fixation. Biological
fixation of atmospheric N2 is performed by certain bacteria or blue-green algae species.
Biological N fixation in soil falls into three general types:

 symbiosis with legumes

 associative
 free-living N fixing bacteria

Symbiotic N fixation is much larger relative to the other types. Canola is not a legume
and cannot form the symbiosis with rhizobia to fix atmospheric N. However, canola can
benefit from residual N fixed by previous legume crops.

Associative N fixation occurs when bacteria just inside the root or on the root surface
use root exudates for energy to fix atmospheric N. The plant benefits indirectly when
the bacteria dies and its N is released through mineralization. The results of many
experiments in Russia and throughout the world on cereal inoculation with associative
N fixing bacteria have shown varying and unpredictable responses. This suggests that
the interactions between plants and the bacteria are complex, unstable and can vary
greatly depending on genotypes. Much less research has been done on canola
inoculation with associative N fixing bacteria. The limited research does show that
some strains will successfully colonize the roots of Brassica species but often do not
significantly influence harvest dry weight or N accumulation.

Transformations that Reduce Plant Available Nitrogen

Several different mechanisms contribute to N loss from soil, and, therefore, lost
opportunity for increasing yield. Understanding the conditions that promote such losses
can be valuable in avoiding such conditions in the field and improving the N fertilizer
efficiency.
 207

Denitrification

One major N loss from soil occurs through a microbial process called denitrification. As
shown in Figure 10, nitrate can be changed by certain bacteria to gases such as N2O and
N2, which escape back to the atmosphere. These soil bacteria have the ability to switch
their respiration from using oxygen to nitrate. Since respiration is more efficient using
oxygen, these denitrifying bacteria will only switch to nitrate if oxygen is absent, such
as in waterlogged soil. Therefore, denitrification becomes significant when soils become
saturated. Other secondary factors that encourage denitrification include carbon
availability (crop residues), warm soil, and neutral to alkaline pH.

Denitrification accounts for 10 to 50% of the available N losses in prairie soil. Research
on the prairies has shown that considerable N denitrification losses occur during spring
thaw. For example, research near Edmonton, AB found that 16 to 60% of annual
denitrification loss occurred immediately following snowmelt. During spring thaw on
the prairies, frozen subsoil is often a barrier for water drainage and the overlying thawed
soil becomes saturated.

The second major period of denitrification loss occurs in late spring and early summer
during rainfall events that cause soil saturation. Remember that denitrification occurs
regardless of the nitrate source—from fertilizer, manure or from decomposition.
Effective N fertilizer management strives to avoid having large amounts of nitrate
present during spring melts. Summerfallow is especially prone to large denitrification
losses since large amounts of nitrate and moisture are stored during the fallow year,
which increases the denitrification potential in the next spring thaw. Summerfallow also
is a major contributor to leaching losses of nitrate.

Immobilization

Immobilization is the second major N transformation that reduces the plant available N
supply. Figure 10 indicates that soil bacteria may use either nitrate or ammonium for
their own growth, temporarily tying up the N in the soil organic N storehouse.
Immobilization essentially is the reverse of mineralization, and occurs when residues
with low N content (like cereal straw) are being decomposed. Since these residues
don’t contain enough N for the microbes to make their own protein, they need to use
the nitrate and ammonium. Soil microbes thus compete with plant roots for the available
N, and plant growth suffers when N supplies are inadequate for both microbial and plant
growth needs. The poor crop growth in heavy chaff rows is due in part to
immobilization of N and other nutrients by the decomposing microbes. One effective
fertilization strategy is to place the fertilizer away from residues and thus avoid
immobilization losses. The remaining transformations that reduce plant available N are
usually relatively minor.

Table 4. Seedbed Utilization (SBU) of Various Openers*

Spread Width of Fertilizer in Seed Row

 208

2.5 cm (1") 5 cm (2") 7.6 cm (3") 10 cm (4")

Disc or Knife Spoon or Hoe Sweep Sweep

Row spacing cm 15 23 30 15 23 30 15 23 30 15 23 30

Row spacing " 6 9 12 6 9 12 6 9 12 6 9 12

SBU % 17 11 8 33 22 17 50 33 25 67 44 33

*Although some openers also vertically spread seed and fertilizer, this is not considered
in the table since seed should be placed at a consistent depth for uniform germination
and emergence. The actual spread width varies with air flow, soil type, moisture,
residue and speed, and should be checked under prevailing field conditions.

Leaching

Leaching of nitrate can occur since this form is not adsorbed to the soil and moves
readily with soil water. Leaching losses can be significant in sandy soils in high rainfall
areas or under summerfallow, but overall leaching probably contributes to less than
10% of the available N losses on the prairies. To reduce leaching losses time fertilizer
applications to avoid prolonged exposure to wet conditions, and consider band
placement to delay the conversion to the vulnerable nitrate form.

Volatilization

Volatilization occurs when ammonia escapes from the soil to the atmosphere. Such
losses happen in a variety of ways. One obvious loss occurs when anhydrous ammonia
fertilizer is improperly applied (too shallow or into a too dry or wet soil). Broadcasting
urea fertilizer on the surface without incorporation can also lead to significant
volatilization losses if significant rainfall (more than 6 mm (1/4") does not occur soon
after application. All ammonium based fertilizers are subject to volatilization if
broadcast on the surface of soils with high pH, surface lime salts, low soil organic
matter, warm temperatures and dry conditions. To reduce volatilization loss, ensure
proper fertilizer placement into the soil.

Weeds

Weeds can contribute to poor N fertilizer efficiency by competing with crops for uptake.
The competitive ability of the crop for fertilizer uptake can be improved by placing the
fertilizer near crop roots rather than broadcasting or random banding.

Erosion

Erosion of topsoil carries significant N and other nutrients away from the field. Use soil
conservation techniques to minimize such losses.

A final minor loss mechanism occurs when ammonium is fixed into the crystal structure
of certain clays. Some soils contain expanding type clays that allow ammonium to enter
 209

within the plates of the crystal structure and become “fixed.†Such ammonium
trapped within the crystal lattice is held tightly and unavailable for root uptake.

Nitrogen Fertilizer Management for Canola

Due to the various N losses described in the previous section, N fertilizer use efficiency
cannot approach 100%. Generally, research in western Canada has found that N
fertilizer use efficiency (fertilizer N recovered in seed) rarely exceeds 50% and often is
less than 20%. In the latter case, this means that only 20% of the fertilizer N made it
into the seed. Although a small amount of fertilizer N remains in plant parts other than
seed, a significant portion is lost. Fertilizer management strives to increase efficiency by
increasing crop uptake and decreasing the losses. Fertilizer N management uses two
main tools: placement and timing.

Seed Row Placement

Although seed row placement of N fertilizer is an efficient method for uptake, canola is
sensitive to seed row N and this limits application rates. Canola seedlings are injured by
excessive seed row N by the “salt effect†that reduces water uptake by the seed,
and by ammonia toxicity. Greenhouse research at the Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada (AAFC) Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre in 1960 showed that rapeseed was
sensitive to seed-placed N (see Figure 11). Subsequent field research confirmed that
rapeseed was more sensitive to seed-placed N than cereals. During this period, seed row
placement was limited to P and very low rates of N. The common drills during this time
were double disc and hoe press drills, which give a very narrow seed spread.

The adoption of conservation tillage seeding systems and air-seeders has greatly
influenced fertilizer placement. Development of pneumatic delivery implements (“air
seeders†and “air drills†) has facilitated both dry fertilizer banding and direct
seeding. Conservation seeding systems limit tillage passes in order to retain surface
residues and this reduces the options for fertilizer application. However, newer
machines designed for direct seeding have resolved the fertilizer placement issue by
either placing the fertilizer away from the seed or increasing the seedbed utilization.
Seedbed utilization is the spread width of fertilizer and seed relative to the row spacing.
For example, a 7.6 cm (3") spread with 15 cm (6") row spacing creates 50% seedbed
utilization. Table 4 outlines the seedbed utilization (SBU) obtained with different
openers and row spacing.

Numerous trials have examined the safe seed row N amounts with various openers and
configurations. Research conducted in Alberta from 1992-96 illustrates the effect of
seed row N on canola emergence and yield. The research involved 32 site years with
canola at various Alberta locations. The highest N rate and least SBU reduced canola
emergence and yield 90 and 45% of the time, respectively. Sites with limited moisture
(due to sandy texture, low seedbed moisture or dry conditions) two weeks after seeding
experienced the greatest reduction in emergence and yield with 101 kg N/ha (90 lb
N/ac) as urea and low SBU (see Figures 12 and 13).
 210

Figure 11. Seed Row N Fertilizer Effect on Canola Emergence

Figure 12. Effect of Moisture and SBU on Canola Emergence [101 kg N/ha (90 lb

N/ac)] in Alberta

Figure 14 shows the approximate safe rates of seed row granular N fertilizer based on
prairie research to date. In canola, there is no significant difference in seed row safety
between urea (46-0-0), ammonium sulphate (21-0-0-24) or ammonium nitrate (34-0-0).
Anhydrous ammonia (82-0-0) must be placed separately from the seed. If moisture
conditions are dry, reduce the safe amount of seed row N by half. The N rates are in
addition to N contained in seed row phosphate fertilizer.

Band Placement

Band placement away from the seed row can be used to avoid toxicity and to improve
fertilizer use efficiency. Banded N fertilizer is usually more efficient than broadcast
incorporation because concentrating fertilizer in the band reduces the contact with soil
and microbes, and reduces losses due to denitrification and immobilization. The
banding benefit varies between soils and years mainly due to differences in moisture
and susceptibility to loss. Also, if the band is located near the seed row rather than
random, fertilizer loss due to weed uptake is reduced.

Pre-plant banding (or “deep banding†) involves placing granular, liquid or

gaseous fertilizer N in a ribbon several inches below the soil surface before seeding.
Banding is often done in the fall on fields that tend to be wet in the spring. Fall banding
can spread the workload without significantly lowering N efficiency, and often allows
growers to buy fertilizer at lower cost than in the spring. The banding depth often is 8 to
10 cm (3 to 4"). Under dry or sandy soil conditions, ensure anhydrous ammonia is
placed deep enough to prevent visible gaseous loss, and ensure the soil flows well
around the openers to permit a good seal behind the shanks. Spring banding can be
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shallower due to better moisture and tilth. However, in dry springs the banding
operation can reduce seedbed moisture and quality. Make spring band spacings
narrower than in the fall.

Figure 13. Effect of Moisture and SBU on Canola Yield [101 kg N/ha (90 lb N/ac)] in

Alberta

Figure 14: Approximate Maximum Rates for Seed Row Placement in Canola with Good

to Excellent Seedbed Moisture

Spring banded anhydrous ammonia can be immediately followed by seeding, providing

there are several inches of vertical separation between the injection point and seed
depth. Canola emergence directly over the bands may be slightly reduced, but yields are
generally not affected.

Figure 15 illustrates research conducted at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

(AAFC) Scott, SK Research Centre on the safety of seeding directly after banding
anhydrous ammonia 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6") deep. Yields varied between seeding dates
following anhydrous banding over the years with no relationship between yields and
plant stands. Proper soil packing over the seed row to firm the soil disrupted by the
banding operation was deemed more important to avoid stand reduction than was
potential injury from the banded ammonia. No difference was found between banding
ammonia parallel to and perpendicular to the seed row.
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Figure 15. Effect of Waiting Period after Anhydrous Ammonia Banding on Canola

Stand and Yield

Side banding involves placing the fertilizer band to the side and often below the seed
during the seeding operation. This method has good N use efficiency and avoids seed
row toxicity if the separation is maintained under field conditions. However, side
banding at seeding does involve more complicated, costly openers, increased draught
and wear.

Mid-row banding involves placing fertilizer between every second seed row or
between a paired row during the seeding operation. This method also has good N use
efficiency and avoids seed row toxicity if the separation can be maintained under field
conditions. Both side and midrow banding can improve N efficiency and yield response
by favouring crop versus weed access to the fertilizer.

In recent years, openers have been designed that allow anhydrous ammonia to be side-
row or mid-row banded during seeding. Ensure the anhydrous ammonia is horizontally
separated from the seed by at least 5 cm (2").

Broadcast Incorporation

N fertilizer can be spread onto the soil surface then incorporated into the soil with a
tillage implement. Although this method can be time and labour saving, fertilizer
efficiency is usually sacrificed. Under dry conditions, broadcast-incorporated fertilizer
can be stranded in dry surface soil, and not accessible by plant roots growing down into
moisture. In wet conditions, broadcast-incorporated fertilizer is more vulnerable to
losses due to denitrification, immobilization and leaching than banded fertilizer.
Broadcasting without incorporation is the least efficient method of applying N fertilizer
due to increased loss due to runoff, erosion and volatilization. Broadcasting after crop
emergence or topdressing generally has low efficiency, but it can serve as a rescue
treatment when poor fertility was not corrected prior to seeding.

Foliar Application

Foliar application is possible, but only a limited amount of fertilizer N can enter through
leaves without significant leaf burn. The only practical instance of foliar fertilization for
canola on the prairies occurs under irrigation where up to 20% of applied N can be
supplied in irrigation water early in the growing season.
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Time of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application

Nitrogen fertilizer efficiency is greatly affected by the placement method and the
application date. However, differences between placement methods or timing varies
widely between years or fields due to variability in weather, soil type and drainage.
Generally, N fertilizer applied at or near seeding is the most efficient. The major
disadvantages of applying all the fertilizer N at seeding are:

 increased time required to seed and fertilize during the short seeding
season
 higher fertilizer prices during the spring season compared to fall
 increased risk of reduced seedbed quality due to extra tillage/soil
disturbance at or near seeding
 seed row N limits
 fertilizer applicators being unavailable during the busy spring season

Considerable fertilizer placement/timing research has been conducted on the prairies.

Table 5 gives approximate relative efficiencies of the various placement and timing
methods.

Table 5. N Fertilizer Effect on Pod, Seed Number and Yield

Relative Efficiency (%)

Time and Placement
Dry* Medium Wet

Spring broadcast-incorporated 100 100 100

Spring branded 120** 110 105

Fall broadcast-incorporated 80 75 65

Fall banded 120 110 85

* These are soil-climate categories based on typical conditions expected in the spring.
**Extra tillage associated with spring banding can dry out the seedbed, reduce
emergence and yield in some cases.

An extensive survey conducted by Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development in

1982 on the practices of above average growers confirmed the banding benefit (top
yields were associated with farmers who fall-banded fertilizer N).

Date of Fall Banding

Nitrogen fertilizer banded too early in the fall increases potential for losses on wet,
poorly drained soils. Delay banding until soil temperatures have cooled to less than
10°C on well drained sites, and less than 5°C on poorly drained sites.
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This will significantly reduce losses by reducing the rate of change from ammonium to
the more vulnerable nitrate form. Unfortunately, the opportunity to fall band fertilizer
into cold soil is quite short since snow or frozen soil can occur without much warning.
On average, fall soil temperatures on the prairies drop 1°C every 5 days. In the Black
and Gray soil zones, fall soil temperatures usually decline to 10°C by the last week of
September. In these zones, since the banding benefit is significant due to typically wet
spring conditions and moderately high N rates, begin fall banding in late September.
This is earlier than the normal practice.

Nitrification Inhibitors

Since only the nitrate form is susceptible to losses through denitrification and leaching,
methods to delay the conversion from ammonium to nitrate (nitrification) would be
beneficial. Banding achieves this delay to some extent. However, interest in developing
chemical inhibitors of nitrification has stimulated research programs for many years. A
variety of chemicals have been tested under prairie conditions, but none has achieved
commercial success. For example, nitrapyrin (“N-Serve†) was recognized as a
nitrification inhibitor in the early 1960s. Nitrification inhibitors have not been
successful to date for various reasons, including cost, potential toxic effects on the soil
environment and inconsistency.

Urease Inhibitors

The widespread adoption of direct seeding has resulted in interest in seed-placed

fertilizer. While increasing seedbed utilization increases the safety of seed-placed
fertilizer, the higher disturbance and draft is not always desirable. Openers with banding
capability add cost and draft. Even with sidebanding, seedling damage can sometimes
occur, particularly with wide row spacing, high rates of N application or insufficient
separation between seed and fertilizer. Therefore, there is interest in “safeningâ€
urea fertilizer so that seedling injury is reduced, allowing more freedom for seedplaced
N.

Agrotain (N-n-butyl-thiophosphoric triamide) “safens†urea by inactivating

urease enzymes in the soil adjacent to the granule. This slows the breakdown of urea to
ammonia, reducing the potential for seedling damage from seed-placed or sidebanded
applications of urea or urea ammonium nitrate. As long as N remains in the urea form,
the risk of damage is minimal. In addition, since Agrotain delays the release of
ammonia, there is more time for the uncharged urea to move away from the seed-row in
the soil water or with rainfall. Movement of the urea away from the seed, combined
with a slower release of ammonia from the urea, will decrease the concentration of
ammonia in contact with the germinating seedling, thereby reducing seedling damage.
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Figure 16. Canola Seedlings with Sufficient N (left) Versus those with an N Deficiency

In field studies, Agrotain was effective in reducing seedling damage from side-banded
urea and urea ammonium nitrate, where soil and environmental conditions led to
seedling damage from the untreated fertilizer. The improved stand did not always lead
to a higher crop yield because canola has the ability to compensate for reduced stands.
The studies also showed that canola oil and chlorophyll content were often improved by
using Agrotain.

While Agrotain appears effective for use with side-banded N applications, more
information is needed to determine if the safening effect is great enough to allow for
seed row placement of the full rates of urea or urea ammonium nitrate needed for a
high-yielding canola crop.

Phosphorus (P)

Phosphorus is an important plant macronutrient, but it is required in smaller amounts

than nitrogen. Western Canadian soils are commonly P deficient and fertilization
usually increases yield and economic returns. Good P fertilizer management is
important to optimizing canola production.

Role of Phosphorus in the Canola Plant

Phosphorus functions in the plant as a structural element and also in energy transfer.
The structural components that rely on P include nucleic acids (the building blocks of
DNA) and phospholipids (fats and oils), which are important membrane constituents.

Phosphorus plays a significant role in energy transfer in all living organisms. The P
energy transfer compounds are phosphate esters—about 50 different esters have been
identified. ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the principal phosphate energy compound
used for starch synthesis and nutrient uptake. Energy produced during respiration and
photosynthesis is captured by these phosphate compounds, which then are transported
to areas that are building plant tissue. The energy stored in the phosphate compound is
released, and the molecule is recycled back to be “recharged.†This recycling of
phosphate energy compounds is accomplished at extremely fast rates, and a small
amount can satisfy the plant’s energy needs.
 216

Figure 17. Progressively Less N Deficient Leaves (left to right)

Figure 18. N-sufficient (left) Flowering Plants and Deficient Plants

Figure 19. N-sufficient Raceme (left) and Deficient Raceme

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Figure 20. N-sufficient Pods (left) Progressing to Deficient Pods

Characteristics of Phosphorus Uptake by Canola

The main P forms taken up by roots from the soil solution are the primary and
secondary phosphate ions (H2PO4- and HPO4-2). These phosphate anions exist
transiently in the soil solution due to rapid removal by roots and microbes, or reaction
with other soil minerals. The P level is highest in young vegetative material and in the
canola seed. Figure 21 illustrates the P uptake and level over the 1998 season at the
AAFC Melfort, SK Research Centre. Canola seedlings take up P rapidly during early
growth, but not as rapidly as N. Studies conducted in Manitoba in the 1960’s
showed that canola P uptake in early growth stages was more rapid than oats, flax and
soybeans. The P level remains fairly high in the leaves (0.3 to 0.4%) until late flowering
when significant translocation occurs into developing pods and seeds. By maturity, 75
to 80% of the P in above-ground dry matter is in the seed. Canola seed contains 0.7 to
0.8% P, about double that of cereal grains. Canola stems and pods at harvest contain
only 0.1 to 0.2% P.

Figure 21. Phosphorus Content (%) and Uptake by Canola Over the 1998 Growing

Season, Melfort, SK

Canola is an efficient scavenger of soil P even though Brassica species are non-
mycorrhizal (mycorrhizae are symbiotic associations between certain soil fungi and
plant roots where the fungi contribute to the P nutrition of the plant). Many cereal crops
can form these beneficial relationships. In spite of canola being non-mycorrhizal,
research has shown that canola takes up more P than cereals. Canola has several
mechanisms to achieve this efficient P uptake. Canola has abundant fine roots with the
ability to branch and proliferate in zones of higher nutrient content such as around
fertilizer bands or granules. In addition to root proliferation in fertilizer zones due to
branching, canola roots can increase the root hair number and length in response to low
P conditions.

The second mechanism in canola roots that enhances P uptake is solubilization of

relatively insoluble mineral P forms. Canola has the ability to acidify the rhizosphere
 218

just behind the root tip near the zone of root hair formation. In a recent western Canada
growth chamber experiment, the pH of the canola rhizosphere fell up to 0.8 units over
five weeks compared to a drop of less than 0.4 units for wheat rhizosphere. Canola
absorbed more of the relatively insoluble P forms than wheat. The acid generated by
canola roots is predominantly caused by exudation of organic acids such as malic and
citric acid. Canola roots also release enzymes (phosphatases) that mineralize phosphate
from organic P pools. Cation-anion uptake imbalance may also contribute to
rhizosphere acidification when the main form of N uptake is ammonium. However,
under western Canadian field conditions, canola takes up the majority of N in the nitrate
form.

After phosphate enters the root, there are three barriers to cross before reaching the
xylem system that feeds aboveground growth. These barriers are the cell plasma
membrane, vacuole membrane and the xylem “loading†site. The rate of
phosphate transport across these membranes is affected by the plant’s P status. As
the plant P content increases, the P transport rate decreases (feed back regulation). The
P uptake rate is often more related to shoot than to root P level. This regulated transport
system requires energy. Factors that influence root respiration will affect root P uptake.
For example, cold soil or low oxygen content in a saturated soil reduces root respiration
and consequently P uptake. There is competition for the phosphate transport system by
arsenate. This can impact P nutrition in soils high in arsenate.

The xylem loading system is usually regulated separately from the systems at the
plasma and vacuole membranes. Phosphate ions typically are rapidly transported from
the roots to the shoots. Unlike N, P is absorbed and transported throughout the plant in
the inorganic form (mainly H2PO4). Similar to N, phosphate is readily remobilized from
aging tissue such as leaves to more active growing points. Phosphate stored in cell
vacuoles can also be readily mobilized. Immature plants adequately supplied with P
have 85 to 95% of the total inorganic phosphate stored in the vacuoles. In contrast, in P
deficient plants, almost all the phosphate in leaves is found in active pools (cytoplasm
and chloroplasts). By maturity, most of the plant P is stored in organic form as phytate
in the grain. Phytate serves as a readily accessible P source for the germinating seedling.
Animal nutritionists are interested in seed phytate (including canola meal) since these
compounds interfere with absorption of minerals such as zinc, iron and calcium.
Considerable attention has been given to reducing phytate levels in grains, including
canola, and some success is being reported.

Phosphorus Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency Symptoms

Canola plants suffering from strong P deficiency can experience slow leaf expansion,
smaller and fewer leaves. Deficiency symptoms appear by the second week of growth
since canola seedlings are able to obtain sufficient P from seed reserves for the first
week of growth. Figure 22 (of field research results from five sites in western Canada in
1991) illustrates the significant increase in early season growth with P fertilization.

Phosphorus deficient leaves may have a dark green, bluish green to purplish colour
since chlorophyll and protein formation are less affected than cell and leaf expansion.
Under severe P deficiency, purple colouration arises from accumulation of anthocyanin
pigments. Mildly deficient plants may look normal but are small. Above-ground plant P
content at flowering should be above 0.24%.
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Figure 22. Effect of P Fertilizer (P2O5) on Canola Dry Matter after Emergence

Root growth is less affected by P deficiency than shoot growth, leading to a typical
decrease in the shoot-root ratio. With a more severe deficiency, root development is
restricted, but not as dramatically as stem and leaf growth. Although overall root
branching is restricted in P deficient soils, root hair length and density usually increase.

P deficiency affects the maturity and development of reproductive tissue. Even a mild P
deficiency can result in maturity delays of several days compared to plants with
adequate P. In addition to a flowering delay, a P deficiency can reduce the number of
flowers and seeds per pod. Also, a P deficiency can cause leaves to die and drop early,
which contributes to the overall yield loss.

Canola Response to Phosphorous Fertilizer

Most agricultural soils in Canada have inadequate P for producing canola crops.
However, the canola yield response to P fertilizer on deficient soils usually is much less
than the average response to N fertilizer on N deficient soils. Research in the 1960s
showed that rapeseed often responded more to P fertilizer than wheat or flax.
Subsequent research established that yield response could be predicted from soil test
values. Central Alberta research in the 1980’s found that 23 of 48 sites responded to
P fertilizer. A recent Alberta P study from 1991-1993 found a statistically significant
response to P fertilizer at 42 site-years while 81 site-years had no response. Economic
analysis of the results suggested that 70% of the canola sites responded to 7 kg (15 lb)
P2O5/ac and 53% responded economically to 14 kg (30 lb)–given canola at
$352/tonne ($8/bu)–and $0.75/kg ($0.34/lb) P2O5. Data from such fertilizer
experiments are compiled into databases to predict fertilizer response. Figure 23 is an
example of canola response to P fertilizer based on soil test P in Alberta.

Canola response to P fertilizer depends mainly on the amount of plant available P in the
soil but is also influenced by moisture and temperature. In cold soil, P availability and
movement is reduced. Canola response to P fertilizer is greater under these conditions.
Phosphorus fertilization often slightly advances maturity of canola crops by one or two
days. This slight difference may be important in short growing seasons.
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Figure 23. Phosphate Fertilizer Recommendations for Canola on Medium to Fine

Textured, Neutral Soil under Medium Moisture

Phosphorus Fertilizer Effect on Canola Quantity

P fertilization generally has negligible effects on canola quality. Experiments in western

Canada have found that P fertilizer increased, decreased or did not affect oil content.
Canola protein content has occasionally been slightly raised by P fertilization. A recent
field experiment in Manitoba on two very deficient sites found that P fertilizer
significantly increased both protein and oil content.

Phosphorus Cycle

Prairie soils contain significant amounts of total P—450 to 907 kg P/ac (1,000 to 2,000
lb P/ac). However, most of this soil P is relatively insoluble with limited availability to
plants. Canola roots obtain P by absorbing phosphate dissolved in the soil water. Since
the amount of phosphate dissolved in the soil water is very small at any given moment,
there must be constant replenishment into the soil water from the insoluble forms. This
replenishment of soil solution P around roots arises from slightly soluble minerals, P
desorption from surfaces, organic P mineralization and fertilizer. Figure 24 depicts the
“P cycle.â€

Figure 24. The Soil Phosphorous Cycle

Both organic and inorganic P forms occur in soil, and both are important sources of
plant available phosphate in soil water (soil solution P). Primary and secondary
phosphate ions (H2PO4- and H2PO4-2) can be present in soil solution, with H2PO4 - the
major form at pH <7.2. This solution P has several possible fates: it may be absorbed by
roots, adsorbed to mineral surfaces, precipitated with various cations such as Ca +2, or
 221

immobilized into microbial biomass and soil organic matter. Soil phosphate supply is
usually highest in the pH range of 6.5 to 7.0. At high pH levels (>7.5), calcium and
magnesium cations can precipitate with phosphate to form salts with low solubility. In
contrast, in acidic soils (pH<6), iron and aluminium cations react with the phosphate to
form insoluble compounds. Phosphate is not a mobile nutrient in soil due to these soil
constituent reactions.

The natural soil weathering process causes acidification and this encourages the
eventual conversion of primary P to secondary minerals and unavailable forms
(occluded P). This transformation to unavailable forms takes centuries.

As phosphate is removed from the soil solution, the lower level stimulates phosphate
release from exchangeable and labile inorganic pools. As labile pools are depleted,
nonlabile secondary P minerals slowly dissolve to maintain the labile and solution
pools.

The organic P pool also contributes to the maintenance of phosphate in the soil solution.
Organic P in prairie surface soil constitutes about 25 to 55% of total P and is a large
pool of potential plant available P. Microbial processes drive the organic section of the
P cycle. Phosphate from organic matter can be released through decomposition and then
incorporated into new microbial biomass or enter into the soil solution. Most organic P
compounds released during decomposition are quickly degraded and exist briefly in
soil. Some organic P compounds can be stabilized in soil through adsorption to soil
constituents or by physical isolation within aggregates. Tillage decreases the soil
organic P content by exposing stabilized forms to new or more vigorous microbial
attack. Organic P can be degraded to phosphate by enzymes (phosphatases) released by
soil microbes and by canola roots.

Significant seasonal fluctuations occur in both organic and inorganic P pools. However,
reports conflict on the direction and magnitude of the fluctuations. For example, several
experiments reported decreases in organic P during the summer growing season and
gains over the winter, while another experiment measured major declines over the
winter. Inorganic P (soil test extractable P) can also vary widely and inconsistently
between fall and spring.

Phosphorus Fertilizer Management for Canola

The majority of P fertilizer is not absorbed by canola in the application year. Instead,
most of the fertilizer P reacts with soil constituents to form relatively insoluble salts or
stabilized P compounds. Timing and placement are two management strategies used to
maximize P fertilizer uptake and yield response.

Timing of Phosphorus Fertilization

Since phosphate reacts with soil constituents to form insoluble compounds over time, P
fertilizer efficiency can be increased by limiting the time from application to crop
uptake. However, the P fertilizer application date affects canola yield much less than
placement method. Most growers apply P fertilizer at seeding, minimizing P availability
losses by reducing reaction time. Research in western Canada has shown the
effectiveness of fall and spring banding of P fertilizer is similar.
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Phosphorus Fertilizer Placement

Phosphorus supply during the first two to six weeks of canola growth is critical to
achieve optimal yield. Therefore, place P fertilizer to maximize early season access.

Seed row placement is an effective placement method when soil P levels are low to
moderate and spring soil conditions are cold. Cold soil decreases phosphate solubility
and diffusion in the soil solution, slowing P movement to roots and root uptake rates.
This condition increases the likelihood of response to readily accessible seed row P (the
“popup†or “starter†effect). Unfortunately, canola seedlings are sensitive to
seed row fertilizer and this limits seed row P rates. The maximum safe rate of seed row
P fertilizer for canola depends on seedbed utilization and soil moisture conditions. Pot
experiment results (Figure 25) conducted at AAFC’s Beaverlodge, AB Research
Centre in the 1960s illustrate canola’s sensitivity to seed-placed P fertilizer. The
seedbed utilization in this experiment was very restricted (3%), even less than a double-
disc press drill. The dry and moist soil corresponded to 30 and 50% of available water
in a sandy loam.

Figure 25. Effect of Seed-Placed P Fertilizer on Canola Emergence

Subsequent field research has confirmed that excessive P fertilizer placed in the seed
row can reduce plant populations and yield. High seed-placed P fertilizer rates have
lowered plant populations in some cases but did not affect yield. However, lower plant
populations due to excessive seed row fertilizer will increase yield variability and
usually lowers high yield potential under optimal growing conditions.

Under dry soil moisture conditions with low seedbed utilization (such as disc opener),
the maximum safe P2O5 seed-placed rate is approximately 22 kg/ha (20 lb/ac). The rate
can be safely increased to 28 kg/ha (25 lb/ac) under good moisture conditions with low
seedbed utilization. As seedbed utilization increases, proportionally increase seedplaced
P fertilizer rates. Some research suggests that the larger seed of B. napus will tolerate
slightly more seedplaced P than B. rapa. Due to the significant emergence and yield
reductions caused by moderate to high rates of seedplaced P fertilizer, place these rates
separately from the seed. This fertilizer/seed separation can be achieved by increasing
the spread width in the seed row or by placing the fertilizer in bands away from the seed
row.

Pre-plant band placement is an effective method since it reduces fertilizer contact with
sensitive canola seed and with soil constituents that will fix P over time. Also, the
deeper fertilizer placement tends to be more accessible to roots as they normally grow
down to moist soil. Banding fertilizer prior to seeding reduces the fertilizer handled
 223

during seeding and can provide time and labour benefits. Pre-plant band placement is
currently a common method for placing all fertilizer. Phosphorus fertilizer can be
banded in late fall or spring prior to seeding.

Side-banding places fertilizer near the seed row during seeding. The fertilizer normally
is banded 2.5 to 5 cm (1 to 2") below and beside the seed row. Several direct seeding
machines use a mid-row or paired-row method of banding fertilizer. Air seeders with
shovels or knives are used with shank spacings ranging from 20 to 36 cm (8 to 14").
The fertilizer is usually banded to a depth of 5 to 13 cm (2 to 5"). No consistent
agronomic benefits accrue to banding deeper than 8 cm (3") and fuel costs increase
significantly with deeper depths. In high P-fixing soils, place fall P bands deeper than
subsequent tillage depths to avoid mixing the band with soil.

Split application methods refer to combinations of band and seed row placement. Split
application takes advantage of the consistent benefit of seed-placed P fertilizer up to 22
kg/ha (20 lb P2O5/ac), and avoids seedling injury by placing the remainder of the P
fertilizer in a band (usually with N and S).

Broadcast-incorporated placement involves spreading P fertilizer on the surface

followed by cultivation to work it into the soil. This method is significantly less
effective than seed-placed or banded P fertilizer due to increased contact between the P
and reactive soil constituents. Application rates with broadcast-incorporated P fertilizer
usually have to be two to four times seed-placed or banded rates to get an equal
response. Therefore, broadcast-incorporated methods are less economical.

Research comparisons of P fertilizer placement methods at typical rates show that

highest yields are frequently obtained with seed-placed and split applications, followed
closely by pre-plant band methods. Broadcast-incorporated methods produce
significantly lower yield responses.

Research by Westco Ag research illustrates the relative usefulness of various P fertilizer

placements (Figure 26). Differences between placement methods are largest under
conditions of low soil test P (such as after forage breaking), as well as cold spring soil.
On typical prairie farms that have received P fertilizer for many years, canola yield
response differences between seed-placed and banded methods tend to be minimal.
Phosphorus fertilizer placement issues have been largely resolved by ground opener
development with increased seed row spread or side-band capability. Split P application
between a band and seed row appears to be the most consistent method due to reduced
seed row toxicity, less P uptake interference from high N bands, and a dual location that
hedges against poor access in either cold or dry surface soil conditions.

The application of both N and P fertilizer in a single band is called dual banding. At low
to moderate rates of N, the uptake efficiency of P is sometimes increased from a dual
band. At higher N rates—above 90 kg/ha (80 lb/ac)—the concentrated N in the band
can reduce early season P uptake due to ammonia and nitrite toxicity that hinders root
entry into the band. This P uptake interference appears to be strongest in recent band
applications, and could be a problem with dual spring banded N+P fertilizer
immediately before or during seeding.
 224

Figure 26. Canola Yield Response to Different P Fertilizer Placements

Non-Traditional Sources of Phosphorus Nutrients

Phosphorus deficiencies on the prairies are normally corrected with annual applications
of commercially refined P fertilizer—either dry blends of mono-ammonium phosphate
(12-51-0) or liquid blends of ammonium polyphosphate (10-34-0). Manure also serves
as a traditional source of P and other nutrients.

Rock Phosphate

Canola has an ability to absorb native soil P through acidification of the rhizosphere.
Pot experiments have demonstrated that canola can utilize more rock phosphate than
other crops, apparently due to the rhizosphere acidification. This has prompted
promotion of rock phosphate as a viable alternative P fertilizer for canola. Rock
phosphate is the relatively insoluble, gray-black powdery material that is refined by
fertilizer manufacturing plants into soluble phosphate fertilizer.

Idaho is a common source of rock phosphate marketed in western Canada. Research on

the prairies indicates that rock phosphates do not perform satisfactorily compared to
fertilizer phosphate. The poor performance is due to poor solubility, lower P2O5 content,
and the predominance of neutral, calcareous soils on the prairies. While high rates of
rock phosphate do slightly improve canola yields on some soils, this is not cost effective
compared to fertilizer phosphate. Typically, rock phosphate application rates need to be
six to eight times that of fertilizer phosphate for equivalent yield response. Research by
Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development at Ellerslie, AB illustrates the poor
performance of rock phosphate compared to fertilizer P (Figure 27). All the P sources
were seed placed and 112 kg N/ha (100 lb N/ac) was pre-plant banded.

Figure 27. B. Rapa Yield Response to Rock Phosphate and P Fertilizer

 225

Another non-traditional means of P nutrition recently developed for canola is

biologically based. Although canola does not form symbiotic associations with
mycorrhizae that improve P nutrition in other crops, other rhizosphere microbes exist
that increase P solubilization and subsequent plant P uptake. AAFC, Lethbridge, AB
researchers identified an organism (Penicillium bilaii) that solubilized P minerals and
improved the P uptake of cereals and canola. This organism was then commercialized as
a seed inoculant (Provide®). Field experiments conducted on the prairies have shown
that inoculating canola with Provide increases early season P uptake and vegetative
growth, and results in higher yield with and without P fertilizer. The canola yield
response to inoculation with Provide at 15 P-responsive sites in western Canada is
summarized in Figure 28.

Figure 28. Canola Yield Response to Inoculation with Provide at P-Responsive Sites

On average, growers can expect to apply 11 kg less P 2O5/ha (10 lb less P2O5/ac) when
canola is inoculated with Provide. The adoption of Provide inoculation by canola
growers has been limited, perhaps due to the inconvenience of inoculation, the short
viable period after inoculation, inconsistency and cost relative to simply using more P
fertilizer. In the future, biological fertility enhancing microbes will likely become more
common.

Figure 29. P-sufficient Canola (left) Compared to P-deficient Canola

Photo Courtesy Adrian Johnston, PPI

 226

Figure 30. P-sufficient Canola at Flowering (left) Compared to P-deficient Canola

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

Figure 31. A P-sufficient Canola Pod (top) Compared to a P-deficient Canola Pod

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

Potassium (K)

The macronutrient potassium (K) is required in large amounts by canola similar to

nitrogen (see Table 3). In spite of the large requirement, canola yield responses to K
fertilizer (potash) are infrequent, due to ample soil K reserves on the prairies, and
canola’s strong ability to absorb K.
 227

Role of Potassium in the Canola Plant

Potassium is different from most other essential nutrients since it does not become part
of structural components in the plant. Instead, most of the K in plants remains dissolved
in the cell sap and performs several major functions.

One major function for K is that of enzyme activation. Enzymes are protein complexes
that catalyze chemical reactions. More than 60 enzymes need to be activated by K. This
activation occurs when potassium cations (K+) bind to the enzyme surface, changing
the enzyme shape, and allowing the enzyme’s active site to attach to its substrate
more rapidly or accurately. For example, K stimulates the activity of an enzyme (starch
synthase) that catalyzes starch formation from glucose. While other cations can also
stimulate this enzyme, K+ is the most effective. In K deficient plants, the lack of
stimulation of the starch synthase results in an accumulation of soluble sugars and N
compounds, and a decrease in starch.

Another major function of K is in water relations. Potassium helps to maintain a

favourable water status in plants in several different ways. Potassium cations dissolved
in cell sap perform major osmotic functions. Osmosis is the tendency for water levels to
equalize between different areas separated by a porous membrane. Dissolved ions such
as K+ attract water and thus are osmotically active substances. Potassium is the major
dissolved ion in cell sap and provides most of the osmotic “pull†that draws water
into roots.

Potassium cations also maintain the water relations in plants through their crucial role in
regulating water loss (called transpiration) from pores (stomata) in the leaves. Although
the stomata must open to allow movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen in and out of
the leaves, water loss also occurs. This transpiration creates a gradient that pulls water
and nutrients up through the xylem to the leaves. However, plants cannot afford
excessive water loss and need to regulate the stomata opening. For example,
photosynthesis stops during darkness, and the need for nutrients and water decreases
greatly during night. Plants have developed a system that closes stomata during the dark
or during drought. Potassium cations, in combination with chlorine, calcium and certain
hormones, are responsible for governing the opening and closing of the stomata. Upon
receiving a “signal†induced by darkness, K+ and Cl- are pumped from the two
guard cells surrounding the stomata, which causes a loss of turgidity of the guard cells
and thus allows the pore to close. Potassium deficient plants often have higher
transpiration rates and display wilting.

Potassium’s osmotic activity also provides the physical force that expands cells
during growth. New cells accumulate K+ and associated anions like Cl- in the large
central vacuole that occupy 80 to 90% of the cell volume. The K+ ions attract water and
inflate the cell, stretching it to a new larger size. Potassium-deficient plants can exhibit
low growth rates and small cells.

Energy relations in the plant are influenced by K. Potassium affects photosynthesis at

several levels. K+ is the main ion that counterbalances the H+ flux during
photosynthesis in the chloroplasts. Potassium also maintains a favourable pH gradient in
the chloroplasts for making phosphate energy compounds. Potassium helps the
 228

translocation of photosynthate sugars by maintaining a high pH in phloem tubes needed

for “loading†, and by maintaining osmotic gradients needed for sap flow.

Potassium is needed for N uptake and protein synthesis. K+ cations are the major
counter ions that balance nitrate during transport and storage in vacuoles. Many steps of
protein synthesis require high K+ levels.

The K level is highest in seedling canola, then declines steadily up to maturity as shown
in Figure 32, B. napus canola grown at the AAFC Research Centre in Melfort, SK in
1998. Canola K uptake is rapid during the early growth stages and tapers off by the end
of flowering. Under high K fertility and good growth, canola can absorb more K than
apparently needed, a situation termed “luxury consumption.†As canola matures,
the K level in leaves declines while the stem level increases. By harvest, the stem and
straw material contain about 1 to 2% K. In contrast to N and P, the K content of the seed
(0.8 to 1% K) is low relative to the stem. Unlike K+ in the vegetative parts, seed K is
probably complexed with phytate as a salt.

Potassium Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency Symptoms

Potassium deficiency reduces overall canola growth but to a lesser degree than N or P
deficiency. Since K is mobile within the plant, deficiencies are first visible in older
leaves. The edges and areas between veins of older leaves tend to turn pale green or
yellow, followed by withering. The yellowing can occur first in middle leaves before
older ones if observed at bolting to flowering stages. In severe cases, leaves die but
remain attached to the stem. Small white spots can develop on leaves. Plants are prone
to wilting during midday. Potassium deficiency symptoms in canola are rather
nondistinct and can be easily confused with other problems. Fortunately K deficiency in
canola is rare on the prairies.

Figure 32. Potassium Content (%) and Uptake by Canola over the Growing Season

Canola Response to Potassium Fertilizer

Although canola absorbs large amounts of K, responses to fertilizer K are rare on the
prairies. In fact, canola or rapeseed responses to fertilizer K are infrequent around the
world—a testament to the crop’s strong ability to absorb soil K.

Numerous fertilizer research studies on the prairies and in Ontario have established that
canola rarely responds to applied K, even under conditions where cereals normally
respond. Although the K soil test is adequate for cereals, the usefulness declines for
canola. Critical levels are often stated to be around 280 kg K/ha (250 lb K/ac) or 112
ppm in the top 15 cm (6"), but research indicates that canola will not consistently or
economically respond to fertilizer K unless the soil test is very low—78 to 112 kg K/ha
 229

(70 to 100 lb K/ac) or 35 to 50 ppm. Very sandy or peaty soils are the most likely soil
types to have very low K soil test values. Other factors that increase the likelihood of K
deficiency are:

 free lime in the rooting zone

 acid soil
 poor drainage
 cool temperatures
 soil compaction
 shallow root zone

Unlike cereal responses, potash applications have not been shown to help with canola
disease resistance, lodging or seed quality (oil content or meal protein content).

Potassium Supply from the Soil

Western Canadian soils generally contain ample plant available K due to an abundance
of K minerals (such as mica and feldspar) in the parent material (3 to 4% K). There is
often 17,000 to 56,000 kg K/ha (15,000 to 50,000 lb K/ac) in the top 15 cm of prairie
mineral (non-peat) soils. The weathering of these minerals slowly releases K+ held in
crystal structures—typically only about 1% of total soil K is available for plant uptake.
This available K is mostly (90%) exchangeable K+ adsorbed to clay surfaces and
organic matter, while the other 10% is found dissolved in the soil solution.
Approximately 10 to 20% of the total soil K is slowly available from smaller mica
particles and certain clays. Figure 33 outlines these K pools. Losses due to leaching or
erosion are ignored in this figure, as they are usually small.

Figure 33. Potassium Soil Cycle

Figure 33 shows that the various pools are in dynamic equilibrium. As K+ is removed
by plant uptake and through leaching on sandy soils, additional K is released from the
mineral soils to become available. Available K moves to plant roots by diffusion
through the soil only up to 6 mm (1/4"). Therefore, the equilibrium process that
repeatedly moves K from the slowly available to readily available pool is very
important for K nutrition. The rate of movement from the slowly available to readily
available pool varies among soils due to differences in minerals and clays. This
variation in K dynamics creates problems for soil testing. An extractant that measures
plant available K in soil solution and exchangeable K over a short time period does not
assess the replenishment power. Unfortunately, tests that measure the replenishment
power are time-consuming and cost-prohibitive.

Potassium Fertilizer Management for Canola

Potassium is relatively immobile in the soil since the K+ cations are readily adsorbed to
the negative surface charges on clay particles and organic matter. Potassium can also be
 230

fixed into the clay lattice structure of certain clay types. Potassium is more mobile in
sandy soil and thus can be leached in these soil textures. In most soils, K+ is much less
mobile than nitrate but somewhat more mobile than phosphate. This relative immobility
means that fertilizer placement will greatly affect uptake efficiency. Ensure application
methods minimize contact with soil and increase root contact. Banding and seed-placed
methods can achieve good uptake efficiency. Since canola responses to K fertilizer are
rare on the prairies, there has been limited K placement research in this crop.

Seed-placed K fertilizer is an efficient application method but the high salt index of
potash fertilizer limits the amount that can be safely applied near the seed. Canola has a
much lower tolerance to seed-placed potash than cereals, and stands will be reduced if
seed-placed K rates exceed 17 kg K20/ha (15 lb K20/ac) with drills that have low
seedbed utilization (such as double disc drills). Higher rates of potash fertilizer can be
safely seed placed as the seedbed utilization is increased. If other nutrients such as N or
P are also seed placed, this reduces the safe rate of seed-placed K. Good seedbed
moisture, higher clay and organic matter contents help reduce the severity of seedling
damage from seedplaced K fertilizer. However, most K deficient soils are sandy, and
are sensitive to seed-placed K.

Due to canola’s sensitivity to seed-placed K fertilizer, a band placement away from

the seed row is more advisable. Sideband placement is an efficient method and the
separation between fertilizer and seed reduces the risk of germination damage. Openers
with side-band capability are becoming available, especially for direct seeding
implements. Deep banding prior to seeding should also be an efficient and safe method
of K fertilization. Potash fertilizer can be banded together with other nutrients. Banding
efficiency should not differ greatly between fall and spring unless the soil is very sandy
and subject to leaching loss under conditions of high snowmelt or spring rainfall.

The broadcast-incorporation application method is less efficient, and probably requires

rates double that of banding to achieve a similar crop response. However, in situations
where banding equipment is not readily available and seed placement is too risky,
broadcast incorporation may be useful and not overly expensive due to the relatively
low cost of potash fertilizer. The higher fertilizer rates necessary for broadcast K may
also benefit subsequent crops with a higher K response than canola.
 231

Figure 34. Leaf Edge Scorch Due to K Deficiency

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

Figure 35. Scorched Leaf Due to Severe K Deficiency

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

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Figure 36. Severely K Deficient Pods (top) and Sufficient (bottom)

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

Figure 37. Sufficient Pod (left) and Severe K Deficient Pods

Photo courtesy Adrian Johnston

Sulphur (S)

Sulphur (S) is the fourth macronutrient, but ranks as the third most limiting nutrient on
the prairies. Sulphur deficiency in western Canada was first identified in 1927 on Gray
Wooded soils in Alberta. Canola is more sensitive than cereals to S deficiency and
frequently responds to fertilizer S addition. Therefore, pay equal attention to N, P and S.

Role of Sulphur in the Canola Plant

As shown in Table 3, canola contains large amounts of S. Sulphur is part of structural

and enzymatic components. Sulphur is a key component of two essential amino acids
(cysteine and methionine) and is needed for protein synthesis. Chlorophyll synthesis
also requires S. Both of these amino acids are also precursors for coenzymes and
secondary plant substances. Glutathione, an important antioxidant in plants and animals,
is synthesized from cysteine. Glutathione contents are higher in leaves than roots.
It’s found primarily in the chloroplasts where its anti-oxidant ability is needed to
 233

detoxify free radicals generated during photosynthesis. Glutathione also functions as

transient S storage, and a precursor of phytochelatins (compounds which detoxify heavy
metals in plants). Thioredoxins, another important group of S compounds related to
glutathione, help activate several enzymes in carbon metabolism. Sulphur also is part of
several enzymes and coenzymes such as ferrodoxin, biotin (vitamin H), coenzyme A,
urease, and thiamine (vitamin B1).

An important group of secondary plant S compounds in canola are glucosinolates.

Plants contain over 100 different glucosinolate compounds. These secondary
compounds, although not well understood, probably have a number of functions.
Glucosinolates are stored in cell vacuoles, and can be broken down by an enzyme
(myrosinase) to yield glucose, sulphate and volatile compounds such as isothiocyanate.
Glucosinolates contribute to defence or attractant systems for certain insects and
diseases. When plant cells are destroyed by insect feeding, glucosinolates are broken
down, releasing various deterrents/attractants.

Glucosinolate levels are highest in growing points, roots, and youngest leaves, all of
which are most vulnerable to insects and diseases. The role of glucosinolates as S
reserves to maintain plant S during periods of high demand (such as bolting, flowering,
podding and seed fill) is controversial. However, recent research in Europe showed that
glucosinolates comprised a small S pool in leaves, and under induced S deficiency,
sulphate (SO4-2) mobilization from storage in cell vacuoles was about 10 times greater
than contributions from glucosinolates.

Sulphur is also a constituent of sulpholipids, which are membrane components.

Characteristics of Sulphur Uptake by Canola

The main S form absorbed by canola roots is sulphate. In industrial areas, atmospheric S
compounds dissolved in rain can be absorbed by leaves. However, this amount is quite
small and is decreasing with better air pollution control. sulphate absorption is
accomplished with active transport systems across membranes. The uptake rate
increases as the sulphate level increases in the soil water. Low plant S contents also
increase the root uptake rate. Negative feedback signals for S uptake may be sulphate or
glucosinolate levels in vacuoles, or the levels of organic S compounds such as cysteine,
methionine or glutathione. Sulphate uptake faces competition from molybdenum and
selenium. Therefore, soils high in these minerals can experience antagonism with S
uptake.

The S level in canola plants is highest in the early seedling stage when young leaves
comprise most of the dry matter (Figure 38). As plants develop, the overall S level
declines but not as dramatically as with N. By maturity, canola straw contains
approximately 0.3 to 0.4% S while pod chaff contains slightly more S (0.5 to 0.6%).
Canola seed contains about 0.4 to 0.6 % S. At harvest, canola straw and pod chaff
contain roughly twice as much S per acre as that in the seed.
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Figure 38. Sulphur Content (%) and Uptake by B. napus over the Growing Season

There has been limited research on the complex S partitioning into the various
compounds of different plant parts over the growing season. Most of the plant S ends up
in protein and stored sulphate. As leaves senesce, protein-S is readily remobilized, while
stored sulphate remobilization is slow and more limited. Therefore, overall, S has
medium mobility. In canola quality varieties, glucosinolate biosynthesis has been
blocked in pod walls, and sulphate has been found to accumulate—in contrast,
glucosinolates accumulate in rapeseed pod walls. Glucosinolates and glutathione
account for a small fraction of plant S, usually around 10% in young vegetative tissue.
Glucosinolate contents will vary over 10 fold in the same tissue at different ages.
Glucosinolate contents also vary several-fold between different plant organs. Also,
growing conditions, genetics, and S supply all affect glucosinolate contents.

Sulphur Effects on Canola Growth and Deficiency Symptoms

Sulphur has several effects on canola growth. Since chlorophyll synthesis requires S,
deficiency will affect visible leaf colour and photosynthesis. Protein synthesis requires
S containing amino acids, and, therefore, S deficiency affects rapidly growing parts,
especially reproductive structures.

Mild S deficiency often does not result in noticeable symptoms, but still can reduce
yield. Medium deficiencies do not show symptoms until bolting, flowering and
podding. Under severe deficiency, symptoms show up about two weeks after
germination. Growth chamber research conducted at the University of B.C. shows that S
deficiency affects shoot growth more than roots (Figure 39).

Figure 39. Effect of S on Rapeseed Shoot and Root Growth

By the bolting stage, S deficiency begins to affect yield parameters such as branches per
plant, fertile flowers per plant, seeds per pod and individual seed weight. Under mild to
moderate S deficiency, thousand kernel weight is normally not significantly affected
 235

since plants compensate by reducing the seed number per pod. Nitrogen deficiency
affects pods per plant more than S deficiency, while the opposite is true for seeds per
pod.

Sulphur deficiency symptoms vary depending upon the severity and timing of the
deficiency relative to crop growth stage. In the vegetative stage, foliar symptoms show
up under severe S deficiency (Figures 45 - 49). Since S has a low mobility within the
plant, symptoms are observed more readily on the youngest leaves, which are greenish-
yellow compared to the normal bluish-green in B. napus. The yellowing (chlorosis)
starts from the leaf edges and the tissue around leaf veins remains green. Subsequently,
the leaf edges and bottoms may turn purple. Besides the leaf colour, S deficiency in
young plants causes smaller leaves as well as upward cupped leaves.

By the bolting stage, new leaves of S-deficient plants show chlorosis, purpling and
spoon-like leaf cupping. The purple colour is caused by enhanced pigment
(anthocyanin) synthesis due to sugar accumulation resulting from S limited amino acid
and protein synthesis. The degree of leaf cupping is highly dependent on the timing of
the S deficiency. There is significant cupping when S deficiency occurs before half of
the leaf weight is attained.

By flowering, S-deficiency symptoms can show up in the petals. If severe S deficiency

occurred in the vegetative stage, symptoms can be found both in foliage and flowers—
petals can be smaller and lighter yellow. However, if S deficiency occurs around
flowering, leaf symptoms may not be obvious, but flower petals may become paler.
Yellow and white petals may even exist side by side on a single flower.

The life span of S-deficient petals is shortened to one day from two or three, and pollen
production is greatly reduced. In addition, S-deficient petals are egg shaped compared to
more round petals on sufficient S plants. Flowering is often delayed and prolonged.
Reports suggest that S-deficient plants do not attract honey bees, perhaps due to lack of
pollen. By podding, S deficiency becomes more distinctive. Pod number and size, and
seed number per pod are reduced significantly. Pods may be pale green, often with
purpling and can be compressed or flattened.

Canola Yield Response to Sulphur Fertilizer

The strong canola yield response to S fertilizer on deficient soils has been well
established in western Canada. Under extreme S deficiency, canola response to S
fertilizer is dramatic. However, canola response to S fertilizer varies greatly, depending
on:

 soil sulphate levels (amount, spatial and temporal distribution)

 availability of other nutrients (especially N, P and possibly boron)
 soil moisture
 amount, type, and method of S fertilizer applied

Since canola absorbs S from soil as sulphate, the soil sulphate content affects the yield
response to applied S fertilizer. Researchers in the 1960-70s established a relationship
between soil sulphate level and canola yield. Water soluble soil sulphate was found to
be a good measure of available S for canola growth. Canola generally responded to S
 236

fertilizer when the sulphate content to 60 cm (2') was less than 22 to 34 kg/ha (20 to 30
lb/ac). However, soil testing to determine sulphate content and the likelihood of yield
response to applied S fertilizer has not been consistently successful.

For example, two field experiments in Manitoba in 1964 failed to show a rapeseed yield
response to sulphate fertilizer on deficient soil while two Manitoba experiments in 1969
did find a response. The inconsistent S fertilizer response on deficient sites may be due
to limiting amounts of moisture and other nutrients, or due to sulphate rich layers below
the sample zone but within rooting depth, or due to S mineralization from organic
matter. For example, many studies have found a significant interaction between N and
S. Good yield response to either nutrient requires adequate supply of the other. An
example of the N-S interaction is shown in Figure 40 from research conducted by the
AAFC Melfort, SK Research Centre in 1999. The need for balanced N and S nutrition is
obvious—without S, additions of N fertilizer lowered yield.

Field and controlled environment studies in southern Alberta found that rapeseed could
utilize sulphate from a depth of 54 to 72 cm (21 to 28"). Subsoil sulphate salt layers are
common in Brown, Dark Brown and Black soils on the prairies, and could affect the
yield response to S fertilizer on fields testing low for S in the surface soil.

In contrast, S responses have been reported on fields with adequate soil test S levels.
Recent research has measured high variability of sulphate contents across farm fields,
which creates difficulty in obtaining representative samples. For example, Figure 41
shows extreme sulphate variability on a 24 ha (60 ac) solonetzic field near Stettler, AB
in 1994. Composite samples were taken from each 0.5 ha (acre) and tested separately.
The average worked out to be 1,076 kg sulphate/ha (960 lb sulphate/ac) in the (60 cm
(2') depth, which is excessive from the soil test standpoint. However, the average value
is heavily skewed by the few samples with extremely high sulphate values (maximum
21,280 kg sulphate/ha (19,000 lb sulphate/ac). A better indicator of the most typical
value for the field would be the value class that occurs most frequently (the
“mode†). In this example, the mode was just 9 kg sulphate (20 lb sulphate), which
is deficient. Therefore, the majority of this field would likely respond to S fertilizer.
This example illustrates that single composite soil samples from fields with high S
variability can be difficult to interpret. A soil testing deficient for S is likely deficient
(unless underlain by a subsoil sulphate salt layer), while soils testing medium or high
for S may have deficient areas that are skewed by areas with excessive S.

Figure 40. Interaction of N and S on Canola Yield at Porcupine Plain, SK

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Figure 41. S Variability

Sulphur Fertilizer Effect on Canola Quantity

Sulphur fertilization can affect canola quality (oil, protein and glucosinolate content).
The balance between N and S has a strong influence on quality as well as yield.
Significant effects on quality are usually found when S fertilizer is applied to extremely
deficient soil, or when excessive S fertilizer is applied.

Sulphur fertilization can increase protein content of the meal (Table 6), which is
desirable, but can also increase glucosinolate contents (undesirable). Glucosinolates
increase with excessively high S fertilizer rates, but are usually well below the standard
canola quality limit (currently 30 micromole per gram). Oil content responses to S
fertilization are inconsistent—studies have reported decreases, increases or no effect.
No satisfactory explanation has been given for the conflicting responses of S fertilizer
on oil quality.

Sulphur Supply from the Soil

The organic portion of the sulphur cycle in soil is closely tied to N due to their
association in protein. Like N, the main S reserve in soil is in organic matter. Although
there is considerable variability in the relative proportions of carbon, N and S (C:N:S) in
soil organic matter, the ratios are quite similar for each soil group. In a study of
Saskatchewan farm soils, the C:N:S ratio ranged from 58:6:1 in Brown soils, to 63:7:1
in Dark Brown, 83:8:1 in Black, 100:8:1 in Gray Black, and 129:11:1 in Gray soils.

Many sulphur transformations in soil are analogous to N— each undergoes

mineralization from organic matter, immobilization, oxidation and reduction of
inorganic compounds. The soil S cycle is illustrated below in Figure 42.

Figure 42. Soil Sulphur Cycle

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A key component of the soil S cycle for plant growth is the mineralization path. Soil
organic matter and plant residues are decomposed by soil microbes, releasing sulphate.
Like N, the S mineralization rate is quite slow, and cannot match the uptake rate of
growing plants. Also like N, the sulphate amounts released from residues will depend
on the S content. When plant residues contain more than about 0.15% S (C:S ratio about
300:1), there will be a net release of sulphate through mineralization. Below 0.15% S,
decomposition is slower and there will be immobilization of soil sulphate by soil
microbes. The ability of soil to mineralize sulphate from organic matter has been found
to be independent of the total amount of C, N or S, and of the C:N or N:S ratios in soils.
However, research has found that the initial amounts of sulphate mineralized from soil
is closely correlated with the initial amounts of N mineralized in short-term incubation.

Another important aspect of the soil S cycle is the oxidation path. In soils, sulphides,
elemental sulphur and thiosulphate can be oxidized to sulphate by various soil microbes,
but the main actors are bacteria from the genus Thiobacillus. The oxidation of these
inorganic S compounds produces considerable sulphuric acid. Sulphur oxidizing
bacteria are most active under warm, moist, well aerated conditions. It is the oxidizing
ability of these bacteria that permits the agricultural use of elemental S for crop growth.

Although S reduction is shown in the soil S cycle diagram, it generally is not significant
in aerated agricultural soils. In flooded soils, sulphate can be reduced by soil microbes
to sulphides in a process analogous to denitrification. However, soil microbes will
utilize nitrate, iron and manganese compounds before reducing sulphate.

Table 6. Effect of N and S Fertilizer on Canola Oil, Meal Protein and

Glucosinolates (trials in NE SK 1980-83)

N Rate S Rate
Oil Content Meal Protein Glucosinolates
% % Micromole/g
kg/ha lb/ac kg/ha lb/ac

0 0 25 22 46.1 48.4 9.5

40 36 10 9 46.7 47.2 7.9

40 36 40 36 46.5 48.1 10.1

97 89 0 0 43.9 48.9 7.3

97 89 25 22 45.0 49.9 9.2

97 89 49 44 45.5 49.7 9.1

160 143 10 9 43.7 50.7 6.7

160 143 40 36 44.3 51.9 10.1

 239

In many western Canadian soils, there is a subsoil salt (gypsum) and/or lime (calcium
carbonate) layer. This subsoil layer contains considerable sulphate, often as
coprecipitates with lime. Although this subsoil sulphate solubility is reduced, it still can
contribute to plant needs if it exists within the rooting zone. However, the length of time
that canola grows in S-deficient topsoil before rooting to the subsoil S will affect the
yield response to fertilizer S. Also, the depth to subsoil S tends to vary greatly across
the field. Total S amounts (organic and sulphate) generally increase from upper to lower
slope positions.

In most prairie soils, sulphate is not held by organic matter and clay particles since they
are both negatively charged. Therefore, sulphate is vulnerable to leaching losses.

Sulphur Fertilizer Management for Canola

The optimal method and timing of S fertilizer depends on the fertilizer form—sulphate
versus elemental forms.

Sulphate S

Sulphate fertilizers are highly soluble and will move easily with water in the soil.
Ammonium sulphate (21-0-0-24) is a common sulphate-based fertilizer. Liquid
ammonium thiosulphate (12-0-0-26) is used less frequently, and requires a short time
period for oxidation to sulphate. Highest fertilizer use efficiency generally results when
sulphate fertilizer is placed near roots for easy access, and just before the period of plant
uptake. Under dry spring conditions, broadcast sulphate fertilizer can be stranded and
result in poor uptake. However, under such dry conditions, canola germination and
establishment will also be severely affected. Under average to good moisture
conditions, sulphate fertilizer can be broadcast-incorporated in the spring with good
results. On sandy soils, sulphate leaching can occur during wet periods. Therefore,
apply fertilizer just prior to crop needs.

Although sulphate fertilization just prior to or at seeding is best, post-seeding

applications can be effective. Research has found that sulphate fertilizer can be soil
applied up to the rosette stage with good response provided there is sufficient rain to
wash the fertilizer into the root zone before bolting. Foliar sulphate fertilizer solutions
can be applied up to the bolting stage with moderate effectiveness, and can serve as a
rescue treatment for deficient fields that were not adequately fertilized at or before
seeding. However, the best yield response to sulphate S fertilizer is at or before
seeding—as illustrated in Figure 43 from six site-years of recent research at
AAFC’s Melfort, SK Research Centre.
 240

Figure 43. Canola Yield Increase from Sulphate S Fertilizer Applied at different Growth

Stages

In the above research, seed row placement of 30 kg S/ha (27 lb S/ac) increased yield
less than side banding or preseed incorporation, probably due to seedling toxicity. This
agrees with other research, indicating that only limited amounts of sulphate S fertilizer
can be safely applied near the seed. The safe amount will vary with the degree of
seedbed utilization, moisture conditions, soil type and amounts of other fertilizer
nutrients. Until research has determined the safe amount of seed row S fertilizer under
various combinations of the above factors, limit seed-placed ammonium sulphate.
Include N amounts in sulphate fertilizer when calculating total N fertilizer amounts to
be safely seed placed.

Elemental Sulphur

Sulphur fertilizer containing elemental sulphur must be managed differently than

sulphate-based fertilizer to achieve good efficacy. Elemental sulphur has advantages of
a ready supply in western Canada, low production and transportation costs, and fewer
drill fill operations due to high analysis. However, elemental sulphur has a significant
disadvantage—availability is delayed until soil bacteria oxidize it into the sulphate
form. The conversion rate from elemental sulphur to sulphate depends on the particle
size, the degree of dispersion in the soil, and the growing conditions for the bacteria
(moisture, temperature). Common elemental sulphur fertilizers are formulated as
granules or pastilles (split pea shape) for ease of shipping and handling, each consisting
of thousands of individual particles. The surface area of these individual particles is the
access where the soil bacteria “feed,†converting the elemental sulphur to
sulphate. Small particles have the largest surface area and the fastest oxidation rate.

Under western Canadian conditions, research indicates that particles less than 150
microns in size will convert quickly if well mixed with soil. Some elemental sulphur
fertilizers have particles consistently smaller than 150 microns such as “SulFer
95.†Other products consist of a mixture of particles ranging from smaller to larger
than 150 microns such as “Tiger 90CR.†In addition, some products such as
“Tiger 90CR†contain bentonite clay that swells when wet and helps to break the
granule into the small particles. Granules that break down readily and completely will
allow quicker oxidation and sulphate availability.

Research in western Canada has found that elemental sulphur granules break down the
greatest when applied to the soil surface and exposed to rain/snow and frost. Subsequent
tillage will then further disperse the degraded granule. In contrast, band and seed row
placement, or immediate incorporation following broadcasting, will reduce the granule
dispersion and the oxidation rate. This is illustrated in Figure 44 which is data taken
 241

from a recent lab experiment by the Agronomy Unit of Alberta Agriculture, Food and
Rural Development.

The strong influence of elemental sulphur placement and timing on sulphate release
subsequently affects canola yield. This effect is evident in Table 7 which is based on
research by AAFC at Melfort, SK. The effect of sulphur fertilizer type, placement, and
application time on canola and wheat yield was studied. All S was applied at 20 kg S/ha
(18 lb S/ac) in the first year only to canola and wheat plots. To measure residual
response over three years, canola was seeded in the second year onto wheat plots grown
with S treatments in the first year. No S was applied in year two. Canola was seeded in
the third year onto wheat plots from year two, again without S fertilizer. Ammonium
sulphate and ammonium thiosulphate corrected S deficiencies in the application year
and provided residual response over the next two years. Broadcast elemental S
fertilizers did not relieve S deficiency in the year of application, but broadcast Tiger 90
did provide a response equivalent to ammonium sulphate two years later. Pre-seed
banded or seed-placed elemental S did not correct S deficiency, even two years later.
Continuing research shows that fall broadcast elemental S fertilizer left on the surface
until incorporation next spring will improve the oxidation and canola yield response
compared to spring broadcast. However, this practise should still be initiated two years
ahead of the canola crop to ensure consistent response.

Another factor that influences the oxidation rate is previous use of elemental sulphur in
the field. Exposure to elemental sulphur in the past has been shown to increase
oxidation rates of subsequent applications, probably due to stimulation of the S-
oxidizing bacterial population.

Figure 44. Effect of Elemental S Granule Exposure to Weathering and Sulphate Release

However, repeated applications of elemental S fertilizer can negatively impact

agricultural soil. Saskatchewan research on Gray Wooded soil found that repeated
elemental sulphur application decreased soil pH, organic C, and microbial biomass.
Negative effects on soil enzymes involved with nutrient transformations were also
found.

Although short term crop response to elemental sulphur fertilizer is usually less than
with sulphate sources, there may be residual benefits of elemental sulphur due to the
slow release. While a residual benefit has been found with forages, conflicting results
have been found with canola. Sulphate generated from elemental S after the period of
 242

annual crop uptake (May to August) may not benefit the soil S status in subsequent
years since it is susceptible to leaching during snowmelt. Conditions most likely to
exhibit residual benefit from elemental S fertilizer would be combinations of sandy, low
organic matter soil, sloping topography, and high rainfall episodes after fertilizer
application but before major uptake has occurred.

Effective use of elemental S fertilizer requires:

 careful consideration of the specific product’s particle size

 application method and timing
 severity of S deficiency
 soil leaching risk
 field history of elemental S use

Table 7. Effect of S Fertilizer Form and Placement on Canola Yield

Yield (bu/ac)
Treatment
1996 1997* 1998*

Check 21 16 11

Spring broadcast Tiger 90 18 12 25

Spring broadcast
23 6 11
elemental S (99%)

Spring broadcast
37 31 24
ammonium sulphate

Spring dribbled
34 31 26
ammonium thiosulphate

Spring pre-plant banded

16 7 12
Tiger 90

Spring pre-plant banded

36 31 28
ammonium sulphate

Seed-placed Tiger 90 21 10 18

Seed-placed ammonium
37 10 26
sulphate

*No S applied, a measure of residual benefit from 1996 application.

The most consistent response to elemental sulphur fertilizer will be achieved by surface
broadcasting the granules, allowing time for granule breakdown by rain/frost/snow, then
 243

mixing the particles with soil by tillage. Therefore, apply elemental S fertilizer at least
the fall before seeding canola. In some cases, elemental sulphur fertilizer application
needs to be two years before seeding canola. Adding some ammonium sulphate to the
seeding fertilizer blend may still be wise insurance. Elemental S fertilizer is not
advisable when S is only added to the canola rotation phase.

Several other S fertilizer forms are available, but not widely used. Elemental sulphur
and ammonium sulphate has been blended into a single granule and research indicates
the canola response is intermediate between sulphate and elemental S. Gypsum
[CaSO4–2(H2O)] is available from mines but its low analysis (about 17% S) limits it
transportation and use. Gypsum is also a by-product of phosphate fertilizer production,
but contains impurities that prevent it from being land applied. Gypsum is only slightly
soluble and this limits its usefulness as an immediate sulphate source, being
intermediate between ammonium sulphate and elemental S. Gypsum has the added
advantage that the calcium helps promote good soil structure, which could be a benefit
on soils prone to crusting. Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) is another fertilizer S source
more widely used in the tobacco, fruit and vegetable industry. Potassium sulphate
should perform similarly to ammonium sulphate.

Nitrogen:Sulphur Ratio

A proper N:S balance is important for canola production. When N is in excess (high
N:S ratio), there is insufficient S to combine with the N to make protein, and thus
nonprotein N accumulates. A useful guideline is to add N and S fertilizer in a 7:1 ratio,
which is approximately the ratio needed by the canola plant.

There has been research into using the N:S ratio during tissue testing to determine S
status. However, the N:S ratio of canola tissue has not proved reliable for predicting S
status. The N:S ratio only indicates the relative proportions of N and S in the plant, and
does not indicate their actual magnitudes. Therefore, if canola tissue tests show an
optimal ratio of 7:1, there are three possibilities: both N and S levels are optimal,
excessive, or deficient. At the rosette stage, tissue testing canola for S status should
include several criteria to improve the reliability:

 % S greater than 0.25%

 N:S ratio of 10 or less
 a sulphate:total S ratio (as indicated by hydriodic acid reducible S:total
S) greater than 0.38
 244

Figure 45. Sulphur Sufficient Seedlings (left) and Deficient Seedlings

Figure 46. Leaf Cupping due to S Deficiency

Figure 47. Leaf Purpling due to S Deficiency

 245

Figure 48. S-sufficient Flowering Plant (left) and Deficient Plant

Figure 49. Stem Leaf Cupping due to S Deficiency

 246

Figure 50. Pod Purpling due to S Deficiency

Calcium (CA)

Calcium is a macronutrient absorbed in relatively large amounts by canola (see Table

3). However, deficiencies in western Canada are rare due to ample soil reserves.
Calcium is often referred to as a “secondary†nutrient, probably due to uncommon
deficiencies and non-specific roles in the plant.

Role of Calcium in the Canola Plant

Calcium performs several roles in the plant. In contrast to other macronutrients, a high
proportion of Ca is found as a structural component in cell walls. Calcium’s
structural function is to provide stable but reversible molecular linkages. Pectins are
calcium compounds in cell walls that strengthen the wall and contribute to tissue
resistance against fungal and bacterial infections. Calcium also plays a fundamental role
in membrane stability and maintains cell integrity. This membrane protection is
important under low temperature or saturated soil stress. Calcium bound at membrane
surfaces can be exchanged with other cations (such as K+, Na+ and H+). Calcium
exchange with sodium (Na) at membrane surfaces is a main factor in salinity stress.
Also, Ca replacement with Al+3 (or blocking of Ca channels) is a factor in aluminium
toxicity in acid soil.

Cell extension requires Ca—rapidly growing parts are, therefore, most affected by Ca
deficiency. Root extension, shoot elongation and pollen growth are dependent on
adequate Ca. The secretion of mucilage by root caps (that help root tips penetrate
through soil) also needs Ca. Downward root growth (gravitropic response) relies on
 247

adequate Ca in the root caps. Callose formation is another example of a process

involving Ca. In response to injury, cells will produce callose instead of cellulose,
which helps wounds to heal and reduce infection.

Most plant Ca is present in leaf vacuoles where it likely contributes to the cation-anion
balance. Calcium also stimulates a range of enzymes, but generally is not a constituent
of enzymes. Calcium plays a key role in plants as a secondary messenger in turgor
regulated processes such as stomata opening and closing.

Characteristics of Calcium Uptake by Canola

Canola roots mainly absorb calcium as the Ca+2 cation dissolved in the soil water. Plant
available Ca also exists as exchangeable Ca adsorbed on soil organic matter, silt and
clay surfaces. The amount of dissolved Ca+2 depends on the amount of Ca containing
minerals, the soil cation exchange capacity and soil pH. High pH soils (>7.5) usually
contain the highest Ca due to significant amounts of precipitated Ca salts (lime and
gypsum). Since Ca is absorbed out of the soil water, the dominant processes controlling
the supply to roots are mass flow, diffusion and root interception. Therefore, Ca
availability is dependent on adequate soil moisture.

The Ca content varies between different plant parts and ages, ranging from 0.2% to 5%.
The highest Ca contents are found in old leaves. At maturity, only about 10% of plant
Ca is found in the canola seed.

Canola Response to Calcium Fertilizer

Ca deficient soils are rare in western Canada. For example, of 352 plant samples
submitted to Enviro-Test Laboratories in 1997, only three were below critical levels
used in the U.S. and Australia. These criteria may not be applicable to western Canada.
Calcium deficiency is possible in acid, saline or solonetzic soils due to low Ca +2 levels
relative to other competing cations (H+, Al+3, Na+ and Mg+2). In addition, there are
conditions where Ca containing compounds increase crop growth indirectly, either
through amelioration of soil acidity or improvement of soil structure. These aspects are
discussed in the soil acidity and solonetzic soil sections.

In spite of the lack of scientific evidence for Ca deficiency in western Canada, some
companies promote Ca fertilizer, claiming that exchangeable Ca reserves are not readily
available. Recent research in Alberta (Westco, 1999) and western Canada (Canola
Council of Canada, 2000) using seed treatment with Ca5S did not find a response in
canola at nine locations. Therefore, Ca fertilization is not necessary for canola
production in western Canada.

Magnesium (MG)

Of all the macronutrients, magnesium is absorbed in the least amount (see Table 3).
Magnesium deficiencies are rare on the prairies, similar to Ca. However, Mg has more
specific roles in plant function than Ca.
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Role of Magnesium in the Canola Plant

Magnesium is the central atom of the chlorophyll molecule, and depending on the Mg
sufficiency level, up to 25% of the total plant Mg is bound to chlorophyll. Magnesium is
also needed for protein synthesis, and to activate many enzymes such as glutathione
synthase, carboxylases, phosphatases, and ATPases. Most of the plant Mg is contained
in cell vacuoles where it serves as a reserve for the metabolic pool and contributes to
cation-anion balance.

Characteristics of Magnesium Uptake by Canola

Magnesium uptake by canola is very similar to that of calcium. The plant available form
is the Mg+2 cation that exists in the soil water and as exchangeable Mg adsorbed on soil
organic matter, silt and clay surfaces. The amount of dissolved and exchangeable Mg
will depend on the extent of Mg containing minerals, soil pH and cation exchange
capacity. Soils slightly acidic to neutral in pH tend to have the highest available Mg
levels. This is due to Mg being a weak competitor for exchange sites on soil colloids
and root binding sites. At higher pH and in soils with free lime, Ca+2 will dominate the
exchange sites, possibly inducing Mg deficiency. In contrast, at low pH, H+, Al+3, and
manganese (Mn+2) under flooded conditions, will dominate the exchange sites, inducing
Mg (and Ca) deficiency. High K+ or NH4+ levels in the root zone due to fertilization
may also induce Mg deficiency, although it is often short term. High Mg levels relative
to Ca can induce a Ca deficiency. This has been reported in barley grown on solonetzic
soil in Alberta with high Mg/Ca ratios.

Magnesium level is highest during early vegetative growth (about 0.5%), and declines
with maturity. Stems and roots contain the least Mg. At harvest, straw Mg level is less
than 0.2% while canola seed contains about 0.3% Mg. Roughly 1/3 to 1/2 of the above
ground Mg is contained in the seed [about 7 or 8 kg/ha (6 or 7 lb/ac)].

Canola Response to Magnesium Fertilizer

Little information exists on Mg requirements of canola. There are no known cases of

canola response to Mg fertilizer in Canada or Europe. Therefore, no reliable soil or
canola tissue test criteria exist. However, Mg deficiency appears unlikely in slightly
acidic to neutral soils that do not have excessive amounts of root zone Ca, K or NH4+.

Micronutrients

Micronutrients are those nutrients required in extremely small quantities (less than 100
ppm in plant dry weight). Unfortunately, the basic functions of micronutrients are less
understood than macronutrients. Also, there is very limited knowledge about the forms
and mechanisms of micronutrient transport in the xylem and phloem. Micronutrient
deficiencies in canola are much less common than macronutrient deficiencies. However,
canola yields can be severely depressed when micronutrient deficiency occurs. This
section will review the various micronutrients and canola responses.
 249

Boron (B)

Boron is a micronutrient that occasionally limits canola yield in certain soils of western
and eastern Canada. Unfortunately, current soil test methods do not consistently predict
economic responses to B fertilizer in canola.

Role of Boron in the Canola Plant

Boron’s role in plant nutrition is the least understood of all the nutrients. Boron is
not an enzyme constituent nor does it seem to directly affect enzyme activities. Most of
our understanding about B arises from symptoms observed during deficiency. Possible
roles for B include:

 sugar transport and carbohydrate metabolism

 cell wall synthesis and structure
 RNA metabolism
 respiration
 hormone metabolism
 stomatal regulation
 membrane function

Cell walls are dramatically affected by B deficiency. This shows up as cracked, hollow
or corky stems. The cell wall diameter and proportion of plant dry weight increases
under B deficiency. Most plant B is complexed with organic compounds in the cell
walls, apparently serving a nonspecific structural role.

One of the first plant responses to induced B deficiency is decreased root elongation,
however, there is a lack of understanding how this occurs. Boron deficiency also
restricts pollen tube growth. This is why B demand is higher during the reproductive
stage than vegetative stage. Boron also affects fertilization and seed set by increasing
the pollen production by anthers and the viability.

Boron Supply from Soil and Uptake by Canola

Boron uptake depends on adequate soil moisture, pH and the B level. The plant
available forms dissolved in the soil water move to the root via mass flow and diffusion.
Under drought conditions, B deficiency can occur due to reduced mass flow to roots as
well as polymerization of boric acid. In contrast, under high rainfall conditions B can be
leached in sandy textured soils.

Soil pH is a major factor influencing B availability. Generally, B becomes less available

as pH increases above 6.3 to 6.5. At higher pH, the borate anion is likely adsorbed to
clay and organic particles.

As with most nutrients, B uptake rates are increased as the level in the soil water
increases. However, B uptake is unique since it is linearly related to level–there does
not seem to be selective B uptake pumps that become saturated at higher levels.
Therefore, B uptake appears to be a passive diffusion process.
 250

Boron uptake is affected by other nutrients. High levels of calcium and potassium have
been shown to increase B deficiency symptoms. These antagonisms are not well
understood.

Recent research in China and Australia reported genetic variation in canola for tolerance
to B deficiency. Genetic differences in B efficiency were related to differences in root
uptake or plant utilization. Research from Pakistan reported that Brassica napus was
more sensitive to B deficiency than mustard (Brassica juncea), but needed relatively less
B fertilizer for optimum grain yield. This area merits further research with western
Canadian cultivars and conditions.

Boron deficiency symptoms in canola first appear in new growth due to the intermediate
mobility. Symptoms (Figures 52-54) range from:

 deformed, curled and rough skinned leaves with torn margins

 yellow to brown spots in the interveinal areas of leaves
 red to brown-purple coloured new leaves
 early leaf drop
 shortened stems
 cracked stems
 prolonged flowering
 flower sterility
 poor pod set and yield

Canola Response to Boron Fertilization

Boron deficiency is extremely rare in western Canada. The earliest report was at the
AAFC Beaverlodge, AB Research Centre. Pot studies with B. rapa rapeseed on Alberta
Gray Wooded soils showed that B deficiency symptoms and poor seed set was
alleviated with added B. Subsequent research on Gray Wooded soils in Saskatchewan
also found a B response but this was complicated by site and cultivar interactions. The
Canola Council of Canada recorded a significant yield response to B at its Crop
Production Centre site near St. Claude, MB in 2000. The only other Canadian report of
a B response in canola is from northern Quebec.

In contrast, there are relatively more reports of neutral or negative responses to B in

canola. In the Saskatchewan study mentioned above, 11 of the 13 sites did not have a B
response. At one site, B fertilization actually lowered yield and oil content. Recent
research by AAFC at Melfort, SK did not find a B response on four soils testing low in
B, and one soil was similar to the responsive site in a previous study. Two years of
foliar and soil applied B trials on a sandy Black 937 938 soil in central Alberta testing
very low in B did not find any yield response with either B. rapa or B. napus canola.
The Battle River Research Group did not find a B response after 2 years of trials in
central Alberta. Research in Washington and Idaho on three soils testing low in B did
not find a canola yield response to B fertilizer. Irrigated canola research conducted by
Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development near Lethbridge, AB did not find a
yield response to micronutrients, including boron, over six site-years.
 251

Figure 52. Boron-deficient Canola Leaves

Figure 53. Boron-deficient Flowering Canola (left) Compared to Boron-sufficient

Flowering Canola
 252

Figure 54. Boron-deficient Podding (left) Compared to Boron-sufficient Podding

Canola

Boron fertilization of canola has not consistently improved seed yield, kernel weight,
protein or oil content. Boron deficiency appears rare in western Canada, and where it
does occur, it probably is in small field patches. The substantial cost of B, unlikely
response and the narrow window between deficiency and toxicity make B fertilization
programs a questionable practice in western Canada.

Unfortunately, there is not a consistent indicator to predict profitable canola yield

response to B. The soil test criteria for B deficiency is less than 0.5 ppm (hot water
extraction), but most of the above research trials did not measure a yield response with
canola on soils testing much lower than 0.5 ppm. Therefore, hot water soil extraction
does not appear to reliably predict plant available B, perhaps due to relatively high soil
pH found in many western Canadian soils. Recent research indicates that extraction
with hydrogen chloride (HCl) may improve the prediction success of soil tests, but
further research is needed to confirm this and to develop calibration curves.

Plant analysis at early flowering may help to identify B deficiency. However, the
critical deficiency level of B in the last mature leaves at early flowering has ranged from
15 to 38 ppm in the various studies. Some of the variability in results likely arises from
the dramatic difference in leaf B content due to age and the leaf part. Further refinement
of plant analysis is needed, perhaps by focussing on specific leaf part and age—such as
the last unfolded leaf at flower initiation. For example, recent research found that the
youngest open leaf was the most reliable plant part for B deficiency diagnosis.

Boron status of mature leaves was not indicative of current plant B status at the
sampling time. Critical B level of the youngest open leaf was 10 to 14 ppm up to stem
elongation. The youngest open leaf refers to the youngest unrolled leaf with a short, just
visible petiole or midrib vein at its base and is next to the small emerging folded leaves
at the growing point.
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Whole plant analysis at flowering is less likely to reliably predict B status since high
levels in early leaves could skew whole plant measurements and hide deficiencies in
new growth and flowering structures.

Even after observing B deficiency symptoms and conducting soil and plant tissue
analyses, prediction of a profitable yield response is difficult. Therefore, in situations of
suspected deficiency, apply B fertilizer to a small affected area of the field in a carefully
marked test strip. Visual observations and yields from the treated and untreated areas
should help determine if a measurable response occurred. If a positive response is
measured, B fertilizer could be applied in future canola crops on these areas.

Boron fertilizer can be effective either soil placed or foliar applied. Fertilizer B can be
either broadcast-incorporated or banded. Ensure that B fertilizers do not come into
contact with the seed at planting time. Make certain soil application rates do not exceed
1.7 kg/ha (1.5 lb /ac) on soils with a pH less than 6.5 to avoid boron toxicity problems.
Foliar B fertilization appears to be effective up to the early flowering stage. Ensure
foliar applications do not exceed 0.3 kg/ha (0.3 lb/ac) to avoid toxicity problems. For all
applications, extreme care must be taken to apply the correct amount uniformly to avoid
toxicity problems.

Copper (CU)

Knowledge about copper fertility of western Canadian soils has increased over the past
two decades. Previously, Cu deficiency was thought to be limited to organic soils. The
recent research has identified that Black, transitional Gray- Black and Dark Brown soils
may be Cu deficient for cereal production. Although copper deficiency and fertilizer
response has been documented with cereals under field conditions, canola has not been
shown to display deficiency symptoms or respond to Cu fertilizer.

Role of Copper in the Canola Plant

Copper is a transition element that forms stable complexes in the plant and soil, and is
capable of electron transfer (energy processes). Copper’s role in plant functions is
mainly as a reactive constituent of enzymes that catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions.
Some examples of Cu containing enzymes include:

 plastocyanin (needed for energy capture through photosynthesis)

 superoxide dismutase (needed for detoxification of oxygen radicals)
 many different types of oxidases (enzymes that degrade or change
compounds together with oxygen)

One of the phenol oxidases is involved with lignin synthesis.

Due to copper’s role in photosynthesis, deficiency leads to low carbohydrates

levels, at least during the vegetative stage. The low carbohydrate content in Cu deficient
plants contributes to impaired pollen formation and fertilization. The reduced
lignification in Cu deficient plants also affects pollen fertility since lignification of
anthers is needed to release pollen.
 254

Copper Supply from the Soil and Uptake by Canola

Copper is a metallic nutrient that originates from minerals in the soil. The total Cu
content in western Canada soils usually falls in the range of 5 to 50 ppm.
Approximately 1/2 to 1/4 of the total Cu exists within minerals and is unavailable to
plants. Copper associated with oxides and organic matter has been found to be an
important source of plant available Cu, probably by replenishment of dissolved and
exchangeable Cu. The oxide and organic fractions increase with the clay content, which
explains why Cu deficiency is more likely on sandier textures. Exchangeable Cu ranges
from 0.1 to 10% of total soil Cu. Only very small amounts of Cu exist as soluble Cu+2
in the soil water. Research on the prairies has found that DTPA extractable Cu is highly
variable across cultivated and native fields. This means that larger numbers of soil
samples are needed to obtain a precise estimate of the true soil average.

Very little information exists on the mechanisms of Cu uptake by plant roots. The
driving force for Cu uptake is the electrical chemical gradient across the root cell
membranes. Since free Cu levels inside the cell are kept low to avoid harmful reactions,
and the membranes have a large negative potential, this creates a large force for Cu
uptake. Therefore, there is no need for active Cu uptake systems. It has been suggested
that Ca channels likely also allow passage of other ions such as Cu+2.

Copper remobilization is much higher in old leaves and is related to N remobilization.

Despite the intermediate mobility of Cu, deficiency symptoms in sensitive crops during
the vegetative stage first appear in new growth. However, canola does not display
strong Cu deficiency symptoms. Pot experiments with extreme Cu deficiency have
reported canola symptoms of:

 interveinal chlorosis shortly after emergence

 larger than normal leaves
 wilting leaves
 delayed flowering with a shortened flowering stem

Evidence suggests that canola growth may be affected by imbalances between Cu,
molybdenum (Mo) and manganese (Mn) levels. Manganese:copper ratios (DTPA
extractable) greater than 15 may result in a Cu deficiency. Molybdenum also may
antagonize Cu. However, the Mo antagonism is in turn affected by S levels. Sulphur
additions were found to lower Mo contents in canola plants, reducing Mo antagonism
with Cu, and Cu deficiency was alleviated without adding Cu fertilizer.

Canola Response to Copper Fertilization

Although numerous field experiments have shown yield responses in cereals to Cu on

deficient soils in western Canada, no positive reports in canola have been published.
Two growth chamber experiments using extremely deficient organic soil did find a
response to Cu fertilizer. Therefore, organic soils are likely the only soils in western
Canada that may show a Cu response in canola. A compilation of research data from
Saskatchewan and Alberta on mineral soil suggests that 0.30 ppm
diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (DTPA) extractable Cu may be the critical level for
canola. Since the critical Cu level is much lower for canola than cereals, Cu fertilization
programs should focus on application to the cereal rotation phases.
 255

Iron (FE)

Iron is one of the most abundant metallic elements in the earth’s crust. Western
Canadian soils have developed from parent materials rich in Fe. Therefore, there have
been no reports of Fe deficiency in field crops or responses to Fe fertilizer on the
prairies. Also, there has been no work to calibrate soil test values for Fe on the prairies.

Role of Iron in the Canola Plant

Iron is a component of ferrodoxin which acts as an electron transmitter in nitrate and

sulphate reduction, nitrogen fixation, and energy production. Iron is needed for
chlorophyll synthesis, and low chlorophyll contents of young leaves (interveinal
“chlorosis†or yellowing) is the most obvious visible symptom of Fe deficiency.
In young growing leaves, about 80% of the Fe is located in the chloroplasts. Iron is also
thought to be involved with protein synthesis and root tip growth.

Manganese (MN)

Manganese is a metallic micronutrient that is occasionally deficient in western Canadian

organic, high pH soils. Although oats can be affected by Mn deficiency in cold organic
soils (gray speck of oats disease), there have been no documented problems with canola.

Weathering of manganese containing soil minerals is the source of plant available Mn.
The main Mn form that exists in soil solution or adsorbed to soil colloids is Mn+2,
which is also the form absorbed by roots. Manganese availability decreases when pH
increases above 6.2 in many soils. Low temperature and high organic matter can also
decrease Mn availability. Rhizosphere microbes play a role in Mn availability by either
oxidation or reduction. These microbes can either increase or decrease Mn availability.
The rhizosphere acidification by canola roots likely increases Mn availability and makes
this crop relatively tolerant of low soil Mn.

Plant Mn status is affected by Cu levels. High Mn:Cu ratios above 15 may lead to Cu
deficiency while ratios below 1 may lead to Mn deficiency. Potash (KCl) has been
shown to enhance Mn uptake by several crops. In some crops, seed Mn content has been
shown to be important for initial Mn nutrition and plant growth, as well as disease
resistance.

Molybdenum (MO)

Molybdenum is a transition element needed in extremely low amounts—only nickel

has a lower requirement. All the Brassica species appear to be sensitive to low Mo
supply and can exhibit peculiar symptoms (for example “whiptail†of
cauliflower).

Role of Molybdenum in the Canola Plant

Only a few enzymes are known to contain Mo as a cofactor:

 256

 the enzyme that helps to change nitrate to organic N in the plant

(nitrate reductase)
 the major enzyme involved in nitrogen fixation in legumes (nitrogenase)
 an oxidase/dehydrogenase enzyme involved in changing the products
of N fixation
 probably an enzyme involved in sulphate metabolism (sulphite
reductase)

Molybdenum functions are, therefore, closely related to N metabolism and N fixation.

Some interaction occurs between Mo uptake and levels of P and S. Plant Mo uptake is
usually enhanced by soluble P and decreased by sulphate. MoO4-2 and SO4-2 compete
strongly for root uptake. Once absorbed by roots, Mo is readily mobile in both the
xylem and phloem transport systems, probably as MoO4-2.

Deficiencies in canola have not been documented in western Canada. If a Mo deficiency

were to occur, there would be several options: seed treatment with Mo, soil or foliar
fertilizer, and liming to raise soil pH. Molybdenum is unique among the micronutrients
since there is a wide range between deficiency and toxicity.

Zinc (ZN)

Zinc is a metallic micronutrient that is commonly deficient in many countries, including

Australia, China and India. In western Canada, sporadic Zn deficiencies have been
identified in fields of alfalfa, flax and beans, but not canola.

Role of Zinc in the Canola Plant

Zinc exists only in the Zn+2 form in plants, and is not involved with redox reactions.
Zinc has an ability to form complexes with N, O and particularly S and performs
catalytic and structural roles in enzymes. Many enzymes contain Zn as a structural,
catalytic or cofactor component. Protein synthesis, hormone (auxin) and carbohydrate
metabolism also require Zn. Membrane stability also relies on Zn, and the most obvious
Zn deficiency symptoms (such as leaf chlorosis and inhibited stem elongation) probably
arise from membrane breakdown. Pot experiments with canola have reported Zn
deficiency symptoms ranging from purpling on new emerging leaves, brown spots on
cotyledons, interveinal chlorosis and cupping of leaves.

Uptake of Zinc by Canola

Weathering of soil minerals is the primary source of plant available Zn +2. Weathering
removes Zn faster than other metals except for Cu. Zn deficiency commonly occurs in
acidic, highly weathered soils (typically tropical). Zinc deficiency may also occur in
high pH, calcareous soils due to Zn adsorption to lime particles. Plant available Zn
exists as exchangeable Zn+2, dissolved Zn+2 in soil water, adsorbed Zn to Mn oxide and
organically bound Zn. Soil test labs often use a critical level of 0.5 ppm DTPA
extractable Zn, but research in western Canada has found this level too high for
predicting cereal response and that DTPA is an unsuitable extractant. No further work
has been conducted to find a more suitable extractant and calibration for cereals and
oilseeds on the prairies.
 257

The mechanism for Zn uptake by roots is not well understood and may involve both
active and passive processes. Once absorbed by the roots, Zn is likely complexed with
small organic molecules similar to other metallic micronutrients.

Zinc availability increases as soil pH decreases (becomes more acidic). Copper and
other cations compete for root Zn uptake. High P levels can induce Zn deficiency by
inhibiting Zn translocation within the plant rather than affecting root uptake.

Other Micronutrients

There are other micronutrients and beneficial elements than those discussed above.
However, deficiencies of the remaining nutrients are limited to certain plant species
other than canola or deficiencies are extremely rare anywhere in the world.

Chlorine (Cl) is found in abundance in nature as chloride salts. Choride (Cl-) is highly
mobile in soil and plants and is readily absorbed by roots. Chlorine is involved in
photosynthesis, charge balance, enzyme activation, stomatal regulation and disease
resistance. Cereal responses to Cl fertilizer has occurred on the prairies, apparently due
to disease suppression or improved water relations rather than Cl nutritional needs.
Canola responses to Cl have not been reported.

Nickel (Ni) has recently been established as an essential nutrient. In higher plants,
urease is the only known Ni containing enzyme. Other Ni roles include Fe absorption,
seed viability, N fixation and reproductive growth. The plant available form is Ni+2.
Root uptake likely follows similar patterns as other micronutrient metals. Nickel
appears to be readily mobile in both xylem and phloem. Ni deficiency in field grown
crops has not been reported.

Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the earth’s crust and is a
beneficial nutrient for a few wetland plant species such as rice. In non-wetland species,
Si can counteract Zn deficiency induced by high P. Since Si is so abundant in nature,
proving its essentiality is very difficult. Silicon may affect plant stability by influencing
lignin biosynthesis as well as through deposition in cell walls. Increased leaf rigidity has
been reported in cereal and cucumber crops. Silicon may also contribute to disease and
insect resistance. Silicon may decrease toxicity from high levels of Mn, Fe and Al.

Sodium (Na) is an essential nutrient for some plant species that use the C4
photosynthetic pathway. Canola uses the C3 pathway and, therefore, Na is not a
beneficial nutrient for this crop.

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 266

Chapter 10 - Integrated Pest

Management
1. Canola Integrated Pest Management
o An Integrated Control Program
o What are 800 of Your Neighbours Doing to Manage Weeds,
Diseases, and Insects in Canola
o Growers are Using IPM Already
o Proven Tips and Evidence for 10 Solid Techniques
o Weed Control in the Seasons Before Seeding Canola
o Disease Control in the Seasons Before Seeding Canola
o Insect Control in the Years Before Seeding Canola
o Following Through on IPM: The Canola Year
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Impact of Rotation on Canola Diseases
o Figure 2. Flea Beetle Trap Counts
o Figure 3. Effect of Fertilizer Banding on Wild Millet Levels
o Figure 4. Effect of Seeding Rate on Wild Oat Levels
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Examples of IPM Techniques and their Value
o Table 2. Rotation and Seeding Techniques
o Table 3. Soil Testing and Tillage Practices
o Table 4. Sanitation
o Table 5. Careful Use of Crop Protection Chemicals
o Table 6. Scouting, Economic Thresholds, Record Keeping
o Table 7. IPM Self Scorecard
o Table 8. Percentage of Fields Where Farmer Could Skip a Wild Oat
Spray
o Table 9. Canada Thistle Survey (Averages)
o Table 10. Effect of Rotation on Canola Diseases
o Table 11. Comparison of Bin-Run Seed Performance
o Table 12. Effect of Fertilizer Placement on Yield
o Table 13. Reasons to do In-Season Scouting

Chapter 10 - Integrated Pest

Management
Canola Integrated Pest Management

Weeds, insects and diseases can limit the production potential of canola. To minimize
their impact on yields, use an integrated control program that includes a combination of
prevention and cultural, physical and chemical controls.
 267

An Integrated Control Program

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) uses all the tools that are available for controlling
pests. The goal of using IPM is to achieve effective management of pests by using all
the tools that are available in the safest manner possible and in a way that enhances the
economic viability of the farm. This includes chemical, cultural, mechanical and
biological tools. It means not exclusively relying on one technique (for example, using
herbicides exclusively for weed control or tillage exclusively for disease control).

IPM is not a new concept. In general, canola growers are using many IPM tools. The
challenge of IPM is to pull together better "packages" to improve integration of the IPM
tools. IPM is much more than just field scouting to assess pest populations to make a
decision to spray or not to spray and is rarely useful when practiced in isolation or in the
short term. Growers will be more successful with IPM if steps are taken each year to
ensure crop health and to "set up" for individual IPM techniques. There are four steps
involved in implementing an IPM program.

 prevention-Practices that reduce the severity of pest infestation or

prevent pest build-up
 monitoring and Forecasting-Determining what pests are present and
what action is required to manage pests
 intervention-Actions to reduce the economic crop damage from pests
 record Keeping-Maintaining a field record system for effective planning

Underpinning all four of these steps is the grower's ability to accurately identify pests.
By knowing the pest and its life cycle, growers can plan control programs to exploit
weaknesses in pest lifecycles and use the most effective management strategies.

In canola, IPM means the use of clean healthy vigorous seed, crop rotations, pest
monitoring and resistant varieties. It also means using crop protection chemicals
judiciously. The goal of IPM is to minimize the impact of pests on the crop, while
maximizing the return from using different pest management tools. IPM allows this to
be accomplished in a way that takes care of the farm environment.

Table 1. Examples of IPM Techniques and their Value

Rotation and Seeding Techniques

IPM Techniques Value

Seed canola no more Prevents build-up of seed and seedling

frequently than one year in pathogens, sclerotinia, blackleg, root rot,
three to four on the same Alternaria, cleavers, and root maggot. Will help to
field promote the growth of a healthy vigorous crop

Review pest problems on a

Growers can pre-plan and pick the best field for
field before seeding to
their canola
canola
 268

Put canola on fields where Avoids disease build-up or volunteer problems

there was a "beneficial crop" carried over from the previous year. Beneficial
the previous year crops include forages and cereals

Pedigreed seed is cleaned to high standards with

weed seeds and disease presence identified on
Use treated, pedigreed seed the tag. Treated seed controls soil borne diseases
and some insects. Ensures the emergence of a
healthy competitive crop

Varieties are currently available that are

Use resistant varieties
herbicide tolerant and blackleg resistant

Checking adjacent fields for Checking and controlling pests on adjacent fields
pest hosts (for example, adds to the effectiveness of rotation because it
sclerotinia or flea beetles on cleans up pest hosts. Some pests can readily
mustard plants) move from one field to another

Early seeding, checking Allows for early growth of the crop to maximize
against soil temperature crop competition

Soil Testing and Tillage Practices

IPM Techniques Value

Soil testing allows the grower to deliver fertilizer in

just the right amount for maximum payback. This
Use soil testing ensures good crop economics and minimizes the
risk of groundwater contamination. Fertilizer
imbalances can increase the risk of pest attack

Helps the grower to minimize soil disturbance,

Practise direct seeding conserves soil moisture and reduces germination
of some annual weeds

Light tillage can kill off a first flush of weeds prior to

Use light tillage for weed crop emergence. This is most effective when the
control prior to seeding soil is dry, but some risk is involved since tillage
may dry out the seedbed

Lighter duty tillage equipment can help control

Use light tillage but
some pests (such as shallow germinating weeds)
preferably minimum-till or
and leaves soil residues in place minimizing soil
zero till
erosion
 269

Sanitation

IPM Techniques Value

Prevents movement of disease organisms or

Clean tillage equipment
weed seeds from one field to a previously
when entering new fields
uninfected field

Clean seeder after seeding Lessens risk of serious volunteer crop problems
a crop or variety and minimizes weed seed dispersal

Clean out herbicide tank Lessens risk of herbicide damage to crops which
after spraying operations are sensitive to in-tank residues

Lessens risk of transporting weed seeds, herbicide-

Clean harvesting equipment resistant weeds and dispersing volunteer crop
seed from field to field

Minimizes spraying in coming years if weeds are

Clean up field edges
kept out of the field

Use a chaff collector in

Minimizes weed seed spread through the field
harvesting operations

Careful Use of Crop Protection Chemicals

IPM Techniques Value

Estimate how much of a

Non-chemical techniques like crop rotation,
crop protection program is
sanitation and pest prevention minimize dollars for
composed of chemical
pesticides and amounts of crop protection
techniques and how much is
chemicals applied
non-chemical

Accurate calibration ensures that pesticides are

Calibrate applicator not wasted through over-application or under-
application

Spray only when wind Spraying under safe wind conditions minimizes off-
conditions are safe target drift and impact on non-target organisms

Spot spraying prevents pests from becoming a

Spot spray instead of
larger problem through the field. Spot spraying
 270

spraying the whole field also controls pests with a minimal amount of
pesticide

A buffer zone prevents pesticide contamination

Use "buffers"-no-spray zones
of environmentally sensitive areas like sloughs and
around sensitive areas
woodlands

Spraying in the evening or when the crop is not in

Time spraying to avoid
flower prevents impact on pollinators or beneficial
pollinators (bees, etc.)
insects

Scouting, Economic Thresholds, Record Keeping

IPM Techniques Value

Scouting for canola pests starts the previous fall,

Scout for pests starting the and resumes from early spring seeding right
previous season at key times through until podding. This alerts growers to
problems early

In-season, scout fields to Scouting can lead to a decision that a field may
check for insects, weeds not need to be sprayed, or may reduce pesticide
and disease before spraying use through using only spot applications

Frequent scouting for insects Provides an early warning and allows maximum
and disease time to control pests

Allows growers to avoid unnecessary spraying

Make a "no spray" decision when it is not necessary, does not pay off, or will
based on low pest levels unnecessarily increase selection intensity for pest
resistance

Use diagnostic tools, kits and Assists in decisions to spray or not spray. Excellent
weather monitoring to help kits and disease maps are available for diseases
in spray decisions like sclerotinia, grasshoppers, etc.

Allows for a post-season review on how effective

Keep records of pest
the control measure was and allows growers to
levels/spray applications
prepare integrated plans for the next season
 271

What are 800 of Your Neighbours Doing to Manage Weeds, Diseases, and Insects in
Canola

The past few years have been challenging for canola growers as they have worked their
way through season after season of trying to protect their crops. They have been battling
shifting weed spectrums and pests that are new and unfamiliar to the industry. They
have had to learn and perfect new herbicide tolerance systems for their farms. All the
while they have had to keep an eye on input costs as commodity prices have swung.

The canola industry conducted a survey on the crop protection techniques used by 881
western Canadian growers to find out how effective they thought their insect, disease
and weed control programs have been. The survey provides the opportunity to sift
through the collective pest management experience of 881 other growers. The survey
also shows where the gaps in an integrated pest management (IPM) system might be.

New challenges mean that it is crucial that we make new strides in implementing
better IPM techniques in canola. Why?

 Profitability - There is no doubt that in the past, canola has paid a lot of
bills. It has been a lucrative crop for western Canada's growers. In past
years, many growers have been able to realize fair returns from their
crop despite the costs associated with crop protection and inputs.
Nonetheless, during cyclical downturns in commodity prices, growers are
looking for new ways of maximizing dollar returns. They want to make
sure they are getting maximum effectiveness from their pest control
programs.
 Environmental issues - Consumers have shown that they do pay
attention to the environmental issues surrounding soil resources and food
production. If new strides can be made in IPM and sustainable
agriculture, this will assure the public that their concerns are being
addressed.
 Complexity - Pest management in canola is more complicated than it is
in cereals, and more expensive. Growers often find themselves steering
through waves of pest control decisions relating to everything from
blackleg to bertha armyworm to wild buckwheat. Significant decisions
need to be made every summer month in terms of one pest or another.
 Changes in pests - Weeds have shifted on farms over the last 20 years.
There are more thistle, more cleavers and more buckwheat on some
farms. Herbicideresistant weeds are now a factor. New diseases like
Alternaria and root rot and new insects like lygus and cabbage seedpod
weevil mean that it's time to really pay attention to a pest management
approach that takes advantage of all the tools that IPM gives a grower.

Growers are Using IPM Already

In general, growers are using many of the tools that IPM offers. The challenge in terms
of IPM is to pull together better "packages" to improve integration of the IPM tools.

The following findings shed light on the current situation in terms of real-life examples
of canola IPM. Use the Findings Worksheets on adjacent pages to look at how different
 272

practices are being implemented, and how your farming practices compare to over 800
of your farming neighbours. What are you doing to maximize profits from the amount
of money spent on pest control? Where do you stand? Answer the questions in the last
column. An "IPM Self Scorecard" legend is at the end of the worksheets.

Table 2. Rotation and Seeding Techniques

My Assessment of
Value to the
IPM Technique What the Study Found How I Do This on
Grower
My Farm

Seed canola no I seed canola no

Prevents buildup of Growers planted
more frequently more frequently
sclerotinia, canola once in every
than one year than one year in
blackleg, root rot, 3.6 years (AB), 3.83
in three to four every three to
Alternaria, cleavers, years, (SK), 3.6 years
on the same four years
root maggot (MB)
field Yes _____ No _____

I review my weed,
50% of growers
Review pest insect and
Allows growers to reviewed weeds prior
problems on a disease problems
preplan and pick to seeding decision,
field before in a given field
the best field for 11% reviewed insects,
seeding to prior to seeding
their canola and 17% reviewed
canola decisions
disease
Yes _____ No _____

Avoids disease
Put canola on buildup or 65% of growers put
I put canola on a
fields where volunteer problems canola on a "beneficial
cereal, forage or
there was a carried over from crop," 26% on
summerfallow
"beneficial the prior year. summerfallow, and 6%
field
crop" the year Beneficial crops "problem crops" (e.g.
Yes _____ No _____
prior include cereals, peas)
alfalfa and flax

Pedigreed seed is
cleaned to high 86% of growers used
standards with pedigreed seed. Only
I use certified,
weed seeds and 39% checked the tags
Treated, treated seed and
disease presence for weed seed counts.
pedigreed I check the tag
identified on the In past blackleg
seed usage on certified seed
tag. Treated seed problem areas, 75%
Yes _____ No _____
controls soil borne check for this disease,
diseases and some 95% use treated seed
insects
 273

Table 2. Rotation and Seeding Techniques

My Assessment of
Value to the
IPM Technique What the Study Found How I Do This on
Grower
My Farm

95% of growers
cleaned up weeds on
The year prior to
Checking and adjacent summer-
Checking seeding canola I
controlling pests on fallow, 41% of these
adjacent fields check
adjacent fields growers used cultural
for pest hosts surrounding fields
adds to the control (tillage), and
(e.g. sclerotinia for pests that
effectiveness of the remainder used
or flea beetles might be a
rotation because it crop protection
on mustard problem in next
cleans up pest chemicals or a
plants) year's canola
hosts combination of
Yes _____ No _____
cultivation and
chemical controls

64% made a special I seed my canola

effort to seed canola as soon as
Early seeding, Allows for early
early (AB); 43% (SK); possible (after I
checked growth of the crop
40% (MB). About 23% have double
against soil to maximize crop
checked soil checked soil
temperature competition
temperature prior to temperature)
seeding Yes _____ No _____

Table 3. Soil Testing and Tillage Practices

My Assessment of
Value to the
IPM Technique What the Study Found How I Do This on My
Grower
Farm

Soil testing allows

Only 34% of growers
the grower to
soil tested the field
deliver fertilizer in I do soil test my
prior to seeding
just the right canola field prior to
canola. Of those, only
amount for seeding and apply
Soil testing 56% followed the
maximum fertilizer according to
recommendation with
payback. This recommendations
16% applying less than
ensures good crop Yes _____ No _____
recommended rates
economics and
and 23% more than
minimizes the risk
the rates
of groundwater
 274

Table 3. Soil Testing and Tillage Practices

My Assessment of
Value to the
IPM Technique What the Study Found How I Do This on My
Grower
Farm

contamination recommended

Helps the grower

to minimize soil
67% of growers
disturbance and I seed my canola
seeded canola on
Direct seeding reduces into stubble
stubble and tilled only
germination of Yes _____ No _____
with a light harrowing
some annual
weeds

Light tillage can kill

off a first flush of
weeds prior to I do light tillage for
Light tillage for 74% of growers tilled
crop emergence. early weed control in
weed control lightly for weed
This is most the field to be sown
prior to control just prior to
effective when the to canola
seeding seeding
tillage operation Yes _____ No _____
does not dry out
the seedbed

Lighter duty tillage

equipment can
% of growers using the Where possible, I use
help control some
following equipment: tillage to control
Tillage pests (such as
60% Harrowing some pests, but I also
equipment shallow
46% Heavy duty try to keep enough
used if not germinating
cultivation trash on the soil
minimumtilling weeds) and
31% Medium duty surface to protect
or zero tilling leaves soil residues
cultivation the soil from erosion
in place
8% Disker Yes _____ No _____
minimizing soil
erosion

Table 4. Sanitation

What the My Assessment of How I

IPM Technique Value to the Grower
Study Found Do This on My Farm

Clean tillage Prevents movement of 31% of I clean my tillage

 275

Table 4. Sanitation

What the My Assessment of How I

IPM Technique Value to the Grower
Study Found Do This on My Farm

equipment disease organisms or growers equipment to minimize

when entering weed seeds from one used this spread of weed seeds
new fields field to a previously technique and diseases from field
uninfected field to field
Yes _____ No _____

I clean my seeding
Lessens risk of serious 71% of equipment to minimize
Clean seeder
volunteer crop growers spread of volunteer
after seeding a
problems and minimizes used this seeds and weeds from
crop or variety
weed seed dispersal technique field to field
Yes _____ No _____

I clean my spray
Clean out Lessens risk of herbicide 90% of
equipment to reduce
herbicide tank damage to crops which growers
the risk of herbicide
after spraying are sensitive to in-tank used this
damage
operations residues technique
Yes _____ No _____

Lessens risk of I clean my harvesting

transporting weed equipment to minimize
53% of
Clean seeds, herbicide- spread of weed seeds,
growers
harvesting resistant weeds and volunteers and
used this
equipment dispersing volunteer herbicide-resistant
technique
crop seed from field to weeds from field to field
field Yes _____ No _____

Minimizes amounts that

27% of I clean field edges to
Clean up field will need to be sprayed
growers minimize spread of
edges where in coming years if
used this weeds
weeds arise weeds are kept out of
technique Yes _____ No _____
the field

Use a chaff 1% of I use a chaff collector as

collector in Minimizes weed seed growers I harvest to capture
harvesting spread through the field used this weed seeds
operations technique Yes _____ No _____
 276

Table 5. Careful Use of Crop Protection Chemicals

My Assessment of
What the Study
IPM Technique Value to the Grower How I Do This on My
Found
Farm

Estimate how One grower in 10

much of the Non-chemical relies exclusively
crop techniques like crop on crop protection I feel that I rely on
protection rotation, sanitation and products. About crop protection
program is pest prevention half of growers chemicals for
composed of minimize dollars for feel that they rely about ____% of my
chemical pesticides and on crop protection total crop
techniques amounts of crop chemicals for 80% protection program
and how much protection chemicals or more of their in canola
is non- applied crop protection
chemical needs

74% of growers
Accurate calibration who applied their
ensures that pesticides own crop I calibrate my
Calibrate are not wasted protection sprayer at least
sprayer through over- products once per season
application or calibrated their Yes _____ No _____
underapplication sprayer at least
once

70% of growers did

not spray if
I shut down
windspeeds rose
Spraying under safe spraying in unsafe
Spray only to moderate.
wind conditions windspeeds OR I
when wind Shields were
minimizes off-target use a shield when
conditions are always used by
drift and impact on windspeeds
safe 27% of growers
non-target organisms warrant
and used
Yes _____ No _____
sometimes by 3%
of growers

Spot spraying contains I use spot

Spot spray pests, preventing them 82% of growers
applications on
instead of from becoming a apply herbicides
specific parts of my
spraying the larger problem through on a whole field
fields when the
whole field the field. Spot spraying basis only and do
infestation allows
when feasible also controls pests with not spot treat
Yes _____ No _____
a minimal amount of
 277

Table 5. Careful Use of Crop Protection Chemicals

My Assessment of
What the Study
IPM Technique Value to the Grower How I Do This on My
Found
Farm

pesticide

Maintaining a buffer
I use "no spray
zone prevents
strips" to make sure
Use "buffers" - pesticide
42% of growers use I avoid contact
no spray zones contamination of
buffers to avoid with
around environmentally
sensitive areas environmentally
sensitive areas sensitive areas like
sensitive areas
sloughs and
Yes _____ No _____
woodlands

Spraying in the evening I avoid spraying

Time spraying Only 9% of growers
or when the crop is not when beneficial
to avoid sprayed during
in flower prevents insects (bees, etc.)
pollinators flowering in
impact on pollinators are in the field
(bees, etc.) daylight hours
or beneficial insects Yes _____ No _____

Table 6. Scouting, Economic Thresholds, Record Keeping

My Assessment of
IPM Technique Value to the Grower What the Study Found How I Do This on
My Farm

May lead to the

discovery that a 94% of growers I scout my fields
Scout fields to
field may not need (including family (or I make sure
check for
to be sprayed, or members) scouted for someone else
insects, weeds,
may reduce weeds and 88% does)
diseases before
pesticide use scouted for diseases or Yes _____ No
spraying
through using only insect problems _____
spot applications

Scout for Scouting for canola 58% scouted the I check the field
weeds starting pests starts the previous fall; 58% that I plan for
the previous previous fall, and scouted just before seeding canola
season at key resumes from early seeding; 95% scouted the previous fall
times spring seeding right early in crop and I look for
through until development; 66% particular pests
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Table 6. Scouting, Economic Thresholds, Record Keeping

My Assessment of
IPM Technique Value to the Grower What the Study Found How I Do This on
My Farm

podding. This will scouted late in crop Yes _____ No

alert growers to development _____
problems early

I scout my canola
fields at least
11% scouted for insects
once a week
Frequent Allows for early alert or diseases daily, 42%
during the time
scouting for and maximum time scouted twice a week;
the crop is
insects and for action in 24% scouted once a
growing in the
disease controlling the pest week; and 7% scouted
field
once every two weeks
Yes _____ No
_____

I occasionally find
14% of growers made
that my scouting
a "no spray" decision
Allows growers to allows me to skip
Make a "no based on weed
avoid spraying a spray operation
spray" decision population, and 36% of
when it is that I thought I
based on low growers made a "no
unnecessary or does would have to
levels of pests treat" decision based
not pay off make
on low insect
Yes _____ No
populations
_____

Use of kits and I have used

Use diagnostic
Excellent kits and diagnostic services diagnostic tools
tools, kits and
disease maps are were virtually zero. like petal tests
weather
available for Some growers and sclerotinia
monitoring to
diseases like occasionally used alerts in the past
help in spray
sclerotinia weather reports in their Yes _____ No
decisions
threshold decisions _____

Allows for a post- 81% to 91% recorded I keep records for

Record season review on products sprayed, pests in a given
keeping for how effective the rates, dates; 50% to field and refer to
pest control measure 60% recorded weather them from time to
levels/spray was and allows at spraying and crop time in
applications growers to prepare stage; less than 50% subsequent years
integrated plans for recorded escapes and Yes _____ No
 279

Table 6. Scouting, Economic Thresholds, Record Keeping

My Assessment of
IPM Technique Value to the Grower What the Study Found How I Do This on
My Farm

the next season effects on pollinators _____

Table 7. IPM Self Scorecard

Number of
Where I Stand
"yes" answers

I have most of the elements for an IPM program to function on

18 to 26
my farm

I am implementing many IPM tactics but may want to wrap

14 to 17 them up into a "packaged" approach and review other things
that I could implement

I have a great opportunity to realize more efficiencies in my pest

0 to 13
control program

Proven Tips and Evidence for 10 Solid Techniques

Using an integrated approach to managing weeds, diseases and insects in canola needs
to make sense from a financial standpoint as well as an environmental point of view.
Here are 10 techniques where there is evidence (or common sense) indicating that there
will be a payoff in using an integrated approach.

Weed Control in the Seasons Before Seeding Canola

Choosing a particular field to seed to canola in the coming year may improve the
effectiveness of weed control in all years. The following is one approach, based on work
by Alberta scientists.

Technique 1 - Wild oat control

Evidence: IPM and wild oat control using economic thresholds
Dr. John O'Donovan of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC), Beaverlodge, AB,
ran a two-year study where he sprayed wild oats in farmers' fields only when it paid to
spray. He found that he could skip a spray for wild oats far more often in cereals
(especially barley) than in canola (Table 8). Note that in these actual farmers' fields
barley was almost twice as likely as canola to require no sprays.
 280

Table 8. Percentage of Fields Where Farmer Could Skip A Wild Oat Spray

Crop %

Canola 39

Barley 77

Wheat 55

Source: Dr. J.T. O'Donovan

Technique 2 - Volunteer cereals/crops control through fall tillage

A light tillage in the fall while the soil is still warm (above 6°C) will give close to 90%
germination of volunteer cereals. Seed has had the majority of its dormancy bred out.
Use this to an advantage by encouraging it to germinate in the fall. Let the fall frosts
and winter snow control the bulk of volunteers and save a herbicide decision in the
spring.

Technique 3 - Winter annuals including cleavers, stinkweed, shepherd's purse

These are "canola unfriendly" broadleaf weeds because they either have no control
methods in canola or are expensive to control in the crop. Light tillage in the fall will
give 80 to 90% control of fall-germinated weeds.

Technique 4 - Canada thistle control through partialfield treatments

Canada thistle is one of the five most common weeds in canola fields. The latest weed
surveys on thistle are shown in Table 9. Note that thistle is in about half of all fields and
it generally covers only a little over 20% of the land within a field, normally within
patches or on headlands.

Table 9. Canada Thistle Survey (Averages)

Thistle Infestation Characteristics Alberta Saskatchewan Manitoba

Percentage of total fields where thistle is

53 46 59
found

Percentage of individual field infested with

24 22 21
thistle

Number of shoots within the patch 2.5 2.7 2

Source: Weed Survey Series, Dr. A.G. Thomas, AAFC Saskatoon Research Centre

Map thistle patches while doing field work in preparation to seed canola. Check
headlands in June and mow in the prebud stage to maximize the impact on root
 281

carbohydrates. Also spot treat with glyphosate or with a product containing clopyralid
(such as Lontrel in canola or Curtail M in cereals.)

As harvest approaches, check the field to see if infestation is widespread enough to

warrant using the pre-harvest rate of glyphosate as the label indicates. Pre-harvest or
patch herbicide applications to thistle the year before canola will save blanket spraying
the entire canola field with in-crop thistle mixes. It may be possible to leave thistle
spray out of the canola herbicide tank mix.

Disease Control in the Seasons Before Seeding Canola

Technique 5 - Crop rotation for disease control

Crop rotation is a good defence against all canola diseases (Figure 1 and Table 10). The
key to disease control lies in planning on a multi-year basis

Figure 1. Impact of Rotation on Canola Diseases

Table 10. Effect of Rotation on Canola Diseases

Limits to the
Rotation Additional Measures
Disease Effectiveness of
Recommendation Needed
Rotation

Spores can blow in

Scout adjacent fields
from adjacent
Three seasons of no for hosts the year
Blackleg fields, can come in
canola in the field before seeding canola,
as a seed
grow resistant varieties
contaminant

Scout adjacent fields

Three seasons of no Spores can blow in for hosts the year
Sclerotinia sclerotiniasusceptible from adjacent before seeding canola,
crops fields use test kit to determine
problem in crop
 282

Table 10. Effect of Rotation on Canola Diseases

Limits to the
Rotation Additional Measures
Disease Effectiveness of
Recommendation Needed
Rotation

Alternaria spores
are widespread Scout adjacent fields
and can exist on for hosts the year
Three seasons of no many hosts, can before seeding canola
Alternaria
canola in the field blow in from (See recommendations
adjacent fields and on swathing, variety
can come in as a selection)
seed contaminant

Four years only

Brown (See recommendations
Three seasons of no reduces the level of
girdling on seeding and variety
canola in the field infection within a
root rot selection)
field

Three seasons of no B. (See recommendations

Can come in as a
Staghead rapa canola varieties on variety selection,
seed contaminant
in the field seed selection)

Source: Canola Growers Manual

However, rotating crops is not 100% effective. Disease spores can blow in from
adjacent fields or arrive in a field courtesy of infected seed. The reasonable approach is
to throw up a farm-wide disease shield that consists of rotation, clean seed and
patrolling bordering fields the year before seeding to look for disease hosts

Evidence: Crop rotation does work

Recent data from the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) Brandon, MB
Research Centre shows how effective rotation is in controlling sclerotinia and especially
blackleg. Rotation is less effective in managing sclerotinia because it is more "mobile,"
entering fields from neighbouring fields via wind.

This does not mean that rotation is ineffective as a sclerotinia control method. Studies
done by AAFC scientists in Saskatchewan show that sclerotinia risks are higher if
growers tighten up their rotation and if moist weather prevails at the time of disease
infection.

Table 10 outlines the effectiveness of crop rotation in controlling canola diseases. It also
provides some additional cultural tools that can be used to supplement rotation in
managing these diseases.
 283

Insect Control in the Years Before Seeding Canola

Technique 6 - Scout for insects the year before

Many canola insect pests are difficult to anticipate the year prior to seeding. Some can
fly long distances, like the diamondback moth, or occur only cyclically, like bertha
armyworm. However, it is easy to prepare for insects like the flea beetle. This is
especially true in areas that experience flea beetle problems from time to time.

Evidence: Manage flea beetles the year before seeding canola

Get the field ready for next year's flea beetles the year prior to seeding canola. Why the
year before? Look at the data in Figure 2. Note how quickly flea beetle populations
increased in a newly sown canola field. This is evidence that work is required in
advance to avoid being forced to react to the pest.

Figure 2. Flea Beetle Trap Counts

Individual canola seedlings can weigh as little as 0.15 g when they are young and
vulnerable to flea beetle attacks. This is not much tissue and this pest can devour it in a
single warm afternoon. That's another reason why IPM work the year before is so
crucial.

The following practices will help shield against flea beetle invasions in next year's
canola:

 Leave standing stubble in the field to be seeded to canola. The stubble

will trap snow, maximize moisture and allow early seeding. The earlier
canola is seeded, the better the plants will withstand flea beetle activity.
This insect eats and moves much more slowly in cool weather.
 Check the areas adjacent to the field for flea beetle populations in late
summer and early fall. Lots of flea beetles on wild mustard plants or other
mustard family weeds is a signal that there are going to be flea beetles
overwintering in leaf litter and around the field.
 If there have been flea beetles in the area in the past and if fall
populations signal potential trouble ahead, plan to seed canola first. The
canola will get off to an early start thanks to the extra moisture trapped
by the stubble. The canola will be past the five- to six-leaf stage before
the beetles will become the most active. Beetle feeding will be less of a
problem.

Also plan for other insects the year before seeding canola. Insects like diamondback
moth fly great distances. Bertha armyworm and grasshopper infestations follow cycles
 284

of several years. The best preparation to manage these pests is to read up on the biology
and control of each insect. Also keep in touch with extension services and the
agricultural research community to watch for forecasts of how serious these pests are
likely to be in the coming year.

Following Through on IPM: The Canola Year

In the seeding year, follow through on in-crop IPM techniques. Approach pests as a
group (weeds, diseases and insects) and pull together all of the tools in an integrated
way to manage the pests.

Technique 7 - Choose seed variety and source carefully

Evidence: Seed selection and source counts
There are marked differences between varieties in terms of blackleg resistance. Choose
varieties with at least an "MR" rating for at least some fields within a blackleg zone.
Choose varieties that offer the best package of options for weed control as well as yield
potential.

Buy certified seed and check the specifications on the lot purchased to make sure it does
not have blackleg infections or high levels of cleavers or other weeds.

Recently, two studies (one Canadian and one Australian) looked at the performance of
bin-run seed versus certified seed (Table 11). In both canola growing areas, there was a
rise in the use of bin-run seed as seed costs rose. Both studies show a remarkably
similar loss in net profit averaged over a number of sites. This was due to variable
quality and seedling vigour. This says nothing about the catastrophic losses that would
occur should bin-run seed contain hidden levels of blackleg inoculum or cleavers seeds.

Table 11. Comparison of Bin-run Seed Performance

Source Certified Seed Bin-run (% of Certified Yield) $ Loss/ac*

Australian data 100 92 $13.48

Western Canadian data 100 93 $13.48

* At 30 bu/ac and $5.00/bu canola Source: S.J. Marcroft, Victoria Institute of Dryland
Agriculture

Technique 8 - Fertilizer placement helps manage weeds

Evidence: Fertilizer planning helps in wild millet control
A fast growing, healthy crop can fend off pests in the early few leaf stages where the
seedling is vulnerable to insect damage or weed competition. Getting the crop out of the
ground quickly, then through the first leaf stages is key. Apply a balanced package of
plant nutrients-it's the best way to stimulate rapid growth. Band these nutrients to give
the crop preferential access and help the crop battle pests.

Instead of wild millet increasing as fertility increases, banding nitrogen (N) actually
decreases the level of wild millet. As shown in Figure 3, the weed was manipulated into
 285

oblivion by using minimum disturbance seeding and banding the fertilizer close to the
crop so it could out compete the weed.

Figure 3. Effect of Fertilizer Banding on Wild Millet Levels

Strategic placement of fertilizer makes sense from a weed control point of view because
it produces healthy, fast growing crops more rapidly than broadcast fertilizer. Table 12
shows how side banding N and drilling phosphorus (P) with the seed produces a much
better yield.

Table 12. Effect of Fertilizer Placement on Yield

Fertilizer Placement Yield (bu/ac)

Both P and N broadcast 22.0

N broadcast and P drilled in 24.4

N banded and P drilled in 34.8

Technique 9 - Good crop establishment

Evidence: Seeding rate, row spacing, depth and date help seedlings grow quickly and
fend off weeds, insects and diseases
Good establishment of a crop and fast canopy closure means that weeds will be shaded
early. Figure 4 shows how bumping up the seeding rate of canola can reduce wild oat
competition.
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Figure 4. Effect of Seeding Rate on Wild Oat Levels

Do not bump up the seeding rate by 50% to control wild oats. Use a seeding rate that
results in a final plant count of 96 to 145 plants/m2 (80 to 120 plants/yd2)-a healthy
early closure of the crop canopy will help battle pests.

Follow these seeding rules:

 Seed early. Seeding early gives the crop the jump on pests that do
better under warmer weather conditions (like wild millet and flea
beetles). It also allows the crop to choke out "flushing weeds" that are
not controlled by a single herbicide application.
 Seed shallow to moisture. This allows rapid crop establishment.
 Seed near nutrients. Banding N close to the seed and putting P close to
the seed gives the crop better access to nutrients than the weeds.

Technique 10 - Frequent scouting is crucial Scouting canola early is key to making

sure problems are nipped in the bud. It also can save the cost of inputs because scouting
very often can lead to a reduced number of spray passes.

Provincial pest control guides have excellent scouting instructions. It is important that
each time the field is scouted, the scout stays alert for weeds, diseases and insects (as
well as fertility issues). Table 13 is a summary of how often scouting should be done
and what to look for when scouting a field.

Table 13. Reasons to do In-season Scouting

Stage of
Canola at What to Watch For Advantages
Scouting Time

May allow to plan for control

Early flushes of cool season
Emergence to of early season weeds before
weeds
cotyledon they inflict damage
stage
Flea beetle damage Warm conditions and heavy
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Table 13. Reasons to do In-season Scouting

Stage of
Canola at What to Watch For Advantages
Scouting Time

flea beetle pressures can

destroy a crop in hours

May allow for lower pesticide

rates based on species in the
Cotyledon to
Weed inventory field or to skip a spray if
six-leaf stage
economic thresholds are not
attained

Spot weed control misses

Check for effectiveness of weed
early and watch for early
Rosette to control. Watch for red turnip
insect problems so that
early bolting beetles, diamondback moth
control strategies can be
larvae and early blackleg lesions
planned

Early warning so that control

Begin watching for lygus bug
Bud stage strategy decisions can be
and cabbage seedpod weevil
made

Examine infection levels and

Check for sclerotinia and early check for the economic
Flowering
stages of Alternaria blackspot benefits of spray/no spray
decisions

Early warning allows for

Flowering to Watch for bertha armyworm
planning of control and
late podding and cabbage seedpod weevil
economic threshold decisions
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Chapter 10a - Weeds

1. Weeds of Canola
o Integrated Weed Management (IWM)
o The Weed Problem
o Weed Competition
 Canada Thistle
 Sow Thistle
 Wild Mustard
 Other Broadleaf Weeds
 Volunteer Wheat and Barley
 Wild Oats
 Green Foxtail
 Quackgrass
 Cleavers
o Weed Management Measures
 Rotations
 Seeding Rates
 Seeding Date
 Seeding Depth
 Row Spacing
 Pedigreed Seed
 Tillage or Direct Seeding
 Adequate Fertility
 Insect and Disease Protection
 Chemical Control Measures
o Weed Control Systems
 Clearfield
 Liberty Link
 Roundup Ready
 Conventional
o How to Choose a System
 Use Weed Spectrum to Narrow the Choice
 List the Other "Non-Weed" Factors
 Match Variety Attributes that Suit the Features Marked as
High Priority
o Time of Weed Removal
o Yield Losses
o Herbicide Performance
o Herbicide Drift, Sprayer Contamination and Herbicide Residues
 Incorporation of Soil-Applied Herbicides
 Herbicide
 Soil Conditions
 Incorporation Equipment
o Canola Volunteer Control
o Herbicide-Tolerant Volunteer Canola
 Pollen Flow and Outcrossing
 Multiple Resistance Canola
 Control of Volunteer Canola
 Weed Resistance to Herbicides
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2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Canola Yield Losses Due to Canada Thistle
o Figure 2. Estimating Westar Canola Yield Losses from Wild Mustard
o Figure 3. Effect of Tartary Buckwheat and Hempnettle on Canola
o Figure 4. Yield Losses in Canola from Volunteer Wheat and Barley
o Figure 5. Effect of Volunteer Barley and Crop Density on Canola
Yield Loss
o Figure 6. Yield Losses in Canola Caused by Wild Oats
o Figure 7. Yield Losses in Canola due to Green Foxtail
o Figure 8. Effect of Quackgrass on Canola Yield
o Figure 9. Effect of Seeding Rate on Weed Biomass and Canola
Yield
o Figure 10. Effect of Tobin Canola Seeding Rate on Competition
from Tartary Buckwheat
o Figure 11. Effect of Row Spacing on Weed Biomass and Canola
Yield
o Figure 12. Time of Weed Removal Model
o Figure 13. Effect of Time of Volunteer Barley Emergence on
Canola
o Figure 14. Yield Loss Versus Weed/Crop Emergence
o Figure 15. Effect of Timing of Wild Oat Removal on Canola Yields
(Three-Year Average Yield)
o Figure 16. Time of Weed Removal Effect on Canola Seed Yield
o Figure 17. Effect of Time of Weed Removal and Yield of Canola in
Alberta Fields
o Figure 18. Estimated Yield Loss in Wheat and Barley from Volunteer
Canola
o Figure 19. Per cent Outcrossing by Distance from Source in Small
Fields
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Priorities in Choosing Canola Weed Control Systems for a
Specific Field
o Table 2. Crop Staging that Gave the Best Yields in Nine Site-Years
of Weed Control Trials in Small Plots in Alberta
o Table 3. Time Canola Can Tolerate Weeds Before a 5 or 10% Yield
Loss
o Table 4. Summary of Canola Production Centre Trials on Time of
Weed Removal
o Table 5. Incorporation of Herbicides by Tillage
o Table 6. Wheat Yield Increases once Volunteer Canola is
Removed
o Table 7. Occurrence of Herbicide-Resistant Weeds in Western
Canola
o Table 8. Herbicide Groups for Canola Herbicides

Weeds of Canola

Weeds suppress growth and productivity of canola. Until the registration and release of
herbicide-tolerant canola (HTC) varieties, weeds were often the most limiting factor in
canola production. Although it is possible to control annual grassy weeds (wild oats and
volunteer cereals), perennial weeds (Canada thistle, perennial sow thistle and
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quackgrass) and certain annual broadleaf weeds in conventional canola varieties, this
may require three or more herbicide treatments plus tillage-a considerable cost. In
addition to yield losses, hard to control weeds in conventional canola crops, especially
those of the cruciferae or mustard family, reduce oil and meal quality by contaminating
the canola harvested. The presence of these weeds also limits opportunities for seed
production or increases the cost of seed production. The introduction of HTC varieties
has given growers many options for herbicide and variety selection.

Integrated Weed Management (IWM)

An Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach combines different agronomic

practices to reduce the reliance on any one-weed control technique. Controlling weeds
with only one or two techniques gives the weeds the chance to adapt to those practices.
For example, the use of only Group 1 herbicides year after year on a field has resulted in
weeds that are resistant to those herbicides. The continuous production of certain crops
also gives weeds a chance to adapt (higher wild mustard or stinkweed infestations
where conventional canola was grown more frequently). Weeds may also adapt to crops
seeded annually on similar dates. One IWM technique might involve altering
conventional seeding dates to prevent weed adaptation. Using more than one or two
specific weed control techniques means that those techniques or tools will be effective
for more years of future use.

The objective of IWM is to maintain weed densities at manageable levels (below the
economic threshold) while preventing shifts in weed populations to more difficult-
tocontrol weeds. IWM utilizes a variety of control practices to keep weeds "off
balance." Weeds are less able to adapt to a constantly changing system that uses many
different management practices, unlike a farm system that relies on only one or two
cropping systems or weed management tools.

The Weed Problem

Field scouting is important as weeds vary from field to field and also within fields. So
each field must be carefully assessed before planting it to canola. Identification,
recognition and detection of weeds are important to crop management. The most
prevalent weeds based on western Canada provincial weed surveys are:

 wild oats
 wild buckwheat
 lamb's-quarters
 redroot pigweed
 lady's thumb
 Russian thistle
 hemp nettle
 cow cockle
 field horsetail
 shepherd's purse
 chickweed
 wild rose
 green foxtail
 stinkweed
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 Canada thistle
 green smartweed
 sow thistle
 wild mustard
 bluebur
 night-flowering catchfly
 barnyard grass
 flixweed
 volunteer canola

The first step in a weed control program is to identify the weeds. Every year, evaluate
individual fields for weed types, populations and locations. Keep an up-to-date list of
weeds found in each field. Local crop specialists can help identify the weeds. Many
good weed identification books are available.

Problem weeds in canola include: the perennials; shadetolerant weeds; and tall-growing,
early-germinating weeds such as wild oats. Among the more troublesome weeds that are
not controlled in a conventional canola crop with lower cost herbicides are the closely
related cruciferous weeds:

 wild mustard
 stinkweed
 shepherd's purse
 ball mustard
 flixweed
 wormseed mustard
 hare's ear mustard
 common peppergrass

These weeds are easily controlled in cereal crops and herbicide-tolerant canola, but
dormant seeds and seeds from escapes will germinate and can set more seeds in
conventional canola. This can result in a gradual build-up of weed populations when
canola becomes more frequent in the rotation. Stinkweed seeds can remain viable and
dormant in the soil for up to 10 to 20 years while wild mustard seeds can remain
dormant for more than 30 years. Research at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
(AAFC) Scott, SK Research Centre has shown that after canola has been in the rotation
over a 10-year period, the stinkweed populations increased 15 times over those rotations
where only cereals were grown. This emphasizes the need for a proper rotation when
growing canola.

Other difficult-to-control or expensive-to-control weeds in canola are:

 Canada thistle
 cleavers
 stork's bill
 lady's thumb
 quackgrass
 sow thistle
 green smartweed
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Weed Competition

Weeds can result in reduced yields because weeds compete with the crop for limited
resources of light, moisture and nutrients. Weeds also result in:

 increased insect and disease damage through multiplication on weed

hosts
 spread of weed seeds
 increased cultivation and chemical control practices
 reduced seedbed soil moisture and structure as a result of increased
tillage to kill weeds prior to seeding
 delayed swathing and combining from hard to-pick-up swaths, plugging
and higher seed moisture content
 increased heating and spoilage from green weed seeds in storage
 increased dockage with higher cleaning and transportation costs
 contamination resulting in reduced grades and quality from similar
inseparable size and shape weed seeds (Many of the hard-to-control
weeds listed earlier are in this category.)
 reduced opportunities for seed production

Weed competition reduces canola plant growth and leaf area resulting in increased
flower, pod and seed abortion. The yield loss due to weeds can vary widely from year to
year depending on:

 time and rate of seeding

 density and spatial arrangement of the crop
 species and density of the weeds
 relative competitiveness of crop and weeds
 moisture availability
 nutrient availability
 relative time of emergence of crop and weeds
 environmental conditions

Weed competition is generally more damaging where one of the following factors exist:

 low canola plant population lacks vigour

 weed density is high and the weeds are vigorous
 moisture and nutrient supply favours weed growth more than crop
growth
 weeds significantly reduce moisture supply to the crop
 when weed growth is ahead of the crop
 when environmental conditions have resulted in a shallow rooted crop

Research studies have developed canola yield loss estimates for several weeds at
various population levels. Even though most canola fields usually have several different
weeds to contend with, these estimates should help in making decisions on which
canola system and IWM technique will be economical to manage a particular weed.
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Canada Thistle

This weed is three to four times more competitive than wild oats. Estimated yield losses
of canola caused by Canada thistle are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Canola Yield Losses Due to Canada Thistle

Yield losses from Canada thistle will vary from year to year due to environmental
conditions; the type, stage and vigour of the crop; and when the thistle emerges in
relation to the crop. Researchers at the AAFC Lacombe, AB Research Centre developed
an equation to predict yield loss through competition from Canada thistle. The equation
is:

Per cent yield loss = -3.83 + 1.4X

(x is the number of Canada thistle shoots/m2)

The more samples taken the greater the accuracy in estimating yield loss. A minimum
of 10 samples is recommended per quarter section. For example, if a canola field has an
average of 15 Canada thistle shoots/m2, the estimated yield loss would be:

Per cent yield loss= -3.83 + 1.4 x 15 = 17

In a canola field with 1,681 kg/ha (30 bu/ac) potential yield, a 17% yield loss from 15
Canada thistle shoots per m2 would be 280 kg/ha (5 bu/ac). The 17% represents total
loss. Since no control measure provides 100% weed kill, and since weeds are not killed
immediately on emergence, all of this loss can never be recovered. The recovery of at
least 75% of the yield loss by spraying with a herbicide would result in an increase of
213 kg/ha (3.8 bu/ac). Decisions must be made on whether the use of a herbicide is
economical given current herbicide costs and canola prices.

Sow Thistle

This weed is common in western Canada. It does not usually occur uniformly
throughout fields, but where it does, the crop can suffer high yield loss. Soil, rainfall
and farming practices influence the competition between canola and sow thistle.
Researchers at the AAFC Regina, SK Research Centre developed an equation for
determining yield loss in canola:

Percent Yield Loss = -3.81 + 13.76 x (square root of X)

(X being the number of sow thistle rosettes and shoots/0.25 m2)
 294

In a field with 20 sow thistle rosettes/m2 or 5/0.25 m2, the yield loss would be:

Per cent yield loss = -3.81 + 13.76 x (square root of 5)

= -3.81 + 13.76 x 2.24
= -3.81 + 30.82
= 27

In general, thistle populations increase in seasons of normal to above normal soil

moisture. This can be important if the weeds are not controlled in the year before the
canola crop.

Wild Mustard

This weed is more competitive than wild oats. In the early growth stages of canola, it is
very competitive resulting in lower yields. Research from the AAFC Lacombe Research
Centre has shown high yield losses (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Estimating Westar Canola Yield Losses from Wild Mustard

Wild mustard seed is similar in size and shape to canola seed and is impossible to
separate by conventional methods. Wild mustard is a contaminant in canola due to its
high erucic acid and glucosinolate content. Contamination of canola with wild mustard
or volunteer tame mustard results in serious downgrading. Wild mustard densities of as
low as 20 plants/m2 (17/yd 2) may result in wild mustard seeds being over 5% of the
harvested seed. Densities of 48 plants/m2 (45/yd 2) resulted in 16.7% of the seed
harvested being wild mustard. The maximum tolerance of wild mustard in any grade of
canola is 5%. Over 5%, the canola is graded "Sample Reject." Over 50%, the canola is
graded "Refuse Screenings." Wild mustard in canola is hard to detect visually, but can
be detected by magnification. Wild mustard seeds appear smooth and shiny or waxy,
while canola seeds have visible seed ridges.

Other Broadleaf Weeds

Researchers at the AAFC Lacombe Research Centre found that canola was more
competitive against Tartary buckwheat than were barley, wheat or flax and that a weed
population of at least 80/m2 (66/yd2) before canola yield losses are greater than 10%
(Figure 3).
 295

Figure 3. Effect of Tartary Buckwheat and Hemp Nettle on Canola

Canola yield losses from wild buckwheat are probably similar to those from tartary
buckwheat. Canola yield losses due to smartweed, hemp nettle and lamb's-quarters may
be higher due to the taller growth habits of these weeds.

Smartweed is very sensitive to crop competition and if the crop emerges ahead of the
weed there is very little effect on yield.

Volunteer Wheat and Barley

These volunteers are very competitive in canola and may cause serious yield losses
especially where fall harvesting is delayed by poor weather and shattering occurs.
Volunteer crops usually are strong competitors at the early growth stages. Volunteer
wheat and barley, at seven to eight plants/m2 (six to seven/yd2) can reduce canola yield
by 10 to 13% as shown in studies at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, MB
(Figure 4).

Figure 4. Yield Losses in Canola from Volunteer Wheat and Barley

Equal numbers of volunteer cereals were found to be 1.5 times as competitive as wild
oats. At higher densities, barley was much more competitive than wheat. Studies on the
variety Tobin by Scott, SK AAFC researchers, showed similar yield reductions from
volunteer barley but with yield losses of 50% with 90 barley plants/m2 (75/yd 2). Higher
plant populations of barley did not produce further yield reductions. The density of both
the canola crop and volunteer cereals will influence yield loss (Figure 5). The following
equation can be used to estimate the yield loss from volunteer barley.
 296

Canola yield loss (%) = 100 x 0.032D / (1 + 0.04C + 0.032D)

Where D = barley plants/m2
And C = canola plants/m2

Figure 5. Effect of Volunteer Barley and Crop Density on Canola Yield Loss

Canola yield losses are more severe when volunteer wheat or barley emerges before the
canola crop. Base decisions to control cereals on a comparison of present herbicide
costs and canola prices.

Wild Oats

Wild oats can significantly reduce canola yields. Estimates of yield losses due to wild
oat weed density have been developed for healthy, well-fertilized canola crops with
good stand establishment (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Yield Losses in Canola caused by Wild Oats

Crops that are diseased, have insect pressure, or emerge unevenly will not compete well
with weeds and have higher yield losses than those indicated.

Researchers at the AAFC Lacombe Research Centre developed an equation to predict

canola yield losses from wild oats:

Per cent yield loss = 3.22 x (square root of X).

(X being the number of wild oat plants/m2)

An average infestation of wild oats would range from 60 to 100 plants/m2 (50 to
83/yd2). A heavy infestation would range from 300 to 500 plants/m2 (249 to 415/yd 2).

If a field had 100 wild oat shoots/m2 (83/yd2) on average, the per cent yield loss would
be:
 297

Per cent Yield Loss= 3.22 x (square root of 100)

= 3.22 x 10
= 32.2

A field with a potential yield of 1,681 kg/ha (30 bu/ac) would, assuming an 85% yield
recovery, have a yield loss of 448 kg/ha (8 bu/ac). Even eight wild oats/m2 (7/yd2)
would result in a 9% yield loss, or at 85% recovery, 129 kg/ha (2.3 bu/ac). Compare the
present price of the herbicide with canola prices for that yield recovery. Growers must
also consider what level of infestation will occur in the following year if wild oats are
not sprayed.

Green Foxtail

Research by the Alberta Research Council (ARC) in Vegreville, AB has shown canola
yield losses caused by green foxtail (Figure 7).

Figure 7. Yield Losses in Canola due to Green Foxtail

Green foxtail can result in significant yield losses if it emerges ahead of or with the
canola crop. If green foxtail density is less than 100 plants/m2 (83/yd2) and the majority
of the weeds have emerged more than one week after the crop, yield loss is expected to
be insignificant. Green foxtail is a poor competitor in cooler regions unless in dense
stands. Canola is an efficient competitor against green foxtail. Under low light intensity
green foxtail plants grow very poorly and remain small.

Quackgrass

Research by the Vegreville ARC estimated yield losses in canola due to quack grass
density (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Effect of Quackgrass on Canola Yield

 298

The economic threshold in canola is about 20 to 25 quackgrass shoots/m2 (17 to 21/yd2),

but varies with the price of canola. Quackgrass usually occurs at high densities in
localized patches within a field, but can spread rapidly by its underground rhizomes.

Cleavers

Cleavers can be very competitive with canola because it clings to plants when growing
toward the light and reduces crop development. One research trial showed that a
cleavers density of 100 plants/m2 (83/yd2) resulted in a 20% yield loss. The clinging
bristles make crop handling and harvesting difficult resulting in swathing difficulties
and bunching of the swath. The seeds are similar in size and shape to canola, making
them a serious contaminant that will downgrade the crop.

Weed Management Measures

An IWM program that includes several cultural and agronomic factors and their
interactions to promote a healthy and competitive crop will reduce yield loss due to
weeds. Practices that limit the introduction and spread of weeds include:

 diverse rotations
 higher seeding rates
 varied seeding dates
 shallow seeding depth
 narrow row spacing
 pedigreed seed
 tillage
 adequate fertility
 insect and disease protection
 preventative measures

Rotations

Crop rotations or crop sequences that include forage crops, cereals and oilseeds allow
the use of different herbicides and practices that make it difficult for weeds to adapt and
build up. Diversified rotations that use a number of different crops allow weeds to be
managed at different times over the growing season. Rotations with few crops means
there is little variation in seeding dates or herbicide practices and little use of different
competitive abilities or life cycles. Crop rotations must take advantage of crop life cycle
and weaknesses in the life cycle of the existing weed problem.

Certain crop varieties are more competitive than others. Varieties that cover the ground
more rapidly and close their crop canopy earlier can help shade out weeds. More
vigorous growing canola hybrids sown at a higher plant population are very competitive
and result in reduced weed growth and lower dockage.

Seeding Rates

Higher plant populations allow the crop to shade weeds and make it more difficult to
access nutrients and water. Research at the Scott, SK AAFC Research Centre showed
 299

that weed biomass decreased and canola yields increased with higher seeding rates
(Figure 9).

Figure 9. Effect of Seeding Rate on Weed Biomass and Canola Yield

The additional crop competition may improve herbicide performance. Studies at the
Vegreville ARC found that higher canola plant populations reduced the competitive
effects of weeds (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Effect of Tobin Canola Seeding Rate on Competition from Tartary

Buckwheat [50 weeds/m2 (42/yd 2)]

Altering seeding rates has several pros and cons. Higher plant populations may be more
competitive, however, these crops tend to lodge more readily and may have a higher
disease incidence. Since a higher plant population can also have a negative effect on a
crop when moisture is in short supply, carefully consider the risks of increasing the
seeding rates along with the weed management benefits. In most cases, seeding rates
can be moderately increased to obtain weed management benefits without significant
negative consequences.

Seeding Date

While most crops in a rotation benefit from early seeding it can be beneficial on
individual fields to vary the seeding date from year to year. Fall- or early-seeded canola
can result in the crop emerging before the weeds. Some weeds like green foxtail,
lamb's-quarters, kochia, redroot pigweed and Russian thistle require more growing
degree days to germinate and emerge. An early-seeded canola crop could emerge far
enough ahead of these weeds that herbicides may not be required. However, cool season
weeds like wild oats, quackgrass, wild mustard and stinkweed may present a problem
with early seeding.
 300

In certain situations, later seeding of B. rapa or B. napus varieties may be used to reduce
the number of weeds in the crop. Shallow till the soil early in the spring to aerate it and
promote weed seed germination. Delay seeding until weed growth has reached a
maximum. This growth must be destroyed either by a pre-seed herbicide application or
a tillage operation prior to seeding. The disadvantages of this approach include:

 Tillage can cause the loss of surface soil moisture resulting in poor,
uneven germination and emergence, and reduced yields.
 Delayed seeding increases the risk of yield loss due to frost or damp
harvest weather.
 Most importantly, delayed seeding per se reduces crop yield.

Seeding Depth

Seed as shallow as possible [2.5 cm (1") or less]. Shallow seeding, provided adequate
moisture is present, means quicker seedling emergence which helps the crop get ahead
of or keep up with the weeds. Deep seeding delays crop emergence and weakens
seedlings and they are less competitive.

Row Spacing

Narrow row spacing allows plants to be more competitive. Research at the AAFC Scott,
SK Research Centre showed that weed biomass increased and canola yields decreased
with wider row spacing (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Effect of Row Spacing on Weed Biomass and Canola Yield

Where wide row spacing is necessary (for example, residue clearance in direct seeding
systems), higher seeding rates can help offset the effect of wider row spacing.

Pedigreed Seed

Choose varieties that are very competitive in growth habit. Clean, disease-free, large
seed with high germination helps establish a good stand of vigorous seedlings that will
compete with weeds. Always ask the seed seller for the types of weed seeds present in
the seed lot so that new weeds are not introduced to the farm.
 301

Tillage or Direct Seeding

How a seedbed is prepared can affect crop and weed growth. Ensure the seed is placed
in an ideal growing environment to give the crop an advantage. On-row packing
provides good seed/soil contact to promote rapid germination and emergence, but leaves
the soil loose between rows. Direct seeding systems leave crop residue between rows,
which shades the soil and keeps it cool. Weed emergence is slow in early spring, but the
majority of weeds generally emerge by mid-season. A "second flush" of weeds is less
likely to occur because of higher stubble residue between crop rows. For early-seeded
crops, the incrop herbicide application is the most important while for late seeded crops
the burn-off herbicide application is the most important. For example, green foxtail
problems are reduced in direct seeding systems because weeds are less able to
germinate and grow in the direct seeding soil environment.

Research at the AAFC Indian Head, SK Research Centre found that soil disturbances
from tillage increased weed densities and that early in the season weed densities were
lower than at the end of the seeding season. Direct seeding using a burn-off treatment
may be all that is required to control weeds at later seeding dates. This is possible
because a tillage operation that encourages a new flush of weeds within the crop is
eliminated.

Where reduced or conventional tillage is being used on land to be recropped, start weed
control immediately after harvest. Since tillage buries weed seeds and promotes
germination, weeds may be controlled by subsequent tillage or frost. The earlier this is
done in the fall, the better the weed control the following year. However, early fall
tillage after canola increases the dormancy and persistence of volunteer canola in
subsequent crops.

Shallow cultivation in the fall, resulting in a light soil covering of weed seeds, is the
most effective means of stimulating wild oats germination. Harrowing is relatively
ineffective as it does not provide a sufficient soil cover to favour germination.

Deeper tillage penetration may be required to destroy roots of perennial weeds such as
Canada thistle and quackgrass. Deeper tillage may also be required to prepare the soil
for soil-incorporated herbicides or fertilizers, and to bury some of the straw. Glyphosate
can be used pre-harvest or in the fall for more effective perennial weed control without
the negative consequences of excessive tillage. Cultivation, herbicides and mowing can
be used in combination or separately. Patch spraying is less expensive than field
treatment. Canada thistle may be suppressed by fall spraying with a dicamba, 2,4-D or
MCPA product right after harvest when weeds are actively growing.

Deep fall tillage buries weed seeds deeper and induces dormancy in wild oats and other
smaller weed seeds. Small weed seeds with a long dormancy period (wild mustard and
stinkweed) most readily lose dormancy when left on the soil surface. Deep fall tillage
can also induce dormancy in volunteer canola.

Winter annuals like stinkweed, flixweed, tansy mustard, groundsel, and winter annual
cleavers do not germinate until late September or October. These weeds germinate,
establish a root system and form a rosette that is not killed by winter frosts. The plants
overwinter and continue to grow as soon as snow disappears in the spring. By the time
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fields can be worked in the spring, these weeds have often become well established and
hard to kill, requiring extra tillage that dries out the seedbed. These weeds can be more
effectively controlled by late fall spraying with 2,4-D than with tillage. Tillage often
transplants the weeds, allowing them to grow.

Weed seeds may also be encouraged to germinate with shallow early spring cultivation.
Spring pre-plant spraying with phenoxy herbicides for winter annual weed control is not
recommended, especially in soils with low organic matter. Serious damage to the
emerging canola seedlings can occur. Tillage for weed control immediately before or
during planting kills weeds and prepares the seedbed. The operation must be shallow,
but into moisture to enhance crop germination and emergence. Avoid excessive or deep
tillage as this dries out the soil, promotes erosion and may bring up dormant weed
seeds. A superior practice involves controlling (burning off) the weeds with glyphosate
prior to a direct-seeding operation.

Adequate Fertility

Fertilizer placement affects the crop's ability to compete with weeds. Band nitrogen (N)
fertilizer so that seedlings have an advantage over the weeds in accessing the N in the
early stages of seedling establishment. Most weeds germinate near the soil surface,
therefore, banded fertilizer is not as accessible to the weeds, reducing the number of
weeds germinating and their seedling vigour. Broadcast N, especially if it's
incorporated, can stimulate weed seed germination (especially wild oats) and is more
readily available to weed seedlings. Phosphorous (P) fertilizer with the seed, especially
when early seeding, is essential for establishing vigorous seedlings. Apply safe levels of
N, P and K (potassium) with the seed to avoid killing or injuring seedlings, making the
stand less competitive. Weed competition may reduce the plant's chance of recovery
from high fertilizer rate injury.

Insect and Disease Protection

Seed treatments combined with shallow seeding into a firm, moist seedbed may reduce
seedling diseases allowing plants to be more competitive with weeds. Protection from
insects such as the flea beetle will enhance seedling vigour and growth.

Other preventative measures:

 Ensure that farm equipment is clean so that weeds are not spread from
field to field or from one farm to another.
 Cover screenings and grain during transport.
 Restrict domestic animal movement from weedy fields to clean fields.
 Do not allow weeds to set seed.
 Control weeds in ditches, the edges of fields and around sloughs.
 Disrupt or destroy weeds by machine, hand mowing, hand pulling of
small patches, early harvest, tillage, grazing, ensiling, burning weeds prior
to maturity and mulching small patches with clean straw, manure or
plastic.
 Control the spread of weeds through manure by proper rotting or
composting of the manure and livestock bedding.
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 Control or restrict wind and water movement from weedy to weed-free

areas.

Chemical Control Measures

Do not rely on chemical weed control as the only method of protecting crops from
weeds. From an IWM standpoint, use herbicides in combination with good agronomic
practices. Focus on combinations of optimal agronomic factors that enhance crop health
and competitiveness, favour viable weed management systems, and support integrated
crop management practises. For example, a recent research study at the AAFC
Lacombe, AB Research Centre found that combining the best variety, the highest
seeding rate and the earliest weed removal treatment increased yield 41% (compared to
the combination of a less vigorous variety, the lowest seeding rate and the latest time of
weed removal).

Choose herbicides based on the type of weeds and the tolerance of the crop to various
herbicides. Apply the right herbicide in the proper way, at the optimum time and in the
recommended concentration. This information can be obtained from the label on the
herbicide container, and from public or private crop specialists. Since registrations
change from year to year, obtain provincial herbicide guidelines annually. Check the
annual provincial publication for current recommendations and always refer to product
labels:

 Crop Protection with Chemicals - Alberta

 The Guide to Crop Protection - Saskatchewan and Manitoba
 Guide to Weed Control - Ontario

Weed Control Systems

The four main weed control systems in canola, including the conventional varieties that
are also tolerant to some herbicides, are:

 Clearfield - canola resistant to imidazolinone chemistry (Pursuit, Odyssey,

Absolute)
 Liberty Link - canola resistant to glufosinate ammonium (Liberty)
 Roundup Ready - canola resistant to glyphosate (Roundup)
 conventional - canola not thought of as "herbicidetolerant" but is
resistant to numerous in-crop herbicides

The main features of each weed control system are as follows:

Clearfield

 Clearfield products and registered tank mixes can be applied to

Clearfield varieties
 control of various annual grassy and broadleaf weeds using post-
emergent applications
 an extended control herbicide-offers control of some second flushes of
certain shallow germinating weeds
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 systemic mode of action with affected weeds showing stunting,

yellowing/reddening within three to 10 days of spraying
 numerous open-pollinated varieties
 products with the same mode of action (Group 2) will not control
volunteer Clearfield canola in subsequent years. Products may be co-
packaged with a Group 1 or Group 4 product
 allows weed resistance management by switching from a Group 1 to a
Group 2 herbicide or using a co-packaged product Group 2 + Group 4
or Group 2 + 1. Broadleaf resistance is a concern, especially on fields
with previous Group 2 use. Group 1-resistant wild oats have been
identified in all three western provinces
 Some restrictions in recropping in the year following application

Liberty Link

 Liberty herbicide and registered mixes can be applied to Liberty Link

varieties
 control of various annual grassy and broadleaf weeds
 suppress some perennial weed species
 applied post-emergent, activity is through contact with green tissue
 affected plants show burning/yellowing within two to 5 days after
application
 plants die one to two weeks after treatment
 varieties are widely available, primarily hybrids and some open-
pollinated varieties
 unique mode of action (Group 10). Good option for grassy and
broadleaf weed resistance management
 no restrictions on recropping in the year following application

Roundup Ready

 Glyphosate and registered mixes can be applied to Roundup Ready

varieties. Not all glyphosate products are registered for Roundup Ready
canola. Check product labels before using. This system is available to
farmers who have purchased a Technology Use Agreement (TUA)
 control of various annual grassy and broadleaf weeds
 control or suppress some perennial weed species
 applied post-emergent, activity is systemic, with affected weeds showing
yellowing at the terminal buds within seven to 10 days after application
 varieties are available widely-open-pollinated, synthetic and hybrids
 Roundup will not control volunteer Roundup Ready canola in
subsequent years. This is important if following fields where Roundup is
used for weed control before crop emergence
 unique mode of action (Group 9), good option for grassy and broadleaf
weed resistance management for Groups 1, 2, 3 and 8
 no recropping restrictions in the year after application
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Conventional

 various registered herbicides can be applied to conventional canola

(conventional canola varieties are not developed for their resistance to
a specific herbicide)
 control of various weeds with soil-applied postemergent herbicides
 these herbicides control some of the common weeds within fields-many
growers need to apply more than one product to control all the
common weeds (one reason why the HTC systems have been widely
adopted)
 varieties are available widely, both as hybrid and open-pollinated
varieties
 recropping restrictions vary from herbicide to herbicide

How to Choose a System

Every grower will have a different set of management goals to consider when picking a
herbicide-tolerant canola. For example, there may be factors that make one weed control
system the best choice for one field, but another system might be best for another field.

Use Weed Spectrum to Narrow the Choice

There is no better way to increase the effectiveness of a weed control program than by
choosing the product that matches the weeds in a particular field. The best way to
choose a weed control system is to narrow down the list of choices by what weeds they
control and whether those weeds are present. This is the single most important
consideration to use in narrowing the search for the ideal herbicide for a given field.
Consider herbicide cost, too. Ordering early or in a company program may reduce costs.

One compelling argument for using weeds as the driver for choosing a canola weed
control system is the fact that good varieties are available in every weed control system.
For example, the need to compromise weed control choices to get the 'R' blackleg-rated
variety is no longer there.

As a starting point, list the most important weeds and make a shortlist that consists of
the weed control systems that best fit those weeds. In most cases, this will narrow down
the choices to two or three systems.

List the Other "Non-Weed" Factors

Key factors other than weeds are important in the decision process. A variety or hybrid
may have performed very well in the area, or blackleg management is critical for a
given field and a 'R-rated' variety is essential. However, these factors must not take
priority away from the weed control issue. Do not put a great performing variety into a
field with a weed infestation that the available herbicide for the system will not control.
Choose a competitive variety or hybrid with a herbicide system best matched to the
weed spectrum in the field.
 306

Go through the Table 1 list of considerations and rank whether each issue is extremely
important (1), somewhat important (2) or not important (3) for each field. Assign a 1 to
no more than two considerations per field.

Table 1. Priorities in Choosing Canola Weed Control Systems for a Specific Field

Importance of this Feature in

Considerations in Choosing a Herbicide-tolerant this Field
Canola
#1 #2 #3

Weed spectrum

Herbicide rotation considerations

Recropping issues

Blackleg resistance of the variety

Yield potential of the variety

Standability, harvestability, height of the variety

Days to maturity

Green seed issues

Match Variety Attributes That Suite the Features Marked as High Priority

Numerous information sources are available on harvestability, blackleg resistance or

other attributes of varieties. Sources include provincial extension services, the company
that distributes the variety and the Canola Council of Canada.

Use these sources to find which varieties have the highest ranking for the attribute
considerations checked as #1 priority.

Then narrow that list down further by selecting the varieties that also give satisfactory
results of the #2-rated priorities.

Time of Weed Removal

Weeds can be one of the most limiting factors in canola production and deciding when
to control weeds is a complex decision. Growers often wonder if they should get rid of
weeds early or wait until more weeds emerge to minimize passes. How far along does
canola have to be so that any late emerging weeds are too far behind to inflict yield
loss?
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Time of weed control is a critical question for growing canola because of the
competitive nature of canola. In earlier leaf stages, there is a high cost to leaving weeds.
Young canola is very non-competitive as it is slow to cover the ground and weeds will
likely win the competition for nutrients and soil moisture. But in later stages, the crop is
more competitive, letting less than 9% of full sunlight down to the soil surface where
late-emerging weeds are in near darkness.

Researchers at Iowa State University in Ames, IA developed a graph that depicts the
goal in timing weed control operations (Figure 12). The graph shows that herbicide
applications made too early can miss weeds that emerge later, causing yield losses. At
the other end of the graph, yield losses are also high because late applications generally
leave weeds within the crop too long. With even a few extra days, weeds can use
enough moisture and nutrients to leave the crop short of these resources later in the
season.

Figure 12. Time of Weed Removal Model

Theoretically, there should be an ideal application timing that is late enough to allow
weeds to germinate, but not so late as to allow weeds to cause serious yield loss. The
ideal timing is depicted in the graph at the bottom of the curve in Figure 12, where
losses are minimal. The ideal timing will likely shift to the left (earlier) or right (later)
depending on weed populations, types of weeds, weather and whether crop nutrients are
limiting.

When weeds emerge relative to crop emergence can have an impact on the severity of
yield loss. In studies at the AAFC Scott, SK Research Centre where 150 barley
seeds/m2 (124/yd2) were sown into canola prior to and following emergence, the time of
barley emergence had significant effects on canola yields (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Effect of Time of Volunteer Barley Emergence on Canola

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Yield Losses

The competitiveness of the weed species is also important in determining yield losses.
The more competitive the weed, the fewer weeds needed to cause a yield reduction.
Research by the Vegreville, AB Alberta Research Council (ARC) on wild oats has
shown weeds that emerge before or with the crop cause greater yield loss than weeds
that emerge after the crop (Figure 14). Additionally, fewer weeds tend to emerge after
the crop has reached the four-leaf stage and those that do are usually weaker and
spindly.

Figure 14. Yield Loss versus Weed/Crop Emergence

Farm practices can influence the time of weed emergence. Tillage just prior to seeding
can assist in destroying weeds that have germinated, essentially giving the crop a head
start. Where tillage has been carried out several days to a week before seeding, a new
flush of weeds may already have started germinating. On-row packing provides good
seed/soil contact to promote rapid germination and emergence. Timing of spring burn-
off can also influence weed emergence. Significant differences in growth rates between
weed species further complicate the appropriate time to control weeds. Cleavers, stork's
bill and spiny annual sow thistle have rapid growth rates and even under cool conditions
advance through their leaf stages while other species are delayed. Timing of control is
even more critical when these species are present.

The benefits of early weed removal are supported by numerous research studies across
western Canada. During the seedling stage, when the crop is susceptible to competition,
weeds like wild oats and volunteer cereals can become serious problems (Figure 15).

Figure 15. Effect of Timing of Wild Oat Removal on Canola Yields (three-year average

yield)

Researchers at AAFC Lacombe and Beaverlodge, AB Research Centres summarized

nine site-years of spray timings of Roundup Ready canola at Lacombe, Beaverlodge and
Ellerslie, AB. Glyphosate was applied at the 1- to 2-leaf stage, 3- to 4-leaf stage and 5-
to 6-leaf stage of the crop. Normally the longer weed control is delayed, the greater the
damage (Table 2).
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Table 2. Crop Staging that Gave the Best Yields in Nine Site-years of Weed
Control Trials in Small Plots in Alberta

Year Lacombe Edmonton Beaverlodge

Best yield when

Best yield when
crop was Best yield when crop was sprayed
1997 crop was sprayed in
sprayed in 1- to in 1- to 2-leaf
1- to 2-leaf
2-leaf

Best yield when

Best yield when
crop was Best yield when crop was sprayed
1998 crop was sprayed in
sprayed in 3- to in 3- to 4-leaf
1- to 2-leaf
4-leaf

Best yield when Best yield when crop was sprayed

Best yield when
crop was in 3- to 4-leaf. The latest (5- to 6-
1999 crop was sprayed in
sprayed in 5- to leaf) application actually yielded
1- to 2-leaf
6-leaf better than the earliest

At Lacombe and at Edmonton sites in 1999, the latest applications yielded better
because a significant number of weeds emerged after the early and mid glyphosate
application. In this situation a second application of glyphosate would have been a good
strategy two times out of nine. Dockage in this study was least when weeds were
removed at the four-leaf stage. Earlier removal led to higher dockage because of a
second flush of weeds, while late removal led to higher dockage due to reduced
herbicide efficacy on weeds at an advanced growth stage. Overall early timings provide
the best returns because the early emerging weeds do relatively more damage to yield
potential than later emerging weeds. In seven out of nine cases, early timings (1- to 4-
leaf stage) resulted in the highest canola yields of all treatments. In one case, the latest
timing actually yielded the best. Early weed removal may not show a yield response
under dry conditions such as at Lacombe in 1998 (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Time of Weed Removal effect on Canola Seed Yield

In trials conducted by the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, MB at multiple

locations over two years, it was necessary to control weeds by the four-leaf stage to
prevent greater than 5% yield loss (Table 3).
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Table 3. Time Canola can Tolerate Weeds before a 5 or 10% Yield Loss

Length of Time that Weed Infestation could be Tolerated for

the Specified Yield Loss

Location Year 5% Yield Loss 10% Yield Loss

Days Weeds could Crop Leaf Days Weeds could Crop Leaf
be Tolerated Stage be Tolerated Stage

Carman 98 43 8 to 10 Whole season Harvest

Winnipeg 98 32 6 34 6-leaf

Carman
99 38 4 38 4-leaf
(early)

Carman
99 17 4 19 4-leaf
(late)

Winnipeg 99 34 8-10 Whole season Harvest

8- to 10-
Homewood 99 22 6 33
leaf

The length of time weeds could be tolerated until the weeds had caused a 5 or 10% yield
loss varied from site to site. A 10% yield loss does not happen until the weeds are
allowed to remain in the field to the four-leaf stage. Weeds that emerged after the four-
to six-leaf stage seldom impacted actual canola yields to a 10% yield loss level.
Concentrate on early emerging weeds and worry less about the later emerging weeds
that come up after the crop has hit the four- to six-leaf stage. In two out of six fields,
weed control was not needed at all to avoid a 10% yield loss. Therefore, growers can
maximize returns by knowing whether to spray as well as when to spray.

Research by applied research associations in Alberta with seven farm field trials across
the province found that waiting for late weeds to germinate did not pay. Their results
showed a 224 kg/ha (4 bu/ac) yield increase by spraying at the 1-leaf versus the 5-leaf
stage (Figure 17).
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Figure 17. Effect of Time of Weed Removal and Yield of Canola in Alberta Fields

(average of all trials)

Trials by the Canola Council of Canada at Crop Production Centres across western
Canada show the impact of early weed removal in canola. Large plots were sprayed for
weeds at the 1- to 2-leaf stage of the crop (early), the 3- to 5-leaf stage (mid) and at the
6-plus leaf stage (late). In some years, the mid-timing was missed or not included in the
trials. In some years, two broader timings were used as opposed to three narrower
timings. The results show a consistent trend toward better yields when application is
aimed at the earliest timing (Table 4).

Table 4. Summary of Canola Production Centre Trials on Time of Weed Removal

Yield at Stage Removed

Seeding Best Early Yield
Year Location 1- to 1- to 3- to 4- to 6- to
Date Timing Advantage
2- 3- 5- 6- 7-
Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf

1998 Russell, MB May 13 25.4 18.7 Early 35.8%

1998 Whitewood Apr 23 33.8 31.7 Early 6.6%

1998 Whitewood May 08 28.2 25.6 Early 10.2%

1998 Naicam, SK May 04 36.4 36.2 Early 0.6%

1998 Naicam May 21 32.9 32.5 Early 1.2%

Lethbridge,
1998 Apr 21 28.1 28 Early 0.4%
AB

1998 Lethbridge May 01 25.4 26.4 Late

1998 Andrew, AB Apr 28 33.8 33.3 Early 1.5%

1998 Andrew May 08 34.7 34.3 Early 1.2%

1999 Carman, Jun 07 35.8 31.2 28.1 Early 27.4%

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Table 4. Summary of Canola Production Centre Trials on Time of Weed Removal

Yield at Stage Removed

Seeding Best Early Yield
Year Location 1- to 1- to 3- to 4- to 6- to
Date Timing Advantage
2- 3- 5- 6- 7-
Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf

MB

1999 Naicam May 09 40.6 38.5 36.8 Early 10.3%

1999 Russell Apr 30 43 34.7 Early 23.9%

1999 Russell May 27 40 39.2 Early 2.0%

1999 Naicam May 08 38.4 36 Early 6.7%

1999 Naicam May 21 35.3 34.2 Early 3.2%

1999 Delmas, SK May 20 37.7 35.6 35.7 Early 5.6%

1999 Russell NR 33.3 27.4 21.2 Early 57.1%

Vegreville,
1999 May 23 37.6 38.9 37.7 Mid
AB

1999 Vegreville May 06 46.1 45.4 Early 1.5%

1999 Vegreville May 22 50.3 48.1 Early 4.6%

1999 Lethbridge Apr 22 27.9 27.7 Early 0.7%

1999 Lethbridge May 04 46.6 45.9 Early 1.5%

Wanham,
1999 May 06 38.2 37.2 29.2 Early 30.8%
AB

1999 Rolla, B.C. May 17 32.4 20.8 Early 55.8%

2000 Selkirk, MB May 06 33.4 17.8 Early 87.6%

2000 Naicam May 05 40.4 38.1 37 Early 9.2%

2000 Vegreville May 12 40 40.8 29.8 Mid

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While there are site-to-site and year-to-year differences, the ideal herbicide application
timing on canola is consistently about the same time. In an overwhelming 24 seeding
date/locations out of 27, the earliest timing gave the best yield. The early applications
showed a 16% yield advantage compared to the latest timing.

The mid-timings (3- to 5-leaf stage) did not have better yields compared to the early
timings. Waiting a few extra days means that more late germinating weeds may be up
and controllable. But this did not translate into yield. The mid-timings were best in only
three cases out of eight trials where three timings were included. Also note that early
weed control holds true for earlyseeded or late-seeded crops.

These studies clearly show that control of weeds at the early stage of crop development
is one of the most important requirements for growing a high yielding canola crop.

Herbicide Performance

The effectiveness of herbicides depends on many factors including:

 Apply the herbicide at the growth stage most susceptible to target

weeds.
 Use properly calibrated application machinery.
 Apply the recommended rate of herbicide (read and follow the label
carefully). Take every precaution to avoid harmful side effects. Take
great care to avoid contaminating the water sources when filling
sprayers.
 Apply the herbicide accurately and uniformly.
 Use the water volume stated on the label.
 Crop competition assists in good weed control. Adequate fertility will
increase crop competition. Good crop growth will also suppress later
emerging weeds.
 Higher temperatures and low relative humidity result in rapid drying of
droplets and greater herbicide loss from evaporation. Crop injury may
be increased with some products when both temperature and humidity
are very high. Better weed control usually results when herbicides are
applied during the cooler parts of the day.
 Soil moisture, organic matter and texture may affect soil-incorporated
herbicides. Weed control is best when soil moisture conditions are
optimum. Excessive moisture will prevent adequate mixing of the
products. Soil high in organic matter and/or clay will require higher rates
of soil-incorporated herbicide to obtain adequate control.
 A rain-free period after application of post emergence herbicides is
required to allow time for the weeds to absorb the chemical.
 Water containing large amounts of organic matter, clay, and other
particles will result in nozzle plugging and reduced weed control.
 Do not spray when wind velocity exceeds 15 km/hr (9 m/hr), or use a
wind shroud on the sprayer.
 Most herbicides contain sufficient wetting agent in the formulation
product. Do not add extra wetting agent unless indicated on the
product label.
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 If possible spray weeds that are actively growing. Herbicide activity is

usually reduced when applied to weeds subjected to cold and/or
moisture stress.

Herbicide Drift, Sprayer Contamination and Herbicide Residues

Spray drift from most herbicides not registered for the canola system being grown can
injure plants. For some Group 4 herbicides, the least damage occurs at the 2- to 4-leaf
stage of the canola plant, the most at flowering. Spray drift, soil residues or sprayer
contamination of some Group 2 herbicides may severely damage canola plants. It is
essential that sprayer tanks, booms and nozzles are cleaned out thoroughly, particularly
after Group 2 herbicides, to prevent sensitive crop injury from subsequent spray
applications. Follow label recommendations for all equipment cleanout. Carefully plan
rotations and herbicides.

Incorporation of Soil-Applied Herbicides

The recommended procedures for mixing or incorporating pre-emergent herbicides into

the soil are found on the herbicide label. Such procedures will usually give the desired
results. Exceptions occur due to the wide variety of soil and climatic conditions. Tillage
and incorporation procedures that are necessary for these herbicide applications are not
favourable to soil moisture conservation and soil erosion prevention.

Herbicide

The depth of incorporation for maximum effectiveness varies with the herbicide and the
weed to be controlled. Course textured soils and soils with low organic matter may
require different herbicide rates than other soils.

Soil Conditions

Uniform application and proper incorporation is essential to receive full benefit from a
soil-incorporated herbicide. Loose, mellow soils are ideal for mixing the herbicide
uniformly to the desired depth. Hard and lumpy soils, and those that are wet and sticky
make it difficult to get uniform and proper mixing.

Dry soils will, in some cases, limit herbicide activity. An incorporation procedure that
dries out the soil just before or even after seeding can result in poor emergence of the
crop. Timing and method of incorporation are important where weather conditions will
dry out the soil. A loose or lumpy soil surface will lose moisture in fall and spring.
Harrow and pack cultivated soils that are likely to dry out after every tillage operation.
Granules placed on hard, lumpy soil before incorporation can fall between the lumps
and go too deep, whereas liquid attaches to the soil. Therefore, if granules are to be
used, it may be necessary to pre-work the soil to get it into a condition where the
granules may be mixed within the desired soil layer. Lumpy or sticky soils may require
several tillage operations to get them into a good condition for proper incorporation.

Where soil erosion is not a problem, fall application is usually preferable to conserve
spring seedbed moisture. On some soils, the recommended incorporation procedure for
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either fall or spring may leave the soil so loose, soft and fine that it will be subject to
both wind and water erosion. On these soils, consider a minimum incorporation if
alternate methods of weed control are available.

Incorporation Equipment

Tandem disc harrows, discers and any type of disc type implement will provide deeper
incorporation, more soil breakdown and faster and more uniform mixing to the depth of
tillage than most other implements. Use these where deep incorporation is needed,
where the soil is lumpy or sticky and where soil erosion is not a problem. The
percentages of herbicide distributed at various depths by different tillage machines are
shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Incorporation of Herbicides by Tillage

% of Herbicide Found at the Following

Machine Set at a Depth of 75 mm (3") Depths
and Speed of 8 km/hr (5 m/hr)
0 to 25 mm 25 to 50 mm 50 to 75 mm
(0 to 1") (1 to 2") (2 to 3")

Tandem and offset disc 40.2 46.4 13.4

Discer 41.4 41.0 17.6

Field cultivator (vibrashank) with

60.8 36.6 3.6
harrows

Chisel plow (H.D. cultivator) with

57.3 35.4 7.2
harrows

Harrows (diamond dragtype) (tine Most in the

- -
harrows probably similar) top 0 to 33

Tilling before applying a herbicide will produce a loose but smooth soil surface. This
increases the depth and uniformity of herbicide incorporation.

Cultivators tend to give shallow incorporation and uneven mixing. Deep tillage of 10
cm (4") or more will give less soil disturbance. For good mixing, a higher travel speed
of 10 to 13 km/hr (8 m/hr) is necessary. This higher speed throws soil upward and
sideways to give more even incorporation. Higher speeds also help to break up lumps.
Any brand of cultivator can be used, but shank spacing, speed, depth and kind of
sweeps must be adjusted.

Harrows are very useful for shallow incorporation. Tine harrows behind cultivators
contribute to better mixing due to the lively action of the tines. Drag harrows on stubble
fields may not work well for incorporation if they are constantly loaded with a lot of
trash.
 316

Rod weeders and wide-blade machines are not capable of mixing herbicide in the soil.
Do not use these implements.

In stubble, the most effective incorporation of liquid herbicide is obtained if the field is
first worked until about two-thirds of the surface is black. Granules can be applied
directly to stubble before tillage, but spread the straw bunches. Weed or volunteer crop
growth on fields will also absorb liquid herbicide.

Choose the incorporation procedure after a careful assessment of the field, climatic
conditions and herbicide requirements.

Canola Volunteer Control

Volunteer canola can be as easily managed in cereal and other crops as any broadleaf
weed. In provincial weed surveys, volunteer canola ranks in the top 20 weeds found in
crops across western Canada. Volunteer canola plants, as weeds, are quite competitive
to cereal crops (Figure 18) and need to be controlled early (Table 6).

Figure 18. Estimated Yield Loss in Wheat and Barley from Volunteer Canola

Table 6. Wheat Yield Increases once Volunteer Canola is Removed

Canola Removed (days after wheat Wheat Leaf Yield %

emergence) Stage Increase

7 days 2-leaf 212

14 days 3-leaf 189

21 days 5-leaf 176

30 days - 120

Research at the AAFC Saskatoon, SK Research Centre found that the average loss of
seed during canola harvest operations was over 101 kg/ha (90 lb/ac). This could result
in extremely large numbers of volunteer canola plants the year following the canola
crop.
 317

Herbicide-Tolerant Volunteer Canola

The large-scale adoption of herbicide-tolerant canola (HTC) varieties in western Canada

requires greater attention to volunteer management, especially in direct seeding
operations. Volunteer HTC canola means that growers may need to adopt a new weed
management strategy in their cropping systems. Products previously used to control
volunteer conventional canola may not be an option with volunteer HTC canola. For
example, after growing Roundup Ready canola the pre-seeding glyphosate burn-off the
next year must now be used with additional products (for example, 2,4-D for cereals,
bromoxynil plus MCPA for peas). In addition, although not common, some of the
volunteers may be multiple-resistant due to cross-pollination between the various canola
systems (conventional canola, Roundup Ready, Liberty Link, and Clearfield).

Check provincial weed control or crop protection guides for current recommendations
for controlling herbicide-tolerant canola volunteers.

Pollen Flow and Outcrossing

B. napus is mainly self-pollinating with outcrossing rates of 20 to 30%. The vast

majority of canola pollen, which is heavy and sticky, falls to plant surfaces and the
ground within a few metres of its source. Canola pollen is also very small-one-third the
size of corn pollen and one-half the size of grass pollen. A small percentage (5 to 10%)
becomes airborne and floats like dust particles on the wind. Wind is the main pollen
mover. Most pollen remains viable for a minimum of 24 to 48 hours and for longer
periods under ideal conditions. Bees only do a small amount of outcrossing as each bee
normally feeds on about four flowers before being fully covered with pollen. Bees,
however, do forage about 2 to 10 km (1.2 to 6.2 miles). Volunteers are another source
of pollen both in the field and beside the field. Pollen may also be dispersed by other
insects, on clothes and in admixtures of seed.

Pollen from plants of any of the herbicide-tolerant systems can outcross to any nearby
canola plants whether or not they are the same or of a different system. In other words,
the pollen of herbicide-tolerant canola plants can outcross to nearby non-herbicide-
tolerant canola or canola with other herbicide tolerances.

Research studies at the AAFC Saskatoon Research Centre in the 1970's showed that
outcrossing levels or pollen flow from large commercial fields to small plots tended to
be at low levels (46 m (151') = 2.1%, 137 m (449') = 1.1% and 366 m (1201') = 0.6%).
A 1998 research study found substantially lower outcrossing rates between large
commercial fields ranging from 0.1 to 1.5% at 20 m (66') to 0.1 to 0.4% at 100 m (328').
A University of Manitoba trial using small fields also reported low levels of outcrossing
(Figure 19).
 318

Figure 19. Per cent Outcrossing by Distance from Source in Small Fields

Research studies at the AAFC Saskatoon Research Centre have shown that isolation
distances of 100 m (328') are normally sufficient for purity of pedigreed seed.
Regulations for production of hybrid seed specify isolation distances of at least 800 m
(2,625') to ensure that no stray pollen fertilizes the female plants.

Despite the low probability of outcrossing, the large number of canola flowers and
small seed produced ensures a substantial number of outcrossed seed could still be
produced. Some seed may shatter onto the ground before or at harvest and germinate the
following season with the succeeding crop. At a 0.2% outcrossing rate in a field
yielding 1401 kg/ha (25 bu/ac) a shatter and harvest loss of 3% would result in about 4
seeds/m2 (10,000 seeds/ac). Although nearly all the plants originating from such seed
would normally be killed by frost, herbicide treatment and/or tillage, some could
survive to compete with the succeeding crop and warrant further chemical or
mechanical control.

Multiple Resistance Canola

In 1998, outcrossing between canola varieties was documented in a grower's chem-

fallow field in northern Alberta. Pollen flow from an adjacent field in 1997 conferred
herbicide tolerance to volunteers. As the grower did not anticipate this, the same
herbicide was applied to control the volunteers, and it was ineffective. Multiple
herbicidetolerant canola volunteers were identified, as would be expected through
outcrossing. Volunteer canola plants tolerant to Liberty, Roundup and ALS inhibitors
and combinations of these are likely present in many fields across western Canada. The
volunteer plants most likely to be noticed by growers will be Roundup-tolerant because
Roundup is used for chem-fallow and pre-seeding burn-off, while Liberty, Navigator
and ALS inhibitors like Pursuit are not. Similarly, ALS inhibitor-tolerant volunteers
may remain in cereal or pea fields that used only Group 2 herbicides.

Control of Volunteer Canola

Control of volunteer canola, whether herbicide-tolerant or not, can be achieved by a

variety of methods currently used by growers. For effective control of volunteers:

 Keep good records. Effective weed control strategies depend on long-

term records for each field regarding crop rotations and herbicides
applied.
 319

 After harvest leave canola seeds on or near the soil surface as long as
possible. A high percentage of seeds left on the soil surface will
germinate in the fall and be killed by frosts while remaining seeds will
germinate in the early spring and can be controlled either by frost,
through tillage or by herbicides in the succeeding crop. Canola seeds
can only become dormant when hydrated but prevented from
germinating by water stress or oxygen deficiency. Induction of
dormancy can occur only in the dark and is prevented by light. The
closer seeds are to the soil surface the less likely they are to persist by
developing dormancy. Seeds of B. napus varieties that are incorporated
into the soil develop induced secondary dormancy and can persist for
up to four years in the soil.
 Avoid tillage in the spring to allow for maximum volunteer emergence.
Use tillage immediately prior to seeding to control volunteer canola.
Tillage can play an important role in weed control in conventional
systems, and growers can maximize weed control benefits by shortening
the interval between tillage and seeding operations.
 Rotate canola with cereal, pea and forage crops. Diversifying a rotation
permits use of a wider selection of herbicides. Lengthening the rotation
depletes the volunteers from the soil weed seed bank.
 For pre-seeding or chem-fallow weed control on canola stubble, add a
phenoxy like 2,4-D to glyphosate or use a herbicide like Gramoxone
PDQ. Control of volunteers on or adjacent to Roundup Ready canola
stubble will not be effective with glyphosate alone.
 Use herbicide mixtures when using Groups 2, 6, or 9 products. All canola
volunteers regardless of system are controlled by inexpensive Group 4
herbicides such as 2,4-D and MCPA.
 Rotate to herbicides not in Groups 2, 6, 9 or 10. Rotation of herbicides is
important for weed resistance management and for the control of
herbicide-resistant volunteer canola.
 Include silaging and green manuring to control volunteers.
 Isolate fields with different herbicide systems. Do not grow them side-by-
side in the same field or across the fence line. To minimize the amount of
field-to-field crossing, the current research data suggests a minimum of
175 m (575') isolation between fields.
 Scout fields for volunteer canola that are not controlled by herbicide
application. Early detection allows time for control before seed set.
 Grow competitive crops. Increase seeding rates, choose competitive
varieties, seed early, and place a balanced fertilizer close to the seed.
 Reduce the loss of seed during canola harvest. Swathing at between 20
and 35% seed colour change on the main stem reduces shatter loss.
Properly adjust the combine so that seed losses are minimized. Higher
combining speeds increase seed loss.
 Use certified seed. Pedigreed seed use reduces the probability of
seeding multiple herbicidetolerant canola that arose due to outcrossing
in common seed source fields without adequate isolation or separation.

Weed Resistance to Herbicides

Herbicide resistance is of increasing concern in crop production. A 1999 AAFC survey

estimated that 2% of Saskatchewan fields and 27% of Manitoba fields had wild oats
 320

resistant to herbicides from more than one group. Repeated application of the same
herbicide group on a field will promote herbicide-resistant weeds. Studies have shown
that Group 1 resistance can develop after just five to 10 applications. Resistance may
appear more quickly in areas of heavy wild oat infestation due to a larger genetic
variability and more total mutation possibilities in those areas. When planning cropping
decisions and annual weed control decisions, use strategies to reduce the risk of
developing herbicide-resistant weeds.

Saskatchewan fields and 27% of Manitoba fields had wild oats resistant to herbicides
from more than one group. Repeated application of the same herbicide group on a field
will promote herbicide-resistant weeds. Studies have shown that Group 1 resistance can
develop after just five to 10 applications. Resistance may appear more quickly in areas
of heavy wild oat infestation due to a larger genetic variability and more total mutation
possibilities in those areas. When planning cropping decisions and annual weed control
decisions, use strategies to reduce the risk of developing herbicide-resistant weeds.

In western Canada, a number of weeds have already been identified as resistant to a

variety of herbicides including those listed in Table 7.

Table 7. Occurrence of Herbicide-resistant Weeds in Western Canada

Weed Type Species Herbicide Groups Province

Wild oat 1 MB, SK, AB

Wild oat 2 MB, SK, AB

Wild oat 8 MB, SK, AB

Wild oat 1,2,25 MB, AB

Grasses Wild oat 1,2,8,25 MB

Wild oat 1,16 AB

Green foxtail 1 MB, SK

Green foxtail 2 MB, SK

Green foxtail 1, 3 MB, SK

Broadleaf Chickweed 2 AB

Cleavers 2 AB

Cleavers 2, 4 AB

Hemp nettle 2 MB, AB

 321

Table 7. Occurrence of Herbicide-resistant Weeds in Western Canada

Weed Type Species Herbicide Groups Province

Kochia 2 MB, AB

Spiny annual sow thistle 2 AB

Russian thistle 2 AB, SK

Wild mustard 2 MB, AB

Wild mustard 4 MB

Wild mustard 5 MB

Herbicide products are grouped according to the mode of action or way in which they
act upon a weed (Table 8). Some herbicide products contain more than one active
ingredient that may appear in more than one herbicide group. One important way to
help reduce the potential for herbicide resistance is to rotate herbicides. However, it is
not enough to simply rotate herbicide products. Rotation must be between herbicide
groups.

For current information check provincial guides to weed control or crop protection or
check the Canola Council Web site at www.canola-council.org.

At one time it was thought that giving weed populations a "break" from a herbicide
would allow the susceptible weed populations to increase in number at the expense of
resistant populations. It was thought that resistant weed populations were universally
poorer competitors than susceptible populations and, therefore, would eventually
decline in numbers when faced with competition from susceptible populations.
However, research work conducted in the late 1980's and early 1990's began to identify
weed species where resistant individuals were not poorer competitors or less fit than
susceptible ones. It is for this reason that researchers are rethinking herbicide resistance
control strategies and many are suggesting that, while herbicide rotation is still
essential, other management practices must be used together with herbicide rotation.

Herbicide
Weed Herbicides
Group

Assure II, Freedom Gold, Fusion, and green Hoe-

Wild oat and
Group 1 Grass 284, Muster Gold, foxtail Muster Gold II, Poast
green oxtail
Ultra, Pursuit Ultra, Select, Venture

Group 2 Absolute, Odyssey, Pursuit,

Group 3 Edge, Trifluralin

 322

Herbicide
Weed Herbicides
Group

Group 8 Avadex, Fortress

Group 9 Glyphosate, Eclipse

Group 10 Liberty

Group 2 Absolute, Muster, Odyssey, Pursuit, Freedom Gold

Group 3 Edge, Trifluralin

Broadleaf
Group 4 Absolute, Eclipse, Lontrel
weeds
Group 9 Glyphosate, Eclipse

Group 10 Liberty

With conventional canola it is difficult to manage herbicides in rotations that include

canola because of the need to use a Group 1 herbicide for grassy weed control in canola.
The current HTC varieties are tolerant to non-Group 1 herbicides so now canola can be
grown without using a Group 1 product. This also provides herbicide options for other
crops. HTC varieties offer greater flexibility in field selection because of the broad
weed spectrum controlled. HTC canola will allow growers to produce a cleaner crop
more efficiently, while effectively managing herbicide resistance. The use of HTC
varieties allows growers to not use products for grassy weed control from the same
group any more frequently than "one year in three."

There are herbicides in Groups 1, 2, 3, 8, 9 and 10 for grassy weed control in canola and
herbicides in Groups 2, 3, 4, 9 and 10 for broadleaf weed control.

Some of the HTC herbicides provide good control of resistant weeds, including Group
1-resistant wild oats. For canola growers that already have weed resistance, the use of
HTC varieties may be the only way to grow canola.

In the past, direct seeding operations were unable to use a soil-incorporated Group 3
herbicide and were limited to Group 1 herbicides. HTC herbicides offer increased
options for herbicide rotation, an extremely important tool for resistance management in
direct seeding systems.

However, HTC is only one tool in the weed control toolbox. Used properly HTC canola
can be an important tool in a weed management program. Use an integrated weed
management (IWM) strategy that involves a variety of cultural and chemical weed
control techniques.

IWM strategies for weed resistance include:

 323

 Do not rely solely on herbicides for weed control.

 Keep accurate records of crop rotation and herbicide use for each field.
 Develop a field-specific long-term weed management plan.
 Scout fields after herbicide application and note weed escapes or
species shifts.
 Use non-selective herbicides. Where possible use herbicides like
paraquat or glyphosate as alternatives from time to time as part of an
overall weed control program.
 Avoid repeated use of one or more similar herbicide.
 Use herbicide-resistant varieties where possible.
 Avoid herbicides with long residual activity.
 Reduce use of herbicides. If possible skip a year, particularly in crops
where weed control is not as critical. At the very least, don't try to control
every weed in every field.
 Use cultural weed controls, including tillage where practical. Where
tillage is not an option, consider delaying seeding to allow for maximum
weed seed germination. Then spray with a non-selective herbicide.
 Use clean seed.
 Rotate both crops and herbicides. When rotating herbicides, use
products with different modes of action. Plan rotations in such a way as
to maximize the ability to use alternate herbicides or weed control
practices.
 Rotate field operation timings. Vary the crops in rotation to change time
of seeding from year to year.
 Follow label directions regarding management practices and
restrictions.
 Use good sanitation practices. Avoid spreading crop seed, weed seed,
crop residues or manure from suspicious fields.
 Use mixtures or split applications of herbicides with different modes of
action.

A good set of field records is key to minimizing the potential for developing resistant
weeds. Records allow accurate determination of the weed control history of every field
and will make planning effective weed control strategies much easier. In addition, good
records assist in determining the probable causes for a weed control failure should it
occur.

For the most up-to-date information on herbicide resistance, contact the provincial weed
specialist or government and university weed researchers.
 324

Chapter 10b - Insects

1. INSECT PESTS OF CANOLA
o Insect Management
o Field Scouting
o Alfalfa Looper (Autographa californica Speyer)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae L. and other species)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Beet Webworm (Loxostege sticticalis L.)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Bertha Armyworm (Mamestra configurata Wlk.)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Cabbage Seedpod Weevil (Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham)
)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Cabbageworms (Pieris species)
o Clover Cutworms (Dicestra trifolii (Hufnagel) )
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Cutworms - Red-backed (Euxoa ochrogaster Guen), Pale Western
(Agrotis orthogonia Morr.)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Diamondback Moth (Plutella xylostella L.)
 325

 Identification and Life Cycle

 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Flea Beetles (Phyllotreta cruciferae (Goeze) and Phyllotreta
striolata (F.))
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Lygus Bugs (Several Species)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Painted Lady, Thistle Butterfly (Vanessa cardui (L.) )
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Management
o Red Turnip Beetle (Entomoscelis americana Brown)
 Life Cycle and Appearance
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Economic Threshold
 Management
o Root Maggots (Delia species)
 Identification and Life Cycle
 Damage
 Monitoring
 Management
o Insecticides for Control of Canola Insects
 Safety
 Beneficial Insects
2. LIST OF FIGURES
o Figure 1. Scouting for Uniformly Distributed Pest
o Figure 2. Scouting for Pests at Field Edges
o Figure 3. Alfalfa Looper Life Cycle
o Figure 4. Alfalfa Looper Larva
o Figure 5. Aphids
o Figure 6. Aphid Infestation on a Canola Plant
o Figure 7. Beet Webworm Life Cycle
o Figure 8. Beet Webworm Larva
o Figure 9. Bertha Armyworm Life Cycle
o Figure 10. Bertha Armyworm
o Figure 11. Bertha Armyworm Eggs
o Figure 12. Newly Hatched Bertha Armyworm Larvae
o Figure 13. Mature Bertha Armyworm Larvae
o Figure 14. Bertha Armyworm Pupae
o Figure 15. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Life Cycle
 326

o Figure 16. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil

o Figure 17. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Larva
o Figure 18. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Exit Holes on Canola Pods
o Figure 19. Imported Cabbageworm Larva
o Figure 20. Clover Cutworm Life Cycle
o Figure 21. Clover Cutworm Larva
o Figure 22. Cutworm Life Cycle
o Figure 23. Redbacked Cutworms
o Figure 24. Diamondback Moth Life Cycle
o Figure 25. Diamondback Moth
o Figure 26. Diamondback Moth Larva
o Figure 27. Diamondback Moth Pupa
o Figure 28. Flea Beetle Life Cycle
o Figure 29. Crucifer Flea Beetle
o Figure 30. Striped Flea Beetle
o Figure 31. Lygus Bug Life Cycle
o Figure 32. Adult Lygus Bug
o Figure 33. Lygus Bug Nymph
o Figure 34. Puncture Points from Lygus Bug Feeding on Canola
Stem
o Figure 35. Sequential Sampling for Lygus Bug at Late Flowering
Stage
o Figure 36. Thistle Caterpillar
o Figure 37. Red Turnip Beetle Life Cycle
o Figure 38. Red Turnip Beetle
o Figure 39. Cabbage Root Maggot Life Cycle
o Figure 40. Cabbage Root Maggot Adult
o Figure 41. Cabbage Root Maggot
o Figure 42. Cabbage Root Maggot Damage
o Figure 43. Ladybird Beetle
o Figure 44. Ladybird Beetle Larva
o Figure 45. Hover Fly
o Figure 46. Lacewing Adult
o Figure 47. Lacewing Larva
o Figure 48. Parasitic Wasp
o Figure 49. Honey Bee
3. LIST OF TABLES
o Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola
o Table 2. Economic Injury Levels for Bertha Armyworm in B. napus
o Table 3. Lygus Bug Economic Threshold

Insect Pests of Canola

Insect Management

Canola crops can be attacked by a number of insect pests during the growing season.
When making any insect management decisions, take the following steps:

 Monitoring and Identification

Positively identify the insect and its damage. Examine fields often during
the growing season for the first signs of insect damage. Table 1 shows
 327

approximate times during which major insect pests are active in canola.
Consult the local crop specialist if insects are found but cannot be
identified.
 Economic Threshold
Determine the insect's economic threshold. Once the pest has been
identified, determine if the population density is above or below its
economic threshold. Basically, the economic threshold for an insect is
the number of insects above which damage will be greater than the
cost of control. This threshold will vary with the weather, soil fertility, crop
price, chemical costs and crop growth stage.
 Management
Decide on the type of management and timing for the best results. If
chemical control is necessary, select a product registered for the
purpose and apply it at a stage when a benefit is ensured, not too soon
or too late in the life cycle. The goal is to use cultural or chemical control
where required and reduce unnecessary pesticide applications.

Field Scouting

Field scouting is the regular examination of fields to accurately assess the kind and
number of insects present, and the amount of damage being done. Scouting should be
done weekly during the growing season and daily when infestations approach economic
threshold levels or when weather conditions favour the rapid development of specific
pests.

To properly scout for insect pests, know when they occur, where they live, what they
look like and how to find and count them. Generally, in fields of less than 100 acres,
check a minimum of five locations. In fields greater than 100 acres, check a minimum
of 10 locations. There are several possible scouting patterns that can be used when
checking fields. These options are based on pest distribution and field configuration

The first pattern is used when pests are uniformly distributed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Scouting for Uniformly Distributed Pests

This scouting pattern typically looks like an X, Z or W, excluding field edges. Pests that
fit this pattern include aphids, bertha armyworm, diamondback moth and lygus bugs.
 328

The second pattern is used when pests are at the edges of fields (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Scouting for Pests at Field Edges

Scout by walking along field edges, fence lines or ditches. Some examples of pests
appearing at the edges of fields include flea beetles and grasshoppers.

Table 1 outlines the major insect pests of canola, including appearance, damage and
crop stage.

Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola

Appearance at
Time and Crop
Insect Pest Most Damaging Damage
Stage
Insect Stage

 Looping
caterpillar
 Older larvae
 Bud to
are light  Chewed leaves
ripening
green to  Flowers and
 Generations
Alfalfa Looper olive green small seedpods
overlap
and about cut off by larger
 Mid-June to
25 mm (1") larvae
September
long
 Move by
looping

 Older larvae
are active,
black
caterpillars
 25 to 32 mm  Green tissue  Flowering to
Beet (1 to 1.3") stripped from ripening
Webworm long stems and pods  July to mid-
 Two parallel by larger larvae August
light stripes
down the
back,
flanked by
circular
 329

Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola

Appearance at
Time and Crop
Insect Pest Most Damaging Damage
Stage
Insect Stage

figures

 Older
larvae:
smooth
velvety
 Late
black to
flowering to
brown  Green tissue
ripening in
caterpillars stripped from
Manitoba
Bertha with light leaves
and
Armyworm brown  Stems and pods
Saskatchewa
heads, 40 to consumed by
n
50 mm (1.6" larvae
 August 10 to
to 2") long
30 in Alberta
 Younger
larvae are
smaller and
green

 Grey to
black  Buds destroyed
beetles with by adults
curved  Seeds
Cabbage snout consumed by  Bud to pod
 Larvae larvae within ripening
Seedpod
legless, developing  Early June to
Weevil white with pods late August
brown head  Seeds
capsules damaged by
found within adult feeding
canola pods

 First
 Climbing generation
cutworms  Leaves, young larvae at bud
 Older larvae pods and stems to late
are green to fed on by larger flowering
Clover
pale brown larvae  Second
Cutworm similar in size  Plants often generation
to the chewed to the larvae at
bertha ground ripening-
armyworm August 10 to
30
 330

Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola

Appearance at
Time and Crop
Insect Pest Most Damaging Damage
Stage
Insect Stage

 Pale western
cutworm:
older larvae
are greenish
 Seedlings
or slaty-grey
destroyed by
with a
being cut off
brown
at, or just below
head, about
soil surface so
30 to 36 mm  Late May to
plants fall over
Cutworms long (1.2 to third week in
and die
1.4") June
 Usually in
 Red-backed
patches on
cutworm:
hilltops and
older larvae
south facing
are dark-
slopes in field
grey with
dull reddish
stripe down
back

 Older larvae
are pale
yellowish
 Feeding
green about
damage on
8 mm (0.3")
flowers, young
long and
pods and  Flowering to
very active
surface tissue of ripening
 Wriggle
stems and pods  Three
Diamondback rapidly
 Flowering to generations
Moth backward
ripening overlap
with a
 Three  Mid-July to
whipping
generations early August
motion
overlap
when
 Mid-July to
disturbed, or
early August
drop quickly
on a spun
silken thread

 Shiny  Shot holes  Seedling to

beetles chewed in early rosette
Flea Beetles
about 2 to 3 cotyledons and  Mid-May to
mm (0.08" to early leaves by mid-June
0.1") long, adults
 331

Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola

Appearance at
Time and Crop
Insect Pest Most Damaging Damage
Stage
Insect Stage

black or  Heavy
black with infestations can
yellow severely
stripes damage or
 Jump off destroy crops
plants
quickly
when
disturbed

 Adults about
5 mm (0.2")
long and 2.5
mm (0.1")
wide
 Pale green
to reddish
 Bud blasting by
brown with
adults
a "V" mark in
 Seeds  Bud to pod
front of
punctured ripening
Lygus Bug wings
within pods  June to late
 Small
leaving them August
nymphs
shrunken and
green
shrivelled
 Larger
nymphs
have black
dots on
thorax and
back
abdomen

 Dark red  Plant defoliated

beetles 10 by adult
mm (0.4") beetles moving  Early rosette
Red Turnip long into fields from to bud
Beetle  Three black edge  Early to mid-
stripes  Occasionally June
running larvae can also
down back cause damage

 Larvae 6 to  Tunnelling and  Bud to pod

Root Maggot
10 mm (0.2" girdling of ripening
to 0.4") long taproots  June to
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Table 1. Major Insect Pests of Canola

Appearance at
Time and Crop
Insect Pest Most Damaging Damage
Stage
Insect Stage

 White and  In severe August

legless infestations
without roots are
head infested with
capsules secondary root
rot and may be
completely
severed

Alfalfa Looper (Autographia Californica Speyer)

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 3)

Figure 3. Alfalfa Looper Life Cycle

There are usually two overlapping generations of alfalfa looper. The alfalfa looper adult,
like the diamondback moth, is blown in from the U.S., although some may overwinter
as pupae in the soil.

The adult moth's forewings are grey with a distinct yellow, sickle-shaped spot near the
middle of each wing, while the body and hind wings are dull grey or brown. These
moths appear all summer long due to overlapping generations. They feed on flower
nectar at dusk and fly during daylight hours. Adults lay up to 150 to 200 yellow,
hemispherical eggs, singly or in small groups on host plants prior to bloom, often near
floral parts if present.

Larvae hatch in about a week and climb to the flowers and cut them off. As a result,
patches of fields that showed bloom suddenly do not have any flowers. After four weeks
of feeding, the larvae are mature and are about 25 mm (1") long. They are light green to
olive green in colour, with a paler head, a light stripe down each side, and two light
stripes along the back (Figure 4). The mature larvae appear to have a swollen abdomen.
Mature larvae attach to plants and spin cocoons in which to pupate.
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Figure 4. Alfalfa Looper Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Damage

Infestations are not common but have occurred in northern and southern Alberta and
parts of Manitoba. Damage is characterized by defoliation and clipping of flowers and
small pods. Canola plants can recover from light damage. Alfalfa looper larvae are very
susceptible to virus diseases that frequently and rapidly destroy populations of late-
instar larvae. Unfortunately, in some cases, feeding damage is usually done before viral
control can be effective.

Monitoring

Scout the field for larvae at the start of flowering. Look for characteristic clipping of
flowers.

Economic Threshold

There is no economic threshold for alfalfa looper.

Management

Insecticides: If an infestation occurs, assess the damage and delay spraying as long as
possible to allow diseases an opportunity to control the pest. Check provincial crop
protection guides for registered insecticides.

Aphids (Brevicoryne Brassicae L. and Other Species)

Identification and Life Cycle

Occasionally aphids (Figure 5) become abundant in canola crops. Noticeable numbers

usually appear at the tops of plants in late July to early August. The aphids frequently
cover the entire top 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6") of plants (Figure 6). In most cases, individual
or small groups of plants are infested.
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Figure 5. Aphids

Photo by Roy Ellis

Figure 6. Aphid Infestation on a Canola Plant

Photo by Phil Thomas

Damage

The damage is rarely significant since the bulk of pod formation has been completed,
and the damaged top few small pods contribute little to the overall yield.

Economic Threshold

There is no economic threshold for aphids in canola.

Management

Spraying is not economical. Several beneficial insects, like the ladybird beetle and
lacewing feed primarily on aphids. Their populations increase as aphid populations
increase, usually in numbers sufficient to control the aphids.
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Beet Webworm (Loxostege Sticticalis L.)

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 7)

Figure 7. Beet Webworm Life Cycle

There are two generations of beet webworm per year. Beet webworms overwinter either
as pupae or larvae within cocoons. The first generation moths emerge from the pupal
stage in late May or early June. The moths are small, about 25 mm (1") long and pale
brown. They are often seen flying during the day in swarms, especially if disturbed
from favoured patches of stinkweed in bloom. The hard-to-find, tiny white eggs are laid
in rows on the undersides of leaves of preferred plants. Lamb's-quarters are favourite
egg-laying sites and food plants for the beet webworm.

The larvae first appear in late June and July. The 25 to 32 mm (1 to 1.3") larvae or
caterpillars are slender and active, and dark green in the early instar stages, becoming
black as they mature. There are two white or cream-coloured stripes on either side of the
centre line of the back, plus two rows of paired circular figures down either side of the
back (Figure 8). The larvae spin silk which appears as webbing at the tops of plants.
The caterpillars will often migrate in "armies" to nearby crops when weed hosts are
destroyed by defoliation, drought or herbicides. When the larvae of the first generation
mature in mid August, they burrow into the soil and spin long tubular silken cocoons
just below the soil surface. Soil particles stick to the outside of the silky cocoons.

Figure 8. Beet Webworm Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Damage

The larvae start feeding on the leaves of canola, then on the stems and pods, stripping
surface tissue and giving the crop a whitish appearance, usually in localized areas within
the field. Damage often results from invasion by a migrating army of beet webworms
 336

that has developed elsewhere in an adjacent weedy field. Such an invasion can almost
completely destroy the crop. Light infestations may cause reduced yields from pod
peeling, which leads to incomplete formation and filling of pods. This insect was a
serious pest in 1971 and 1972. Its importance has since declined in recent years,
possibly because of improved control of lamb's-quarters and pigweed.

Monitoring

Scout the field for larvae late June through mid-August.

Economic Threshold

An economic threshold for beet webworm has not been firmly established, but is
thought to be similar to that of the bertha armyworm.

Management

Cultural: Good weed control practices, especially for lamb'squarters, can prevent high
larval densities from developing.

Insecticides: Beet webworms are readily controlled with registered foliar insecticide
sprays. Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

Bertha Armyworm (Mamestra Configurata Wlk.)

Bertha armyworm is one of the most significant insect pests of canola in Canada. It
occurs throughout Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the interior of British
Columbia. Severe infestations can occur throughout most of this area but are usually
limited to the parkland area of the prairies and the Peace River region of British
Columbia and Alberta.

Bertha armyworm is native to North America and belongs to a group of insects called
"climbing cutworms." The true armyworm and variegated cutworm are also in this
group.

In most years, populations are kept low by unfavourable weather conditions such as
cold winters and cool wet weather, and by parasites, predators and diseases. But when
these natural regulators fail, populations can increase dramatically, creating the potential
for widespread damage to a variety of broadleaf crops. In extreme situations,
infestations of more than 1,000 larvae/m2 (1,200/yd 2) have been reported while densities
of 50 to 200 larvae/m2 (60 to 240/yd2) may be common. Infestations may be localized
or spread over millions of acres.
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Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 9)

Figure 9. Bertha Armyworm Life Cycle

There is one generation of bertha armyworm per year.

Bertha armyworm feed on a variety of crops and weeds. Canola, rapeseed, mustard,
lamb's quarters and related plants are preferred host plants. Bertha will also feed on a
range of secondary hosts including flax, peas and potato.

Adult moths emerge from overwintering pupae in mid-June and emergence continues
until late July. The moth has a wingspan of about 4 cm (1.6") and is active only at night.
The forewing is predominantly gray, and flecked with patches of black, brown, olive
and white scales (Figure 10). Near the middle of the forewing, toward the leading wing
margin (front), there is a prominent, white, kidney-shaped marking defined with a ring
of whitish scales. Near the tip of the forewing, there is a conspicuous white and
olivecoloured, irregular transverse marking that is characteristic of the species. It is
suspected that moths are strongly attracted to canola fields that are in bloom and
secreting nectar. Adult moths mate within five days of emergence and lay their eggs on
the undersides of canola leaves soon after emergence. The eggs are laid in single-layer
clusters of 50 to 500 in a honeycomb arrangement (Figure 11). Each female moth will
lay about 2,150 eggs but as many as 3,500 eggs per female have been recorded. The
eggs are sculptured, ridged and pinhead in size. When first laid, they are white but
become darker as they develop. At average temperatures, the eggs hatch within a week.

Figure 10. Bertha Armyworm

Photo by Roy Ellis

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Figure 11. Bertha Armyworm Eggs

Photo by Roy Ellis

Newly hatched larvae are about 0.3 cm (0.1") long (Figure 12). They are pale green
with a pale yellowish stripe along each side. Due to their size and colour, they are
difficult to see on the undersides of leaves. When disturbed, small larvae may drop off
the leaves by a fine silken thread. This behaviour makes it difficult to distinguish small
bertha armyworm larvae from those of the diamondback moth, which display a similar
behaviour. Large larvae drop off the plants and curl up when disturbed, a defensive
behaviour typical of cutworms and armyworms.
 339

Figure 12. Newly Hatched Bertha Armyworm Larvae

Photo by Roy Ellis

Depending on the temperature, larvae take approximately six weeks to complete their
development. During this period, they moult five times and pass through six growth
stages. As they mature their colour becomes variable. Some remain green, but may
become brown or velvety black (Figure 13). At maturity, the larvae are about 4 cm
(1.6") long, with a light brown head and a broad, yellowishorange stripe along each
side. The velvety black larvae have three narrow, broken white lines on their backs. At
maturity in late summer or early fall, larvae burrow into the ground and form pupae.
 340

Figure 13. Mature Bertha Armyworm Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Pupation usually begins in mid- to late August and continues through to early to mid-
September. If autumn is unusually warm, some pupae may continue their development
and emerge as moths in late August or September, only to perish when winter arrives.
Bertha armyworm overwinters as pupae in the ground at depths of 5 to 16 cm (2 to
6.3"). The pupa is a reddish brown pod-like structure about 0.5 to 1.8 cm (0.2 to 0.7") in
size and tapered with flexible, terminal abdominal segments (Figure 14). The pupa
protects bertha armyworm while it transforms from the larval stage to the adult moth.
Bertha armyworm pupae are indistinguishable from other cutworm pupae.
 341

Figure 14. Bertha Armyworm Pupae

Damage

Larvae are the only development stage of bertha armyworm to cause crop damage.

The degree of damage varies with the crop, the plant's growth stage, the growth stage of
the larvae and the number of larvae present. Depending on the season and crop location,
significant crop damage usually occurs within a three-week period between late July
and late August. A larval population of 200/m2 (187/yd2) can reduce yields by 50%. The
larvae are not highly mobile and migrate from an infested field only when the food
supply is short, or the field is over-ripe.

Small larvae feed on the underside of leaves, chewing irregularly shaped holes in the
leaves. They usually cause little damage at this stage, even when population levels are
high. Substantial crop damage can occur after the larvae moult to the second-last instar.
These larvae are about 1.3 cm (0.5") in length. Larvae in the last two larval stages eat
about 80 to 90% of the plant material consumed during the life of the larvae.

If the plants drop their leaves before the larvae are mature, the developing larvae will
feed directly on stems and pods. From a distance, infested canola fields look pale white
because larvae eat the outer green layer of the stems and pods exposing underlying
white tissue. Pods may be "debarked," but more commonly, the larvae chew holes in the
pods and eat the seeds. At high numbers, the entire pod may be consumed. Even if the
pods are only stripped of their outer green layer and not eaten entirely, crop losses still
may occur because of premature shattering. At swathing larvae can continue to feed for
a few days until the crop dries in the swath. However, by swathing most larvae have
 342

dropped to the ground to pupate. In some years, early-seeded canola can be swathed
prior to damage.

Monitoring

The number of bertha armyworm larvae in a crop one year is not a reliable indicator of
what to expect the following year. Bertha armyworm populations fluctuate widely from
year to year. Monitoring programs established by provincial governments assist growers
with making crop protection decisions. The monitoring programs use accumulated
degree-days to monitor the development of overwintering pupae into moths.
Pheromone-baited traps that attract the male moths monitor the flight of bertha
armyworm moths. The number of moths collected by these traps gives an indication of
the risk of bertha armyworm larval infestations. Generally, higher moth numbers during
the flight period (around mid-June through July) indicate greater risk of larval damage
(in July and August). Risk assessment maps are available from crop specialists and on
provincial Web sites.

Check for larvae in each field regularly to minimize crop losses. Begin larval
monitoring after peak flowering or about two weeks after peak trap catches and
continue until either the mean number of larvae per m2 exceeds the economic threshold
(at which point the crop is sprayed) or the crop is swathed. It is important to monitor
larval numbers in each field. Adjacent fields may have very different larval densities,
depending on how attractive the crop was when the moths were laying their eggs.
Adjacent fields may also have different-sized larvae, depending on when the eggs were
laid.

For accurate larval estimates in a crop, sample at least three locations, a minimum of 50
m (164') apart. Do not sample headlands (20 m or 66' wide) and areas within the crop
that are not representative of the field. At each location, mark out an area of 1 m2 and
beat the plants growing within that area to dislodge the larvae. Push the plants aside or
remove them and count the number of larvae in the m2. It is important to take your time
when counting larvae. Carefully search the soil and leaf litter. The larvae are difficult to
see and may be hidden underneath clumps of soil, in cracks in the soil or within curled
leaves. Use the average number of larvae at the sites surveyed within each field to
determine if the economic threshold has been exceeded and an insecticide application is
necessary.

Economic Threshold

The economic threshold is the number of larvae present when the value of the crop they
consume is greater than the cost of controlling them. The economic threshold for bertha
armyworm varies with the cost of the insecticide, the method of application and the
crop's value. Using crop values and application costs, the following table indicates the
larval density (larvae/m2) at which an insecticide treatment in canola would be
warranted (Table 2).

Table 2. Economic Injury Levels for Bertha Armyworm in B. napus

 343

$ Value of Crop to Grower

$/bu 6 7 8 9 10 11

$/tonne 265 309 353 397 441 485

Cost of Spraying

$/ac $/ha # Larvae/m2

7 17 20 17 15 13 12 11

8 20 23 20 17 15 14 13

9 22 26 22 19 17 16 14

10 25 29 25 22 19 17 16

11 27 32 27 24 21 19 17

12 30 34 30 26 23 21 19

For example, spraying would not be economical if larval counts were less than 19 per
m2 given a crop price of $353/t ($8.00/bu) and a spray cost of $22/ha ($9.00/ac).

Management

Effect of environment: Environmental conditions have a significant impact on bertha

armyworm populations, especially on the overwintering pupae. During harsh winters in
snow-free fields, most bertha armyworm pupae die. Bertha armyworm outbreaks appear
to be favoured by snow accumulation, which protects pupae from prolonged exposure to
temperatures below -10°C. Newly hatched larvae are especially vulnerable to inclement
weather and diseases. The increase in reduced tillage and stubble conservation results in
more snow accumulation on infested fields and could favour bertha armyworm survival,
especially in years with early snowfall.

Cultural control: Canola losses from bertha armyworm populations can be minimized
by planting alternative crops, effective weed control, early swathing and fall cultivation.

Early seeding of an early maturing variety (or fall seeding any variety) can help avoid a
significant bertha armyworm infestation unless the moth flight is exceptionally early.
Canola harvested before August 15 is unlikely to suffer yield loss from bertha
armyworm. Mated female moths prefer to lay eggs on canola in the early flowering
stage. Fields in this stage during the egg-laying period tend to be hardest hit.
Infestations in early maturing B. rapa varieties tend to be lower than in B. napus
varieties.
 344

Fall cultivation can kill many bertha armyworm pupae by mechanical damage. Tillage
can also reduce the amount of snow trapped on a field by removing or flattening stubble
and exposing pupae to sub-zero temperatures over the winter. This practice may be
effective for individual fields but is not likely effective unless all growers in an area
adopt the practice. Adult moths are strong flyers and can easily move to adjacent fields.
Do not use fall cultivation on lighttextured soils susceptible to erosion.

Effective control of weeds such as lamb's-quarters and wild mustard can reduce bertha
armyworm infestations in flax, peas, lentils and sugar beets. Larvae will first feed upon
these weeds and then move onto these crops after the weeds have been destroyed.

Biological control: Various diseases and parasites attack bertha armyworm including:

 a nuclear polyhedrosis virus

 an ichneumonid wasp (Banchus flavescens)
 a tachinid fly (Athrycia cinerea)

However, these natural enemies often do not destroy larvae until after considerable crop
damage has occurred. They have their greatest impact on bertha armyworms produced a
year or two after the peak of an outbreak. This is probably why severe infestations only
last two or three years. Their presence in a crop does not, however, indicate that control
measures are unwarranted.

Insecticides: An insecticide is the grower's last line of defence against bertha

armyworm.

With severe infestations widespread crop losses can be minimized with insecticides if
the infestation is detected early. However, failure to detect infestations early may result
in insufficient time to apply insecticides before severe damage is done. Also, there may
be temporary insecticide shortages if suppliers are not aware of the potential outbreak.

For best results, apply an insecticide as soon as economic thresholds are reached. A
single well-timed application of any registered insecticide is usually effective. Check
provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

 Ensure the larvae are at least 1.3 cm (0.5") long (before the fifth instar
larvae appear).
 Apply the insecticide early in the morning or late evening when the
larvae are actively feeding. Do not apply during warm afternoons. A
single, welltimed application of any registered insecticide applied with
aerial or high clearance ground equipment is usually effective.
 Use enough water to ensure adequate coverage.
 Use high water volumes in crops with dense canopies.
 Use the higher label rates of application when a range is indicated.

To protect foraging honeybees, delay insecticide applications until after the crop has
finished blooming. If this is not possible, select the safest insecticide to control the
bertha armyworm larvae and apply during the evening.
 345

Cabbage Seedpod Weevil (Ceutorhynchus Obstrictis (Marsham))

The cabbage seedpod weevil was introduced to North America from Europe about 70
years ago. The weevil was discovered in British Columbia in 1931, and from there it
dispersed south and eastward. It now occurs throughout most of the U.S.

It was first found infesting canola in southern Alberta in 1995, and since then the weevil
has spread to central Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan. In 2000, it was found in
Quebec for the first time.

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 15)

Figure 15. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Life Cycle

Host plants of the cabbage seedpod weevil belong to the mustard family (Brassicaceae),
and include canola, brown mustard, cole crops (such as cabbage, broccoli and
cauliflower) and cruciferous weeds (such as wild mustard, flixweed and stinkweed).

Host plants are either true hosts or food hosts. Both hosts can provide food, especially
pollen, for adult feeding, but only those with large seedpods that can sustain larval
development are true hosts. Examples of true hosts are canola, brown mustard and wild
mustard while examples of food hosts are flixweed, stinkweed and hoary cress.

Adult weevils are ash-grey and approximately 3 to 4 mm (0.1 to 0.2") long. They have a
prominent curved snout that is typical of most weevils (Figure 16).

Figure 16. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil

 346

Photo by Roy Ellis

The cabbage seedpod weevil takes about eight weeks to develop from egg to adult.
Development time will vary somewhat depending on weather conditions, especially
temperature. There is one generation per year.

The adults overwinter beneath leaf litter in tree shelterbelts, roadside ditches and
woodlots. Late in the season (September to early November) they select overwintering
sites and burrow beneath the soil surface where they are protected from low
temperatures. In spring, they emerge from these sites over a period of several weeks and
seek out host plants. Adults occur most commonly on the buds and flowers of host
plants, but during windy days they move to sheltered areas within the plant canopy.
Before canola crops enter the bud stage, adults can be found on wild mustard, flixweed,
hoary cress, stinkweed and volunteer canola. When disturbed, the adults often drop to
the ground and play dead. After several seconds they resume activity. Mating occurs
from spring to early pod development, usually on a host plant. When small pods
develop, the females can deposit an egg through the pod wall onto or adjacent to a
developing seed.

Eggs are very small, oval and opaque white. Usually only a single egg is deposited per
pod. However, two or more eggs can be laid per pod during outbreaks. Eggs hatch in
about six or seven days. Females continue to lay eggs until they die later in the season.

Larvae are white and grub-like, without legs or eyes (Figure 17). Soon after hatching the
larvae begin feeding within the pods on developing seeds. Larval development takes
approximately six weeks During this time a single larva consumes about five canola
seeds. There are three larval stages (instars).

Figure 17. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Mature larvae chew small, circular exit holes in the pod walls (Figure 18), drop to the
ground, burrow in and pupate within earthen cells. New generation adults emerge about
10 days later and feed on immature canola or other green cruciferous plants until late in
the season when they enter overwintering sites.
 347

Figure 18. Cabbage Seedpod Weevil Exit Holes on Canola Pods

Photo by Phil Thomas

The distribution and abundance of the cabbage seedpod weevil have been monitored
yearly in western Canada since 1997. Predictive models based largely on climate data
indicate that this pest will eventually disperse to all regions of canola production in
western Canada, including the Peace River region. Weevil distribution maps are
available on the Web sites of provincial departments of agriculture.

Damage

Crop damage from cabbage seedpod weevil can occur in several ways. Adults feed on
developing canola buds causing bud-blasting and reduced yield potential in dry years
when the ability of plants to compensate is limited. Larvae feed within developing pods
with each larva consuming about five seeds during its development. Although this
amount represents only 15 to 20% of the total yield of a particular pod, these pods are
predisposed to premature shattering.

Canola pods harbouring cabbage seedpod weevil larvae often appear distorted. When
larvae consume some seeds within pods, the undamaged seeds enlarge and mature, often
leaving misshapen pods.

Larvae emerge from pods via exit holes. In humid weather, these exit holes provide an
entry point for fungal infections and additional seeds can be damaged.

When new generation adults emerge in late summer, they can invade nearby fields and
damage the immature pods of late-seeded canola by feeding directly on the seeds
through the pod walls.

Monitoring

The risk of infestation can be predicted based on the adult population of the preceding
fall. High numbers of weevil adults in fall will likely mean significant infestation levels
 348

in the following spring, although a severely cold winter with little snow cover could
reduce the survival of overwintering adults.

Cabbage seedpod weevil adult populations can be monitored with sweep nets in each
field. Begin sampling when the crop first enters the bud stage and continue through the
flowering period. Select 10 locations within each field, and at each location count the
number of weevils from ten 180° sweeps. Sample both the perimeter and interior of the
field to obtain an accurate estimate of weevil numbers throughout the field.

A few other weevil species may also be found in canola but do not require control
measures. The most common of these is a closely related species, Ceutorhynchus
neglectus, about one-half the size of the cabbage seedpod weevil that will feed on
canola but prefers flixweed.

Economic Threshold

Insecticide application is warranted when an average of three to four adult weevils are
collected per sweep.

Management

Cultural control: At present, trap cropping is the most promising cultural strategy for
controlling the cabbage seedpod weevil. This approach takes advantage of the weevil
concentration that often occurs at field edges when weevils first invade a canola field.
Planting the perimeter of a Brassica napus field with early flowering Brassica rapa , and
spraying this perimeter strip with insecticide allows the grower to control cabbage
seedpod weevils before they spread throughout the field. Alternatively, a strip of the
same variety planted seven to 10 days before the rest of the field can also serve as a trap
for adult weevils. Other potential cultural control strategies being investigated by
researchers include the effect of altering seeding rates, row spacing and fertility
regimes. Although B. napus, B. rapa, and Brassica juncea (brown mustard) are
susceptible to infestation by cabbage seedpod weevil, Sinapis alba (yellow mustard) is
completely resistant. Yellow mustard crops do not require monitoring or control
measures.

Biological control: Research in 2000 and 2001 found some evidence of parasitism. A
major focus of work in the future will be to enhance the abundance and dispersal of
these parasites, reducing the need for insecticide use.

Insecticides: Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

If control is required, the best time to spray is when crops are in 10 to 20% flower to
avoid egg laying in newly formed pods. This is the stage when 70% of plants in the
field have at least three to 10 open flowers. Spray late in the day to minimize harmful
effects to beneficial insects in the crop, especially bees. Check provincial crop
protection guides for registered insecticides.
 349

Cabbageworms (Pieris Species)

Two cabbageworm species are commonly found in canola fields-the imported

cabbageworm (Figure 19) and the western cabbageworm. Imported cabbageworms are
green with a velvety texture, and have a faint yellow stripe down their backs. Imported
cabbageworm also attack cabbage. The western cabbageworm has brilliant blue and
yellow stripes down its back. The adult stages of both species are white butterflies that
fly by day. There are two or three generations per year. The cabbageworms feed on
leaves but do not cause economic losses.

Figure 19. Imported Cabbageworm Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Clover Cutworms (Dicestra Trifoli (Hufnagel))

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 20)

Figure 20. Clover Cutworm Life Cycle

Clover cutworms overwinter as pupae in the soil. There are two generations per year.
The first moth generation appears in June, the second in late July. The adult moths are
uniform or mottled ash grey to pale brown. White or pale yellow eggs are laid singly on
the undersides of leaves in late spring and during the summer. The newly hatched light
green caterpillars feed on the undersides of lower leaves, gradually moving up the plant
as they mature, causing damage during late June through early July and again from mid-
August through to September.

Clover cutworm larvae are very similar in appearance and size to bertha armyworm
larvae, but fewer velvety black caterpillars are found and the majority are either green
or pale brown. The most distinct difference between the two species is the wide stripe
 350

along each side of the clover cutworm is yellowish pink (Figure 21) and yellowish
orange on bertha armyworm. Mature caterpillars burrow into the topsoil to pupate. The
pupa is somewhat smaller than that of bertha armyworm, and has a greenish tinge at one
end. Most of the pupae formed in mid-summer emerge to produce the second flight of
moths. The second-generation larvae frequently cause damage at the same time as
bertha armyworm (August 10 to 30). In years when both are present, clover cutworms
may be mistaken for bertha armyworm. This insect has only been an economic problem
in the Peace River area of Alberta.

Figure 21. Clover Cutworm Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Damage

Clover cutworms feed anywhere on the canola plant and can consume the entire plant.
The economic threshold for this insect is probably similar to that for bertha armyworm.
However, bertha armyworms tend to be dispersed throughout the field, while clover
cutworm larvae are aggregated in clusters producing more concentrated damage. First
generation clover cutworm larvae attack canola earlier than bertha armyworms.
However, with light infestations, the plants will probably recover. Infestations in
localized areas of northern Alberta have caused severe damage. In most years, diseases
control the insect with only an occasional isolated outbreak.

Monitoring

Scout fields mid-June through late August. The clover cutworm is occasionally an
economic problem, especially in the Peace River region.

Economic Threshold

The economic threshold for clover cutworm is hard to determine. Many studies show
that it may be similar to the economic threshold for bertha armyworm. However, bertha
armyworm tends to be fairly evenly distributed in a field, while clover cutworms tend to
be in patches across a field. Therefore, while some areas of a field suffer heavy damage,
others may be unaffected.
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Management

Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides. Spraying for clover
cutworms can put honeybees at risk when canola crops are in flower.

Cutworms - Red-Backed (Euxoa Ochrogaster Guen), Pale Western (Agrotis

Orthogonia Morr.)

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 22)

Figure 22. Cutworm Life Cycle

The pale western cutworm is of greatest concern in the southern, more open prairie
areas, while the redbacked cutworm is of concern in the parkland belt and northern
agricultural areas of the prairies. Both cutworm species feed on practically all field
crops, vegetables and home garden plants. They are most destructive when feeding on
cereals, flax, sugar beets, canola and mustard.

There is one generation per year. Cutworms overwinter as tiny eggs that are laid in fall.
In April or early May, the eggs hatch and the young larvae feed mainly at night on
weeds and volunteer plants. The larvae of the pale western cutworm usually remain in
the soil unless forced to the surface by rain or hard soil. The red-backed cutworm often
comes to the surface in search of food.

The young larvae of both species pass through six stages (instars), each separated by a
shedding of skin. Late May and the first three weeks in June are the most likely times
for cutworm activity (seedling to rosette stage). The larger cutworms are usually easy to
find in the soil beside freshly cut plants. When disturbed, the cutworms will curl up.
This is characteristic of all cutworms and armyworm species. At maturity, the pale
western cutworm larvae are greenish or slate-grey with a brown head, and vary in length
from 30 to 36 mm (1.2 to 1.4"). Mature redbacked cutworm larvae are dark grey with
two broad, dull, brick-red stripes along the back (Figure 23). They are about 38 mm
(1.5") in length. After the cutworms complete their larval growth, usually in late June,
they burrow deeper into the soil where they make a small soil chamber in which to
pupate. The reddish brown torpedo-shaped pupae of the redbacked cutworm are similar
in size and shape to those of other cutworm and armyworm pupae.
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Figure 23. Redbacked Cutworms

Following the pupal stage, adult moths emerge from the soil in August to early
September. Redbacked cutworm moths are light fawn to brick red in colour, while pale
western cutworm moths are mottled greenish grey with distinct pale lines on the
forewings. The moths are night fliers and not usually seen. After mating, the pale
western moths lay eggs on or just below the surface of loose, dry soil. Cutworm moths
may lay several hundred eggs on their host plants in weedy stubble or fallow fields.

Damage

Young redbacked cutworms chew holes and notches in leaves, while older larvae and
the larvae of the pale western cutworm eat into the stems and usually sever them at or
just above the soil surface. Cut plants can be found drying up and lying on the soil
surface. Patches of bare soil characterize infestations where the crop has started to
disappear. These patches gradually enlarge until anywhere from 0.5 to 1 ha (1 to 2 ac)
or complete fields are destroyed. First signs of damage usually appear on hilltops, south
facing slopes or in areas of light soil that normally warms faster and shows damage
early. In many cases, bare hilltops are attributed to poor germination rather than
cutworms. Determine which is the case.

Monitoring

Scout the fields and inspect seedlings on a weekly basis from mid-May to mid-June.
Determine whether bare areas with no seedlings have resulted from poor germination or
cutworm damage. Check the edges of bare areas for cut-off plants and search the top 5
cm (2") of soil around such plants for larvae. The key to control is detection. When
notched, wilted, dead or cut-off plants (weed or crop seedlings) are seen, dig around the
roots of the plants for cutworms.

To collect cutworm larvae, a garden trowel and a soil sifter are useful tools. Cutworms
may be found down to about 5 cm (2") below the soil surface. The small, worm-like
larvae curl up or attempt to hide in the debris. Pupae may also be collected in this way.
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The larvae and pupae can be reared to adult moths if necessary for species
determination.

Because cutworm moths, like most moths, are nocturnal and attracted to light, the adult
population can be monitored using light traps. Sex attractants also can be used to trap
adult cutworm moths in commercial or homemade pheromone traps.

Economic Threshold

Cutworm control may only be necessary in small areas of the field, when bare patches
appear and large numbers of cutworms are still actively feeding. Canola is much more
susceptible to cutworm damage than cereals because no regeneration and tillering
occurs to compensate for loss of plants. Use an insecticide when cutworms exceed three
to four cutworms per m2 (yd 2).

Management

Cultural: Summerfallow fields in areas infested with redbacked cutworms free of weeds
in August (egg laying time). Summerfallow fields that have a protective crust through
August and the first half of September are much less attractive for egg laying by pale
western cutworms. Therefore, work fields in late July and allow them to harden by
summer rains. In the spring, a delay of 10 to 14 days between cultivation and seeding
can help reduce populations because larvae that have already fed will die if deprived of
food for several days. Cold weather after cultivation and seeding will have a similar
effect.

Insecticides: Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides. Apply
insecticides in the evening since these pests feed during the night

Diamondback Moth (Plutella Xylostella L.)

Diamondback moth was introduced into North America from Europe about 150 years
ago. It now occurs throughout North America wherever its host plants are grown.
Diamondback moth larvae feed on all plants in the mustard family (canola, mustard),
cole crops (broccoli, cabbage) and on greenhouse Brassica plants. In western Canada,
canola and mustard are its primary targets.

Although the diamondback moth occurs each year throughout the Canadian prairies and
north central U.S., the severity of the infestation varies considerably from year to year
and location to location.
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Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 24)

Figure 24. Diamondback Moth Life Cycle

Normally, the diamondback moth takes about 32 days to develop from egg to adult.
However, the time to complete a generation may vary from 21 to 51 days depending on
weather and food conditions. There may be several generations per growing season.
Generations usually overlap and all four life stages, egg, larva, pupa and adult may be
present in the field at the same time.

The adult moth is approximately 8 to 9 mm (0.3 to 0.4") long with a wingspan of 12 to

15 mm (0.5 to 0.6") (Figure 25). At rest, the moth folds its wings over the abdomen in a
tent-like manner. The folded wings flare upwards and outward at the tips. The wing tips
are fringed with long hairs. In the male, the forewing margins have a series of yellow
wavy markings. When the wings are folded while the moth is at rest, these markings
come together to form three yellow diamonds, hence the name diamondback.

Figure 25. Diamondback Moth

Photo by Roy Ellis

Adult females lay an average of 160 eggs during their life span of about 16 days. Egg
laying occurs at night. The greatest number of eggs is laid the first night after
emergence and egg laying continues for about 10 days. In the main canola growing
areas, most of the canola crops will not have emerged by the time the moths arrive and
so many eggs are laid on cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola.

Eggs are oval, yellowish-white and tiny. They are glued to the upper and lower leaf
surfaces singly or in groups of two or three, usually along the veins or where the leaf
surface is uneven. The eggs hatch in about five or six days.
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Immediately after hatching from the egg, larvae burrow into the leaf and begin mining
the leaf tissue internally. After feeding within the leaf for about a week, the larvae exit
from the underside of the leaf and begin feeding externally. The larvae are pale
yellowish-green to green caterpillars covered with fine, scattered, erect hairs. The
posterior end of the caterpillar is forked.

Larvae moult three times during the larval stage that lasts about 10 to 21 days,
depending upon temperature and the availability of food. At maturity the larvae are
cigar-shaped and about 12 mm (0.5") long (Figure 26). The diamondback moth larva is
easily identified by its peculiar reaction to being disturbed. It will wriggle backward
violently and may drop from the plant, suspended by a silken thread. After several
seconds, the larva will climb back onto the leaf and continue feeding.

Figure 26. Diamondback Moth Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Larvae pupate in delicate, white, open-mesh cocoons attached to the leaves, stems or
seedpods of the host plant (Figure 27). Initially, the pupae are light green but as they
mature they become brown as the adult moth becomes visible through the cocoon. The
pupal stage lasts from five to 15 days depending on environmental conditions, then
adult moths of the next generation emerge.
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Figure 27. Diamondback Moth Pupa

Photo by Roy Ellis

Damage

An infestation of diamondback moth cannot be predicted based on the previous year's

population because very few, if any, pupae survive the long, cold Canadian winters.
Instead, the severity of the infestation in any given year depends on two factors-
overwintering populations in the U.S. and strong south spring winds to transport the
moths north into Manitoba, central Saskatchewan and eastern Alberta.

In years when conditions are right for the moths (when moths arrive on the wind in
large numbers in early May and summer temperatures are hot), diamondback moth
infestations can cause millions of dollars of damage. Crop damage is caused by the
larval stage. Diamondback moth larvae feed on any green tissue of canola and mustard
plants but prefer leaves. The amount of damage varies greatly, depending on plant
growth stage, larval densities and size.

When larvae are small, damage is evident as small irregular holes or "shot holes" in the
leaves. If larvae are numerous, they may eat the entire leaf, leaving only the veins.
When plants begin to flower, larger larvae often feed on the flower buds, flowers and
young pods. Feeding damage during the early flowering stage can be extensive.
Extensive feeding on the flowers will delay plant maturity, cause the crop to develop
unevenly and significantly reduce seed yields.

When plants are fully podded and leaves begin to wilt or die in late July or early
August, larvae will remove the surface tissue from the stems and pods. The seeds within
a damaged pod will not fill completely and pods may shatter, resulting in yield loss.
Larvae may also chew into pods and eat the developing seeds.

Crop damage is usually first evident on plants growing on ridges and knolls in the field.
In severe cases, damage shows from a distance as abnormal whitening. Early field
monitoring and the application of insecticides can prevent damage, if larval numbers
exceed the economic threshold. After an infestation is controlled at the podding stage, a
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new infestation is not likely to become established because of the rapid advance of the
crop toward maturity.

Monitoring

Scout fields in July and August. Consult with crop specialists and entomologists for the
size and timing of the moth flight. The presence and relative abundance of the
diamondback moth can be determined by using pheromone traps. These traps cannot
predict the potential for crop damage, but trap counts can provide an early warning of a
possible infestation. Environmental conditions will determine how many eggs are laid
and whether the larvae emerge and survive.

In the field, moths will flutter up as the canopy is disturbed.

Monitor diamondback moth larvae by removing the plants in an area measuring 0.1 m2
(about 12" square), beating them onto a clean surface, and counting the number of
larvae dislodged from the plants. To obtain an accurate count, repeat this procedure in at
least five locations in the field. Monitor crops at least twice a week during the growing
season.

Economic Threshold

The economic threshold for diamondbacks in canola at the advanced pod stage is 20 to
30 larvae/0.1 m2 (approximately two to three larvae/plant). Apply an insecticide when
larval counts reach this point.

An economic threshold for canola or mustard in the early flowering stage has not been
established. However, at this plant growth stage insecticide applications are likely
required at larval densities of 10 to 15 larvae/0.1 m2 (one or two larvae/plant).

Management

Effect of Environment: Environmental factors can have a profound impact on

diamondback moth populations. Cool, windy weather reduces adult activity and females
often die before they lay all their eggs. Heavy rainfall can drown small larvae and
reduce numbers by more than half. Humid conditions within the crop following a
rainfall can promote the spread of fatal fungal diseases throughout the diamondback
moth population.

Cultural: Tillage reduces the availability of cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola host
plants, preventing the successful establishment of first generation larvae where moths
arrive before canola emergence. Rainfall is a natural control agent.

Biological: Diseases, parasites and predators affect diamondback moths.

Entomophthorales fungi cause natural disease outbreaks in diamondback populations.
These outbreaks usually occur late in the growing season when populations are high.
The rate of infection of diamondback moth larvae can be high enough to limit the
development of additional generations late in the season.
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In western Canada, three species of parasitic wasps attack the diamondback moth.
Diadegma insulare (Cresson) and Microplitis plutellae (Muesebeck) attack the larval
stages, while the third species, Diadromus subtilicornis (Gravenhorst) attacks the pre-
pupal and pupal stages. Flies, wasps, lacewings, plant bugs, pirate bugs, beetles, spiders
and birds also prey on the diamondback moth larvae. Despite the abundance of potential
biological control agents, the only effective way of controlling a diamondback moth
outbreak once the population exceeds the economic threshold is to apply an insecticide.

Insecticides: Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides. A

single, well-timed application of an insecticide with either aerial or ground equipment is
usually effective in controlling larval populations. Make insecticide applications when
larval populations are high because the effectiveness is reduced against adults or pupae.
Always apply insecticides with enough water to ensure adequate coverage. Use high
water volumes and label rates when the crop canopy is dense. If the leaves are
beginning to turn yellow and dry up, damage will become more serious as larvae move
to feed on pods. If this is the case, consider control at the lower end of the economic
threshold range.

Injury to honeybees and other pollinating insects can be minimized by not spraying
flowering crops. When it is necessary to apply an insecticide to a flowering crop, use
the safest product available and apply it during the evening.

Flea Beatles (Phyllotreta Cruciferae (Goeze) and Phyllotreta Striolata (F.))

Flea beetles feed on plants belonging to the mustard family (Brassicaceae) grown
throughout the Northern Great Plains of North America (North Dakota, South Dakota,
Montana, and northwestern Minnesota, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the
Peace River region of British Columbia). Eight flea beetle species are known to attack
canola, mustard and rapeseed. Of these, only the crucifer flea beetle, Phyllotreta
cruciferae (Goeze) and the striped flea beetle, Phyllotreta striolata (F.), which were both
introduced from Eurasia, are significant pests.

The economic impact of flea beetles on crop production varies with population
densities. Yield losses of about 10% are common where flea beetles are abundant even
when the crop is protected with insecticides. A 1%/ac yield reduction results in a total
crop loss of about $25 million to $35 million. Annual crop losses in North America
from flea beetles probably exceed $300 million.

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 28)

Figure 28. Flea Beetle Life Cycle

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Flea beetles attacking canola, mustard and rapeseed are small, elliptical or oval-shaped
and less than 2.5 mm (0.1") long. When disturbed they use their powerful hind legs to
jump away like a flea. Hence the name, flea beetle.

The crucifer flea beetle is the most widely distributed and destructive, attacking canola,
mustard and rapeseed (Figure 29). Adult crucifer flea beetles are uniformly black with a
metallic bluish sheen. The wing covers (elytra) are randomly punctuated and the large
hind legs are a dark amber colour.

Figure 29. Crucifer Flea Beetle

Photo by Roy Ellis

The striped flea beetle is less abundant except near the northern edge of the agricultural
region in Canada. Adults are black with distinctive yellow stripes on their elytra (Figure
30).

Figure 30. Striped Flea Beetle

Each species has a single generation per year, although adults appear twice during the
growing season. In the spring, overwintered adults emerge and feed on canola seedlings.
In the fall, it is the offspring of the overwintering adults that are observed feeding on
canola leaves, stems and seed pods.
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Flea beetles overwinter as adults near the surface of the leaf litter, grass and debris
beneath hedges, shelterbelts, poplar groves and in association with canola stubble and
volunteer cruciferous plants. Within the leaf litter in these locations flea beetle densities
may be as high as 140 to 250 beetles/m2 (131 to 234/yd2).

Five to 11 days after leaf litter begins to thaw in the spring (between late April and early
May) the first adult flea beetles become active. Depending on temperature, it may take
an additional three weeks before all the overwintering adults emerge. Adult striped flea
beetles begin emerging slightly before adult crucifer flea beetles.

Under cool conditions, flea beetles walk or hop into the adjacent cruciferous crops or
weeds. They feed on volunteer canola and mustard, or on weeds such as wild mustard,
flixweed, lamb's quarters, stinkweed or peppergrass. Then they will move to newly
emerged canola seedlings. When temperatures exceed 14°C (early to mid-May) and
wind is calm, they may take flight and invade other fields, attacking seedlings as they
emerge.

After selecting a host plant and feeding has commenced, beetles mate repeatedly. Egg
laying begins in late May and continues until the end of June or for about 30 days. A
very small proportion of the population may continue to lay eggs until early August.
Females deposit about 100 smooth, yellow, elongated, oval eggs 0.38 to 0.46 mm (0.01
to 0.02") by 0.18 to 0.25 mm (0.006 to 0.009") wide, either singly or in groups of three
or four in the soil adjacent to the host plant's roots. Unless the eggs are in contact with
moist soil, they desiccate within a few hours. The eggs take about 12 days to hatch.
After egg laying the overwintering adults begin to die off.

Flea beetle larvae are grub-like with off-white bodies and a brown head and anal plate.
Larvae moult twice during the 25 to 34 days (usually mid-June to late July) it takes
them to complete three larval stages. Full-grown larvae are about 3 to 4 mm (0.1 to
0.2") long. Larvae feed on the root hairs and taproots of seedlings. In a few cases, larvae
have been observed burrowing into the plant near the juncture of the root and stem.
When larval development is complete, larvae pupate in small earthen cells.

Flea beetle pupae are usually present in the field by early to mid-July. They are entirely
white except for the eyes, which darken as the pupal stage progresses to completion.
The body appendages are free and distinguishable. The pupal stage lasts for about seven
to nine days.

Adult emergence begins after mid-July and continues until early September. The beetles
feed on the leaves, stems and pods of cruciferous plants. Development from egg to adult
takes about seven weeks. In late August and September, adults move into leaf litter and
debris to overwinter.

Damage

Flea beetles feed on the cotyledons, leaves, apical bud tissue, petioles, stems, roots and
pods of crucifers (canola, mustard and rapeseed). The impact of feeding on crop
development depends on where on the plant they feed, crop development, growing
conditions and the intensity of the attack. Sunny, warm, dry weather increases feeding
activity. Cool, damp weather slows flea beetle activity and promotes plant growth.
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During seedling emergence, severe stand loss can occur if flea beetle populations are
high and the cotyledons are the only green tissue available. Adult beetles feed on the
surfaces of leaves, stems and pods and produce small pits (Figure 30). The tissue
underneath the injury eventually withers and dies. On leaves and cotyledons, the
damaged tissue breaks up and falls out producing a shot hole appearance. When feeding
is extensive, the small feeding pits merge and form larger holes in the leaves.

Heavy infestations may severely damage cotyledons, the first leaves, petioles and stems.
Crop thinning and growth rate reduction caused by flea beetle feeding are most severe
the first two weeks after seedling emergence. At the three- or four-leaf stage, the plants
are generally established and can outgrow the feeding damage. At this time, the number
of adult flea beetles often begins to decline. The crop can usually compensate for the
destruction of individual plants provided large portions of the crop are not totally
destroyed.

Feeding damage is most severe when flea beetles attack the growing point (meristem)
because it limits the ability of the plant to compensate. Heavy attacks can destroy the
entire crop, forcing growers to reseed or leave the field fallow. Occasionally, seedling
loss from plant disease is mistaken for flea beetle damage. Dig damaged plants from the
soil and examine carefully for evidence of disease on the shoots and roots.

Early damage to seedlings produces plant stands with uneven height and maturity,
reduced seed yield and contributes to seeds with elevated chlorophyll content. Delayed
maturity may expose the crop to adverse temperatures during flowering or to frost
before the plants have matured. Uneven maturity at harvest reduces seed quality or
yield. Delaying harvest to allow immature pods to ripen contributes to yield loss when
over-ripe pods shatter during harvest. Harvesting too early produces a crop with many
immature seeds containing high chlorophyll levels, affecting seed quality and yield.
Most of this damage can be prevented if canola is protected from flea beetle injury
during the two to three weeks following emergence.

During summer months the larval stages contribute to yield losses by feeding on plant
roots and root hairs. Root damage is estimated to reduce yield by about 5%.

Flea beetles that emerge after mid-July can also affect yield. Their feeding during pod
development and filling causes injury to pods, leading to premature pod drying,
shrivelled seeds, pod shattering and encourages fungal growth within the pods during
damp weather. Injury to the pods is usually concentrated on the youngest pods and on
lateseeded crops.

In the fall, the adult population feeds on pods making them prone to shattering and
contributes to the production of small seeds and seeds with increased chlorophyll
content.

Monitoring

Note flea beetle densities in the fall. This will be the first signal of potential problems
next spring. If flea beetles are abundant, seriously consider using insecticides at
planting.
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Scout fields in the spring, and assess damage to cotyledons and the first true leaves of
seedlings daily. Continue scouting for the first 14 days after emergence, especially on
sunny, calm days when temperatures exceed 14°C. Collect plants at random as you walk
across the field and estimate the foliage damage. Check all field and slough margins
where the insects overwinter. This sampling procedure determines the extent and
distribution of damage.

Economic Threshold

Use the economic threshold to decide whether a foliar spray for flea beetle control will
be an economical investment. Since control decisions are made prior to seeding when
seed treatments and in-furrow granules are used, the use of economic thresholds for flea
beetle control in canola only apply when foliar sprays are used as a flea beetle control
strategy.

Canola seedlings can withstand 50% leaf loss. Flea beetles can damage plants very
quickly, however, so the economic threshold for flea beetle feeding on canola is when
there is 25% defoliation and flea beetles are present. Applying controls at 25%
defoliation will reduce the risk of flea beetles reaching a level where yield loss and plant
development are substantially reduced.

When scouting fields for flea beetle damage, it is important to understand that flea
beetles generally invade canola fields from the field edges. Flea beetle damage and the
number of flea beetles may be higher at the field edge than farther into the field. If this
appears to be the situation, a foliar spray around the field edge may provide sufficient
protection. On hot and calm days, flea beetles are capable of moving longer distances
and may populate the field more uniformly.

When assessing economic thresholds also consider growing conditions. When flea
beetle feeding is combined with poor plant growth during hot, dry weather, canola can
tolerate less feeding than if plants are growing under more ideal growing conditions.

Flea beetles can locate, attack and quickly injure or destroy seedlings shortly after
emergence, making them extremely difficult to control. To manage flea beetles, use a
combination of cultural and chemical control strategies.

Management

Biological Control: Predators, parasites and diseases can be important in regulating

insect populations. To date the effect of biological control agents seems to be limited
but several insects have been observed attacking adult flea beetles.

Lacewing larvae (Chrysopa carnea), big-eyed bugs (Geocoris bullatus), the two-lined
collops (Collops vittatus), the western damsel bug (Nabis alternatus), and the northern
field cricket (Gryllus pennsylvanicus) are a few of the insects known to prey on flea
beetles.

The native braconid wasp (Microctonus vittatae) parasitizes flea beetle adults. However,
its overall effect on flea beetle populations is unknown.
 363

Unfortunately, flea beetles emerge in large numbers during a relatively short period of
time and tend to overwhelm the parasites and predators.

Cultural Control: The larger the seedling, the more it can withstand injury from flea
beetle feeding. To obtain large plants early, use good quality seed and plant as shallow
as available moisture will allow. This produces seedlings that germinate and emerge
quickly and grow vigorously. Seedlings of vigorously growing varieties are able to
tolerate flea beetle feeding more than seedlings of less vigorous varieties. At present no
canola varieties are resistant to flea beetle damage.

Do not cultivate summerfallow fields with cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola until
canola crops are at the four-leaf stage. Leaving a trap strip of volunteer canola near
overwintering sites can be an effective control strategy if the trap strip is sprayed before
beetles move into the canola crop. Control cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola in
cereal fields to starve out early spring populations.

Flea beetles prefer bright relatively warm conditions. Direct seeding provides a
microclimate that is less ideal for flea beetles than tillage before seeding. Planting into
stubble may reduce injury due to the cooler microenvironment created by stubble
shading on surface soil. Cooler temperatures at the soil surface slow flea beetle activity
reducing damage. This seeding method produces large plants early and may reduce the
grower's dependence on seed treatments, granular insecticides and foliar insecticides,
except under conditions of intense flea beetle pressure.

Fall-seeding canola and using varieties and weed control programs that allow for earlier
seeding may also help to minimize flea beetle damage to canola. Early seeding will
maximize plant size before flea beetle emergence and the larger plants tolerate more
injury.

Increasing seeding rates can help reduce the impact of flea beetle attack. For a given
population of flea beetles, having more plants per unit area means that feeding damage
per plant is reduced and seedlings can recover more readily from flea beetle injury.

At a given seeding rate, wider row spacing of 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12"), rather than 10 cm

(4"), can also result in less flea beetle damage per plant. Although the reasons are not
yet clear, it appears that flea beetles are more attracted to the reduced visual contrast
between vegetation and soil that occurs at narrow row spacing.

Crop rotation is not an effective means of controlling flea beetles. Adults overwinter
inside and outside of the cropped areas and are capable of long-range migration.

When flea beetle populations are very high, no cultural controls will effectively reduce
their attack.

Insecticides: Canola, mustard and rapeseed crops can be protected from flea beetle
attack through insecticide application as a seed treatment, granules applied with the seed
or post-emergence foliar sprays. Check provincial crop protection guides for registered
insecticides.
 364

In areas where past damage from flea beetles has been light, no treatment may be
required. Daily field scouting for flea beetles is important, particularly on hot, calm
days. If plants are being lost, determine if the cause is flea beetles or seedling blight. A
post-emergent insecticide application may be required to protect seedlings that are
exposed to severe or prolonged periods of intense attack. If heavy flea beetle damage
nears threshold levels and high numbers of flea beetles are noticed in the field, apply
foliar sprays as soon as possible, since flea beetles can cause substantial damage
quickly.

It can be difficult to apply insecticides over a large area quickly when feeding pressure
is high. Where damage starts at the field margins, only a small portion of the field may
require treatment. Apply sprays when it is sunny and warm, and the beetles are active
and exposed on plants and soil. Additional foliar sprays may sometimes be needed since
flea beetles may continue to move into fields at the susceptible stage after residual from
the first foliar spray has become ineffective. An alternative strategy is to use treated
seed or in-furrow granules for the first few passes of the seeder around the field
perimeter. Scout fields daily to determine if the insects have moved into the untreated
areas and are damaging plants.

In areas where damage in the previous year was moderate, use a seed treatment. Coating
seeds with an insecticide in combination with one or more fungicides prior to planting is
a widespread practice. With the seed treatments currently available, canola seedlings are
protected from flea beetles as soon as the plants emerge. Most seed treatments currently
available for control of flea beetles in canola come with the insecticide at either a lower
or high rate. The high rate is more expensive than the lower rate, but has an extended
period of protection from flea beetles relative to the lower rate. If high flea beetle
populations occur and the seed treatments are not protecting the seedlings adequately,
use a foliar spray.

In areas where crop damage from flea beetles has been high (parkland regions of
Manitoba and Saskatchewan), use the combination of both a seed treatment and in-
furrow granule treatment to provide economically superior control. The speed at which
flea beetle populations can destroy plant stands makes the reliance on post-emergence
foliar insecticides risky, particularly where flea beetles are a perennial problem. In-
furrow granules are extremely effective against flea beetles when used in conjunction
with an insecticide seed treatment, especially on early-seeded crops. Granular
insecticides are taken in by the seedling's roots and translocated to the cotyledons and
leaves. The movement of the insecticide from the in-furrow granules to the cotyledons
may take two or three days, during which time the seedlings may be unprotected if an
insecticide seed treatment is not used in conjunction with the granules. Maximum
protection begins to occur about five to six days after emergence and is available for up
to 28 days after emergence. If hot, dry conditions occur, a foliar insecticide may also be
necessary.

Granular insecticides are most effective when placed adjacent to the seed in moist soil
on early-planted crops. Granules are effective with all seeding equipment if seed to
granule placement is 7.6 cm (3") or less. Granular insecticides when broadcast with the
seed and incorporated with harrows are ineffective against flea beetles and a significant
hazard to wildlife.
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Lygus Bugs (Several Species)

Lygus bugs are small, oval-shaped insects that feed on a variety of crops and weeds.
Several species infest canola and alfalfa. In western Canada, Lygus lineolaris (the
tarnished plant bug), L. borealis, L. elisus and L. keltoni have been observed destroying
canola flower buds and seeds. All four species are thought to be equally destructive.
Lygus bugs feed on the sap of new growth and reproductive tissue. Host plants of lygus
include alfalfa, canola, lentils, potato, strawberries, vegetable crops, flax, hemp,
fababean, tree fruits, and weeds such as redroot pigweed, stinkweed, wild mustard and
lamb's-quarters.

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 31)

Figure 31. Lygus Bug Life Cycle

Adult lygus bugs overwinter under plant litter at the soil surface in shelterbelts,
headlands, uncultivated areas and field margins. They emerge soon after the snow melts
in spring. Upon emergence, adults feed on winter annuals and the buds of flowering
shrubs. Overwintering adults can be abundant in volunteer canola, fall-seeded and early
springseeded canola, especially if these crops are in bud or flower and other hosts are
not yet available.

Adult lygus bugs (Figure 32) are about 3 mm (0.1") wide and 6 mm (0.2") long. They
have relatively long antennae and legs. They vary from pale green to reddish brown to
black and from fairly uniform colour to mottled. Lygus bugs have a distinctive triangle
or "V" shaped marking in the upper centre of their backs and membranous wingtips.
Adults are active and fly readily when approached.

Figure 32. Adult Lygus Bug

Photo by Roy Ellis

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After mating and once the eggs mature, females seek suitable host plants, such as
budding alfalfa or canola, on which to lay their eggs. Weed hosts include flixweed,
lamb'squarters, wild mustard, stinkweed, redroot pigweed, kochia, Russian knapweed,
and Russian thistle. Adults feed and lay eggs when buds and flowers are developing in
May through early July. Eggs are laid individually into the stems and leaves of host
plants. The first nymphs appear by about the end of May. In the south, the new
generation adults first appear by about the end of June.

Immature lygus bugs (nymphs) (Figure 33) are light green and wingless. Young nymphs
are often mistaken for aphids, which are similar in size and shape. However, lygus bug
nymphs are much more active, are harder bodied and lack the cornicles ("tail pipes") of
aphids. Nymphs feed on new growth and reproductive parts of the plant. Several black
spots, usually five, become noticeable on the backs of nymphs as they moult or mature
through five instars (growth stages) before becoming adults. Wing buds are evident in
the fourth and fifth instars. In late summer, the new generation adults disperse from
mature canola fields into later maturing hosts, such as alfalfa, and continue feeding until
they migrate to overwintering sites.

Figure 33. Lygus Bug Nymph

Photo by Roy Ellis

The lygus pest species produce at least one generation per year in canola on the prairies.
Only one generation has been observed north of approximately 53° N latitude (e.g.,
Camrose, AB). However, south of approximately 50° N latitude (e.g., Vulcan, AB),
there can be two generations. In alfalfa, a new generation can mature about the time the
first cut of alfalfa is made for forage. The new lygus bug generation leaves alfalfa
seeking another crop-often canola- on which to lay its eggs. In canola, the hatch of
lygus eggs is complete by the end of July.

Damage

Only recently have lygus bugs been considered serious economic pests of canola. In
1996, 4,047 ha (10,000 ac) were sprayed (the first time canola was treated for a lygus
bug infestation) in the area of Vulcan, AB. In 1997, lygus damaged canola in the
Foothills, Newell, Vulcan, Willow Creek, Bonnyville and Peace River region of Alberta
and in the Meadow Lake area of Saskatchewan. Insecticide was applied to about 16,200
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ha (400,000 ac) for lygus bug control that year, yet crop damage was estimated to have
exceeded $10 million. In 1998, more than 1,400,000 acres were sprayed to control lygus
bugs in Alberta.

All species of lygus bugs feed preferentially on either buds, flowers, developing seeds
or on new stem and leaf tissue. Lygus bugs use their piercing-sucking mouthparts to
puncture plant tissue and suck plant juices causing visible lesions to surfaces of stems,
buds, flowers and pods (Figure 34). As they feed, a toxin in their saliva is injected into
the plant tissue that results in further physical injury. In canola and alfalfa, lygus bug
feeding is most injurious to the flowers and developing seeds. With the trend to earlier
seeding and fall seeding of canola, overwintered adults can damage canola in the bud
stage.

Figure 34. Puncture Points from Lygus Bug Feeding on Canola Stem

Photo by Phil Thomas

Feeding on buds, flowers and young pods causes "blasting" (buds turn white and fail to
develop), flowers fall without forming pods or pods drop without maturing. Feeding
punctures on the outside of pods and stems may ooze droplets of sap, causing an
infested crop to become noticeably sticky. These droplets promote the entry of
pathogens. Lygus feeding creates small, dark circular patches on the pod surface.

Seeds that have been fed upon will collapse or shrink, darken and lose their quality and
viability. Additional loss may occur if flowering is delayed by heavy feeding pressure
or drought. In western Canada, lygus bugs typically damage up to 7% of the seed.

Adults and the oldest (fourth and fifth instar) nymphs are responsible for most of the
feeding injury. In 1997, damage estimates were as high as 40% in the most heavily
infested areas.

The damage caused by lygus bugs in canola is related to weather conditions at the time
of the infestation. Weather affects the development of both lygus bugs and the crop. If
rainfall is abundant (more than 100 mm or 4") from the time of bud formation to the end
of flowering and if growing conditions are adequate for the rest of the season, canola
can compensate for much of the bud damage. Hot, dry weather promotes insect
development and worsens the damage caused by insect feeding.
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Monitoring

Begin monitoring canola when it bolts and continue until seeds within the pods are firm.
Since adults can move into canola from alfalfa, check lygus bug numbers in canola
when nearby alfalfa crops are cut.

Start scouting fields at the bud stage. Sample the crop for lygus bugs on a sunny day
when the temperature is above 20°C and the crop canopy is dry. With a standard insect
net of 38 cm (15") diameter, take ten 180° sweeps. Count the number of lygus in the
net.

Repeat the sampling in another 14 locations. Samples can be taken along or near the
field margins. Calculate the cumulative total number of lygus and then consult the
sequential sampling chart (Figure 35). If the total number is below the lower threshold
line, no treatment is needed. If the total is below the upper threshold line, take more
samples.

Figure 35. Sequential Sampling for Lygus Bug at Late Flowering Stage

If the total is on or above the upper threshold line, calculate the average number of
lygus per 10-sweep sample and consult the economic threshold table (Table 3).

Table 3. Lygus Bug Economic Threshold

Application
Number of Lygus Bugs at Different Canola Crop Stages *
Costs

End of
$/ha $/ac Bud Pod Ripening
Flowering

22 8.90 No economic threshold 14 12 10 20 17 15

available
24 9.70 16 13 11 22 18 16

26 10.50 17 14 12 24 20 17

28 11.35 18 15 13 25 22 19

30 12.15 19 16 14 27 23 20
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Table 3. Lygus Bug Economic Threshold

Application
Number of Lygus Bugs at Different Canola Crop Stages *
Costs

End of
$/ha $/ac Bud Pod Ripening
Flowering

32 12.95 21 17 15 29 25 21

Canola Price

$/tonne 220 260 300 220 260 300

$/bu 5.00 5.90 6.80 5.00 5.90 6.80

*Crop Staging: 'End of Flowering' to early pod development in the upper canopy is
stage 69; 'Pod Ripening' is stage 89.

Economic Threshold

The economic threshold for lygus bugs in canola covers the end of the flowering and the
early pod ripening stages. Once the seeds have ripened to yellow or brown, the cost of
controlling lygus bugs may exceed the damage they will cause prior to harvest, so
insecticide application is not warranted.

Consider the estimated cost of spraying and expected return prior to making a decision
to treat a crop. For example, if an application will cost $26/ha ($10.50/ac) and the
expected return is $260/tonne ($5.90/bu), the threshold level is an average of 14 bugs
per 10-sweep sample. An economic threshold for lygus bugs in canola at the bud stage
has not been established.

If soil moisture levels and rainfall are high at flowering, plants likely will be able to
compensate for damage caused by lygus bug populations well above economic
thresholds and control may not be necessary. Since plants under moisture stress during
this time usually will be unable to compensate for most of the feeding injury, spray
using the economic thresholds above.

Management

Biological Control: Lygus bugs have several natural control agents. A tiny fairy wasp,
in the family Mymaridae, parasitizes the eggs of the lygus bug. In western Canada, a
parasitic wasp, Peristenus pallipes, attacks lygus nymphs in alfalfa but is less effective
in canola. Nabid plant bugs, bigeyed bugs and spiders occasionally prey on young lygus
bug nymphs.
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A European wasp, Peristenus digoneutis, has been introduced into alfalfa fields in
eastern North America where it parasitizes about 40% of the tarnished plant bugs. One
of the few parasitoids of lygus adults is a tachinid fly, Alophorella sp.

Insecticides: Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

Insecticide application is the only option for control of lygus bugs once populations
have reached economic threshold levels. Usually, one application of a registered
insecticide at the end of flowering (bloom 90% complete or more) (GS 69) or at pod
formation (GS 71) will prevent most yield losses. Insecticide applications applied at
flowering (GS 60 to 68) often do not control later emerging nymphs. Delaying
application may be prudent if nearby alfalfa crops are being cut. However, this may
allow extensive feeding by early emerging nymphs. Use enough water to ensure the
insecticide penetrates the canopy and provides adequate coverage.

To reduce direct exposure to pollinators, apply insecticides very late in the evening or
early morning when bees are not foraging and the crop has completed at least 90%
bloom. When treating for lygus, prevent spay drift from moving onto beehives,
blooming weeds or surrounding fields. Notify beekeepers of your intention to treat the
field 48 hours in advance of spraying. In general, use an insecticide that has a short
residual activity to reduce the impact on pollinators.

Painted Lady, Thistle Butterfly (Vanessa Cardui (L.))

Larvae feed primarily on Canada thistle leaves, leaving the stem and midrib. Feeding
temporarily inhibits the weeds but new growth usually develops in the fall. They also
feed on about 60 other hosts, including sunflowers and canola.

Identification and Life Cycle

Adults migrate into the prairies from overwintering sites in Mexico, arriving in early
June. There is no evidence that they can survive our cold winters. This butterfly
normally prefers to lay eggs on Canada thistle plants but under some conditions will lay
eggs on other plants. Larvae feed on the leaves producing loose webbing and, if
numerous, can completely defoliate a plant. The larvae are up to 30 mm (1.2") long and
dark purple to black in colour (Figure 36). They have long spines on each segment of
the abdomen.

Figure 36. Thistle Caterpillar

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Photo by Roy Ellis

Management

Because this occasional pest is usually limited to small, scattered patches within a field,
insecticide treatments are rarely justified.

The major concern with this normally beneficial insect arises when fecal pellets webbed
on thistles are harvested with the canola seed. Grade standards have a low tolerance to
insect excreta.

Red Turnip Beatle (Entomoscelis Americana Brown)

Red turnip beetles are native to North America and can occasionally become pests of
canola and mustard across western Canada.

Life Cycle and Appearance (Figure 37)

Figure 37. Red Turnip Beetle Life Cycle

The red turnip beetle overwinters in the soil as reddish brown oval eggs that hatch in
early May. The grubs or larvae feed on the foliage of cruciferous plants such as
flixweed, shepherd's purse and volunteer canola. Mature grubs are black, about 1 cm
(0.4") long, with a roughskinned, segmented body. After feeding they enter the soil to
form bright orange pupae, which transform into the adult beetles (Figure 38). The adult
beetles appear from early June until early July and are 7 mm (0.3") long with bright red
and black patches on their heads and three distinct black stripes running down their
backs. After feeding into mid July, the adults burrow into the soil, rest for the summer
and then leave the soil in late July or early August to mate and lay eggs. The beetles are
often found in groups scattered throughout canola fields, mating near the tops of
maturing plants. After mating, the adults do not migrate to the fringes of the field, but
lay eggs randomly throughout the field. There is only one generation per year.
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Figure 38. Red Turnip Beetle

Photo by Phil Thomas

Damage

The larvae and adult beetles both feed on canola, but the adults are more damaging to
the seedling crop. The beetles do not fly in spring. Damage occurs when beetles move
into a canola field from a neighbouring field sown to canola the previous year. Unless
canola is sown on canola, the beetles remaining in the previous year's canola field will
feed on volunteer canola and cruciferous weeds until the food supply is exhausted or the
field is cultivated, forcing migration in search of food. The beetles can move
considerable distances to reach a canola or mustard crop. They feed only on plants of
the mustard family. They may move through a cereal crop, feeding on the cruciferous
weeds and volunteer canola as they go. The beetles move slowly, completely devouring
canola plants as they move toward the centre from the field's edge, making the damage
obvious from a distance. Damage from the red turnip beetle has been sporadic and
usually local and minor in northern portions of the prairies.

Monitoring

Scout canola fields daily for the first 14 days after emergence.

Economic Threshold

No economic threshold has been developed for red turnip beetle.

Management

Cultural: Cultivate fields with red turnip beetles in late fall to early spring to bury eggs
and reduce larval survival. The beetles have caused severe damage in canola fields
situated next to fields where canola was under seeded the previous year to fescue and,
therefore, not cultivated. Early spring cultivation removes cruciferous weeds and
volunteer canola, destroying the food supply for the larvae.

Insecticides: Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

Spraying with a recommended insecticide after the insects enter the canola crop can
control the adult or larval stages. Since they move en masse, one or two passes with the
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sprayer along the field margin, over and in front of the invading insects, will provide
total control.

Root Maggots (Delia Species)

This insect arrived in North America from Europe in the 19th century and is now
common throughout the prairies. Root damage to canola crops in Alberta and Manitoba
is caused mainly by the cabbage root maggot, Delia radicum, except in northeastern
Alberta where the turnip maggot, D. floralis, is the more numerous species. These
insects can be a serious pest of cruciferous crops such as canola, mustard, cabbage,
rutabaga, radishes, cauliflower and broccoli.

Identification and Life Cycle (Figure 39)

Figure 39. Cabbage Root Maggot Life Cycle

The cabbage root maggot is capable of completing two generations per year under
Manitoba conditions. In Alberta, usually only one generation occurs per year in canola,
but two generations occur on cole crops. The adult cabbage root maggot is a fly and
looks much like a common house fly, but is smaller (5 mm or 2"), ash grey in colour
with a dark stripe along the back of the abdomen, and is covered with many black
bristles (Figure 40). It emerges in the spring from overwintered puparia (cocoons) about
2 to 20 cm (0.8 to 8") long that are beneath the soil surface. A second generation may
emerge later in the summer as the first generation completes its life cycle. Therefore,
adult cabbage root maggots may be found from May to October.

Figure 40. Cabbage Root Maggot Adult

Photo by Roy Ellis

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Female flies leave the fields from which they emerge and locate new crops by odour.
They begin laying eggs within one week of emerging and continue egg laying for their
five to six week life span. Each female will lay 50 to 200 eggs either singly or in small
masses. The eggs are small (1 mm or 0.04" long), white and elongated (Figure 39). Eggs
are deposited at or near the base of host plants usually just beneath the soil surface and
will hatch in three to 10 days. Occasionally eggs are also laid on the lower stems and
leaves of canola plants.

The larval stage is a small (6 to 10 mm or 0.2 to 0.4" long), white and legless maggot,
similar in appearance to most fly maggots (Figure 41). When the eggs hatch, the
maggots move down the root and begin feeding on small roots and root hairs.
Eventually, they tunnel into the plant's taproot. Maggot feeding will last for three to four
weeks as the maggots mature (6 to 10 mm or 0.2 to 0.4" long), after which they will
pupate-either in the root itself or in the soil.

Figure 41. Cabbage Root Maggot

Photo by Roy Ellis

The puparia are elongated and reddish brown, resembling small wheat kernels.
Pupariation occurs in the top 5 to 20 cm (2 to 8") of soil. Pupariation lasts about two
weeks (unless interrupted by winter), after which the adult fly emerges and the cycle
repeats itself (where there are two generations per year). The puparia usually remain
dormant over the winter and adult flies emerge the following spring.

The life cycle of the turnip maggot in Alberta is similar, but emergence of adults from
overwintering puparia does not begin until about two weeks later than the cabbage
maggot. The turnip maggot has only one generation throughout its Alberta range.

Damage

The level of infestation and subsequent yield losses are dependent on environmental
conditions and will vary from year to year. Maggots prefer cool, moist environments.
Therefore, crops grown under cool, moist conditions are most susceptible. Maggots will
tunnel into the root and create channels along the outside (Figure 42). Canola plants are
not usually affected by slight root feeding and in some studies have even shown a yield
increase. However, more severe tunnelling can cause decreased plant vigour, stunting,
yellowing, poor seed set and even death. Infested plants will appear pale green and
stunted and may wilt on hot, dry days. Feeding by three or more larvae may girdle the
 375

root resulting in breakage at the soil surface. Additionally, fungi often invade maggot-
feeding tunnels, especially Fusarium (foot rot) from surrounding soil. Often, infested
roots are darker in colour than healthy, uninfested roots. Under wet soil conditions the
plants may wilt and finally break off just below ground level from the combined effects
of maggot feeding and root rot. Heavy maggot infestations in canola and mustard can
halt blooming and cause severe lodging and yield losses.

Figure 42. Cabbage Root Maggot Damage

Photo by Phil Thomas

Historically, infestations have been most severe in north central and northwestern
Alberta where 95 to 100% of plants in a field are frequently infested to some degree by
root maggots. B. rapa varieties are more susceptible than B. napus. Research at the
University of Alberta has shown that yield losses can be as high as 50% for B. rapa
varieties and 20% for B. napus.

Adult root maggots are known to move distances of at least a few kilometres in search
of host plants. The adults are most abundant in canola during June and early July.

Monitoring

In the spring, use sticky traps or sweep nets to look for the adult fly. Adult flies can be
trapped in yellow bowls of water set around the field margins at the rosette stage. Their
identification requires expertise because many similar species of flies are attracted to
canola fields when the crop is in flower.

When searching for maggot infestations at flowering, carefully pull several plants with
the taproot intact. Brush off the soil and inspect the root for scars caused by maggot
feeding. Check several plants in at least five or more locations. If the maggot is present,
carefully brush off the soil to find it. Cut into the root to assess for maggot damage.

Management

Biological: There are several natural biological control agents present on the prairies.
The most important predators of the immature stages of root maggots are larvae and
adults of ground beetles. The most abundant species of ground beetles in canola fields
 376

in northern Alberta are Bembidion species, which feed on root maggot eggs. Rove
beetles are predators of root maggot eggs and are also parasitic on root maggot puparia,
their most abundant prey during July. Adult files are infected by two species of parasitic
fungi, Entomophthora and Strongwellsea. Entomophthora infection causes quick death
of a fly. The Strongwellsea fungi may achieve high rate of infection and while it does
not kill flies the females are unable to mature eggs.

Cultural: Cultural practices can have a considerable impact on cabbage maggot

populations. There is evidence that a moderate increase in canola seeding rates will
reduce damage and yield loss experienced from maggot feeding. Heavier canola plant
densities result in smaller basal stems that are less attractive to egg-laying females.
Delayed seeding of B. rapa varieties until late in May, rather than in early or mid-May,
may avoid the maggot life cycle but is not recommended as yield loss from late seeding
outweighs maggot control.

Tillage can reduce the level of emergence of adult flies. Research by the Alberta
Research Council in Vegreville, AB showed that the greatest reductions in root fly
emergence (55 to 70%) occurred in plots tilled only in the fall or in plots tilled in both
the fall and the spring. Tillage can move pupae nearer to the soil surface where they are
more susceptible to attack by natural enemies. Fall tillage can expose the pupae to more
severe environmental conditions over the winter. However, use caution when tilling
light-textured soils susceptible to erosion. Tillage prior to seeding will help warm and
dry soil (maggots thrive under cool moist conditions). Direct seeding results in higher
root maggot populations but some research indicates the increased yield with direct
seeding outweighs root maggot damage.

B. napus varieties are less susceptible than B. rapa. In areas where the growing season is
sufficiently long, consider growing B. napus varieties. Another pest management option
is to control cruciferous weed species such as shepherd's purse, stinkweed, wild mustard
and flixweed that can act as host plants, and result in increased overwintering
populations of the maggot.

Insecticides: Controlling the maggot in canola is difficult at best. In-furrow application

of granular insecticides with the seed may provide some first generation maggot control.
However, currently no insecticides are available for control of maggot infestations in
canola or mustard later in the season. Research by the Alberta Research Council at
Vegreville found that elemental sulphur granules either drilled in with the seed or top-
dressed in the spring at greater than 11 kg/ha (10 lb/ac) resulted in significantly less root
damage from root maggots.

In high value cruciferous vegetable crops such as cabbage and broccoli, root damage
and crop losses can be reduced by applying a soil insecticide drench at the time of
transplanting and at two-week intervals until the end of June, and again from late July to
mid-August. However, this is not economical in canola crops.

Insecticides for Control of Canola Insects

Here are some general guidelines for insecticide applications:

 Check provincial crop protection guides for registered insecticides.

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 Examine the fields weekly or daily in the seedling stage, and check for
signs of feeding damage on various parts of the plant.
 Consult with the local crop specialist to ensure pests have been
identified correctly. This also alerts the crop specialist to the possibility
that a problem may be forthcoming.
 Examine the entire field, make counts and determine whether the entire
field requires treatment. Frequently, insect numbers are high at the
periphery of the field and decrease rapidly across the field.
 Canola crops can withstand some insect damage and usually
compensate if the damage occurs early in the growing season. Don't
panic and spray because a neighbour is spraying. Assess the situation,
get outside advice if necessary and make a decision.
 If using a field sprayer for insecticides, make sure that it is thoroughly
cleaned of any herbicides.

Safety

Insecticides must be used properly to protect people and the environment. Always
follow label directions and wear the appropriate safety equipment to protect yourself,
family members and the environment.

Beneficial Insects

When scouting fields with sweep nets it is common to find beneficial insects such as:

 lady beetle adult and larva (Figure 43) and larva (Figure 44)
 hover fly (Figure 45)
 lacewing (Figure 46 and 47)
 parasitic wasp (Figure 48)
 honey bee (Figure 49)

Figure 43. Ladybird Beetle

Photo by Roy Ellis

 378

Figure 44. Ladybird Beetle Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Figure 45. Hover Fly

Photo by Roy Ellis

Figure 46. Lacewing Adult

Photo by Roy Ellis

 379

Figure 47. Lacewing Larva

Photo by Roy Ellis

Figure 48. Parasitic Wasp

Photo by Roy Ellis

Figure 49. Honey Bee

Photo by Roy Ellis

These insects serve a positive role in the production of canola. A healthy population of
these insects is good for canola health and yield.
 380

Beekeeping is a major industry in the canola growing areas of Canada. Caution must be
taken to avoid killing bees or beneficial insects with insecticides. Although it may be
difficult to protect native pollinating insects, honeybee kill can be minimized through
co-operation with beekeepers. Keep the following information in mind when spraying
canola fields to ensure continued good working relationships with commercial
beekeepers:

 Carefully sample sites in a field to be absolutely sure that insect

population levels are high enough to require control measures.
 Discuss spray plans with beekeepers prior to spraying. Since the hives
may have to be moved, give beekeepers at least two days notice prior
to spraying.
 If hives cannot be adequately protected (moved or covered) before
insecticide spraying begins, alert the spray applicator to the exact
location of the beehives within the intended spray area, so beekeepers
can avoid direct spraying or spray drift contamination of the hives.
 Give careful attention to wind direction and velocity in relation to bee
yard locations.
 Do not spray a crop in flower unless absolutely necessary.
 If spraying a crop in flower is necessary, do the spraying when there will
be minimal bee activity in the fields, preferably during the evening hours.
During most summer evenings, honeybees leave fields by 8:00 p.m. and
do not return until 8:00 a.m. or later. Warm temperatures, however, can
"hold" bees in flowering fields for periods longer than normal.
 Whenever possible, choose insecticides with low hazard potential to
bees. Consult with the local agricultural representative or district
agriculturist.
 Do not spray crops of uneven maturity which are partly in flower or which
contain weeds when bees are active.
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Chapter 10c - Diseases

1. Diseases of Canola
o Seedling Disease Complex and Root Rot Complex
 Seedling Disease Complex
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
o Root Rot Complex
 Foot Rot Symptoms
 Root Rot Symptoms
 Brown Girdling Root Rot Symptoms
 Management of Root Rot Complex
o Blackleg
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
 Rotation
 Seed
 Fungicide Seed Treatments
 Weed Control
 Tillage
 Foliar Fungicide
o Sclerotinia Stem Rot
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
 Rotation
 Seeding
 Tillage
 Harvest
 Variety
 Sclerotinia Forecasting
 Factors Involved in Sclerotinia Forecasting
 Scouting for Apothecia
 Weather
 Canopy Density
 Petal Test
 Checklist to Forecast Sclerotinia
 Bloom Stage Identification
 Foliar Fungicide
o Alternaria Black Spot (Grey Leaf Spot)
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
 Rotation
 Tillage
 Varieties
 Seed
 Fungicide Seed Treatments
 382

 Foliar Fungicides
 Harvest
 Plant Stress
 Seed
o White Leaf Spot and Gray Stem
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
o Aster Yellows
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
o Clubroot
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
o Downey Mildew
o Fusarium Wilt
 Symptoms
o White Rust (Staghead)
 Symptoms
 Disease Cycle
 Management
o Canola Disease Management
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Microorganisms Isolated from Diseased Root Tissue at
Hythe and Grande Prairie, AB 1991
o Figure 2. Canola Seedlings with Seedling Disease Complex
o Figure 3. Root Rot
o Figure 4. Brown Girdling Root Rot
o Figure 5. Mean Percentage of Standing Canola Fields with
Blackleg Infected Plants and Infected Plants per Field in
Saskatchewan (1975-1991)
o Figure 6. Blackleg on Canola Leaf with Pycnidia
o Figure 7. Blackleg Stem Lesions
o Figure 8. Blackleg Perithecia on a Canola Stem
o Figure 9. Blackleg Disease Cycle
o Figure 10. Ascospore Production by Blackleg on One-Year-Old
and Older Canola Stubble Residue (# per 1.5 hr sample/mo.)
o Figure 11. Effect of Rotation on Blackleg Disease
o Figure 12. Effect of Rotation on the Incidence of Blackleg Disease
(Manitoba 1999)
o Figure 13. Percentage of Fields Infected and Average Field %
Infection by Region in Manitoba 1997
o Figure 14. Sclerotinia Infection Variations within Areas of Alberta
1996
o Figure 15. Sclerotinia Lesion on Canola Stem
o Figure 16. Sclerotinia on Canola Stem
o Figure 17. Sclerotinia Infected Stems in Lodged Canola
o Figure 18. Sclerotia Inside Canola Stem
o Figure 19. Sclerotinia Disease Cycle
 383

o Figure 20. Apothecia

o Figure 21. Start of Sclerotinia Infection from Canola Petal in Leaf
Axil
o Figure 22. Relationship Between Lodging and Sclerotinia Infection
of Irrigated Canola
o Figure 23. Impact of Rotation on Canola Sclerotinia Disease
o Figure 24. An Estimation of Potential Yield Loss Based on Average
% Canola Petals Infested with Sclerotinia Spores at Early Bloom
o Figure 25. Frequency Distribution for Fields with More than 25%
Infected Plants and 25% or Less Infected Plants
o Figure 26. Canola Field at 30% Bloom
o Figure 27. Canola Plant at 30% Bloom
o Figure 28. Incidence of Alternaria Fungi in Seed Samples of B. rapa
Varieties from Saskatchewan and Alberta (1989)
o Figure 29. Alternaria Lesions on Canola Leaf
o Figure 30. Alternaria on Canola Stems
o Figure 31. Alternaria on Canola Pods
o Figure 32. Canola Pods Shattering due to Alternaria
o Figure 33. Leaves (a) and Pods (b) of Canola Showing Alternaria
Infection Levels
o Figure 34. Alternaria Black Spot Disease Cycle
o Figure 35. Gray stem
o Figure 36. Aster Yellows
o Figure 37. Downey Mildew on Underside of Canola Leaf
o Figure 38. Fusarium Wilt on Canola Stem
o Figure 39. Fusarium Wilt on Canola Pods
o Figure 40. Canola Field with Severe Infection of Fusarium Wilt
o Figure 41. Staghead Symptoms on Canola that is also Infected
with Downey Mildew
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Major Diseases of Canola
o Table 2. Classification of Canola Cultivars for Blackleg Resistance
o Table 3. Sclerotinia Stem Rot Checklist (circle the risk points that
apply to your field)
o Table 4. Identification of Flowering Stages of Canola
o Table 5. Control of Sclerotinia with Aerial Application of Fungicide
in Canola (1981-1982)
o Table 6. Canola Yield Increases with Fungicide Control of
Alternaria

Chapter 10c - Diseases

Diseases of Canola

Fungal, bacterial and viral diseases may attack canola at any time from seeding to
maturity. These diseases come from:

 the soil
 infected seed
 infected crop residue from within the field or
 384

 airborne spores from neighbouring canola fields

Most fields in the major production areas have some disease present each year. The
pathogens that cause these diseases are almost always present because they may
maintain themselves in the soil, survive on infected residues or multiply on tissues of
other susceptible host plants. Many of these diseases also attack other Brassica crops,
such as mustard and common cruciferous weeds. Consequently, diseases are usually
more severe in areas of intensive canola production. Disease severity varies with the
year and the location, and is greatly influenced by farming practices and environmental
conditions.

Worldwide, the diseases that can attack canola are:

 bacterial
o bacterial leaf spot - Pseudomonas syringae
o bacterial soft rot - Erwinia marginalis
o bacterial soft rot Pseudomonas - Pseudomonas marginalis
o black rot - Xanthomonas campestris
 fungal
o Alternaria black spot - Alternaria spp.
o anthracnose - Colletrotrichum higginsianum
o blackleg - Leptosphaeria maculans
o black mold rot - Rhizopus stolonifer
o black root - Aphanomyces raphani
o cercospora leaf spot - Cercospora brassicicola
o clubroot - Plasmodiophora brassicae
o downey mildew - Peronospora parasitica
o fusarium wilt - Fusarium avenaceum and F. oxysporum.
o graymold - Botrytis cinerea
o light leaf spot - Pyrenopeziza brassicae
o phymatotrichum root rot - Phymatotrichopsisomnivora
o phytophthora root rot - Phytophthora megasperma
o powdery mildew - Erysiphe polygoni
o ring spot - Mycosphaerella brassicicola
o root rot complex - Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium and Pythium spp.
o seedling disease complex - Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium and
Pythium spp.
o sclerotinia white stem rot - Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
o southern blight - Sclerotium rolfsii
o verticillium wilt - Verticillium albo-atrum
o white leaf spot and gray stem - Pseudocercosporella capsellae
o white rust and staghead - Albugo candida
o yellows - Fusarium oxysporum
 viral
o cauliflower mosaic virus
o radish mosaic virus
o turnip mosaic virus
o beet Western yellows virus
 phytoplasma-like
o aster yellows
 385

Fortunately many of these diseases are not present in Canadian canola crops. In Canada,
fungal diseases such as sclerotinia stem rot, virulent blackleg, Alternaria black spot,
seedling disease complex and the root rot complex are the major concerns for canola
crops (Table 1). Seedling disease complex is very dependent on weather conditions and
crop rotation. Root rot complex diseases are destructive, but sporadic, and sometimes
linked to root maggot infestations or high rainfall and waterlogged soil, particularly
during flowering. Staghead can be an important disease of B. rapa varieties.

Table 1. Major Diseases of Canola

Disease Appearance Damage Control

 Seed and
seedlings fail to
germinate and  Healthy
emerge seedlings
 Emerged usually
seedlings have compensate  Use certified
constricted roots for dead seed
just below soil seedlings;  Sow shallowly
surface, topple however, into a firm,
Seedling
and die yields are moist, warm
Disease
 Stands can be reduced in seedbed with
Complex thin, slow to very uneven adequate
emerge or and patchy fertilizer
patchy stands  Use fungicide
 Young above  Severe loss treatments
ground plant may
parts may have necessitate
a purple or reseeding
chlorotic
appearance

 Losses are
Foot rot: minor as  Crop rotation
lesions  Control
 Hard brown develop late volunteer
lesions at stem in season; and canola and
base early lesions cruciferous
 Salmon coloured cause weeds in
Root Rot spore masses premature rotation
Complex often present in ripening and  Use clean
lesion reduced seed
yields

Brown girdling root rot:  A major  Use B. napus

disease of B. varieties
 Light brown rapa varieties where
lesions on in the Peace possible, as
taprootand at River region they are
 386

Table 1. Major Diseases of Canola

Disease Appearance Damage Control

bases of larger  Yield losses relatively less

roots from pod susceptible
 Tap root finally abortion,  Use
girdled, leaving premature management
a stump ripening, seed practices for
weight loss seedling
and shrivelled disease
seed complex
 Balanced
fertility may
help to lessen
the impact

Weakly virulent:
 Weakly
virulent  Use a
 Whitish spots on blackleg is minimum of a
leaves and stems four-year
widespread,
peppered with but of minor rotation
small dark fruiting importance  Control
bodies  Infects plants volunteer
 Stem lesions may very late in canola and
be shallow and cruciferous
season
grey or black weeds
 Stubble and
Virulent: crop residue
management
Blackleg
 Whitish spots on necessary
leaves and stems  Seed
with small dark  Virulent treatments
fruiting bodies blackleg can may reduce
 Stem cankers cause severe spread into
deep, brown early areas where
with a dark infections that disease is
margin, and may result in high absent
cut plant off yield losses  Use resistant
causing severe or moderately
lodging and resistant
ripening with varieties
shrivelled seed

 Premature  Yield losses  Use a

ripening of plants about equal minimum four-
Sclerotinia
 Stems bleached to 0.5 x year rotation
Stem Rot and tend to percentage with non-
shred infection susceptible
 Hard black  Can be crops
 387

Table 1. Major Diseases of Canola

Disease Appearance Damage Control

sclerotia inside severe in  Use

stems near base higher rainfall pedigreed
of stalk and areas of seed
other bleached Alberta and  Control
areas Manitoba with weeds and
up to 50% or volunteers
more yield  Use B. rapa
losses when varieties
conditions are  Manage
ideal stubble and
crop residue
(direct
seeding might
reduce
apothecia
production
 Foliar
fungicide
treatments
are effective

 Sow well
 Very
cleaned seed
widespread in
of high
canola
germination
growing areas
 Use minimum
 Can be
three-year
severe if moist
 Black, brown or rotation
conditions
greyish spots on  Control
occur during
Alternaria leaves, stems volunteer
podding
Black Spot and pods canola and
 Severe early
 Pod splitting may cruciferous
infections may
occur weeds
kill plants
 Early swathing
 Severe
will reduce
infections at
seed loss
ripening may
 B. napus types
cause yield
tend to be
loss
less affected

Other fungal diseases that may be present in a canola crop in western Canada, but
seldom cause significant yield losses are gray stem, avirulent blackleg and downey
mildew. Clubroot has only rarely been found in canola in western Canada. Bacterial,
viral and aster yellows type diseases are usually minor concerns.
 388

Seedling Disease Complex and Root Rot Complex

The same fungi, primarily Rhizoctonia solani, cause both diseases in this complex
although other fungi Fusarium species and Pythium species may be present. Seedling
disease complex exhibits several symptoms-seed decay, pre- and post-emergence
damping-off (wirestem), seedling blight and seedling root rot.

The symptoms of root rot complex are foot rot, late root rot, root rot and brown girdling
root rot. Research by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) Beaverlodge, AB
Research Centre found that nearly half of the microorganisms isolated from brown
girdling root rot infected root tissue were identified as Rhizoctonia solani (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Microorganisms Isolated from Diseased Root Tissue at Hythe and Grande

Prairie, AB 1991

Rhizoctonia solani exists as several strains with anastomosis group AG2-1 commonly
identified in the Peace River region and the less virulent AG4 in other regions. In most
of western Canada, the disease manifests itself primarily at the seedling stage, while in
the Peace River region both seedling loss and the much more serious brown girdling
root rot occur.

Seedling Disease Complex

The most widespread problem of canola production is stand establishment. Seedling

disease complex accounts for most of the failure of viable seeds to emerge as seedlings
and may result in partial to complete loss of plant stand. The problem appears to be
greatest under cold conditions or when the seedbed is not firmly packed under dry, cool
conditions. The disease complex is most often a problem in the northwestern prairies
with prolonged low soil temperatures. If seedling losses are uniform throughout the
stand, surviving canola plants will compensate by growing larger. If the loss is patchy
and large areas die out, then compensation cannot take place and reseeding is required.

Symptoms

The symptoms of this complex appear as patchy emergence during the four weeks
following seeding, or up to the fourleaf stage. Seeds fail to germinate and become soft
and pulpy (seed decay). Seeds germinate but the developing seedlings decay and fail to
emerge (pre-emergence damping-off). Seedlings emerge and appear normal above
ground, but either the roots decay with rot moving rapidly up into the hypocotyl, or the
young stem or hypocotyl may be partially or completely girdled with decay and shrivel
at any point. The decay spreads in both directions (Figure 2). The young above ground
parts of the canola seedling may also exhibit a purple or chlorotic discolouration. When
the decay reaches the soil surface, the emerged part of the seedling topples over, wilts
 389

and dies (seedling blight, wirestem or post-emergence damping-off). The hypocotyl

appears constricted or shrivelled and may be discoloured reddish brown. In moist
topsoil, the shrivelled stem may persist for a while, but in dry windy conditions, the
whole seedling disappears in a few days. Seedlings may also emerge and then stagnate
in the two- to four-leaf growth stage even when growing conditions appear favourable.
The disease complex also attacks seedling rootlets resulting in root pruning (seedling
root rot).

Figure 2. Canola Seedlings with Seedling Disease Complex

Photo by Phil Thomas

Flea beetle and/or cutworm damage may occur together with the disease complex, but
do not mistake them for disease. Flea beetles do not cause the hypocotyl to rot off or
constrict at or below the soil line. However, they do eat portions out of the hypocotyl at
or below the soil line. Young cutworms chew holes and notches into leaves while older
cutworms eat into stems and usually sever them at or just above the soil surface.

The effects of seedling root rot and partial girdling of the hypocotyl may be less
apparent in some cases. Plants with damaged root systems may stagnate for a while,
then grow and mature in the usual way. The fungi may persist throughout the life of the
plant on its feeding rootlets, reducing the efficiency of the root system in utilizing
moisture and nutrients, and reducing tolerance to moisture stress in midsummer heat.
This results in a stand with poor vigour and reduced yield.

Disease Cycle

Dry seeds become vulnerable to attack by fungi as soon as they take up water prior to
germination. The fungi grow in the soil when conditions are suitable or are stimulated
by secretions from germinating seeds or roots of host plants. The fungi are usually weak
pathogens able to infect only young succulent roots and hypocotyl tissue. Once in the
plant, the fungi multiply causing decay that damages or kills the seedling. The fungi can
form microscopic resting bodies within or on the surface of the infected tissue following
the death of the cells. The resting or dormant bodies allow the fungi to survive until
another susceptible host becomes available. At the two- to four-leaf stage, the below
ground parts of the plant become sufficiently woody to withstand further infections and
are able to regenerate more rootlets than they lose.
 390

Vigorous, fast-growing seedlings reach this stage quickly, reducing the susceptible
period and withstand infection better than slow-growing plants.

Soil moisture and temperature influence disease severity. Cold damp soils favour
Fusarium species while loose; cold, dry, well-worked soils favour Rhizoctonia solani;
and wet, heavy soils favour Pythium species. Seed-borne fungi rarely cause canola
emergence problems.

Management

For quick germination, emergence and vigorous seedling growth, plant high
germination certified seed 10 to 20 mm (0.4 to 0.8") deep into firm, moist, adequately
fertilized soil when the temperature is above 10°C. Stresses from extreme weather
conditions or physical or chemical injury predispose seedlings to infection. Typical
causes of stress are:

 deep seeding
 poor seed quality

 toxic herbicide residues
 flea beetle injury
 placement of excessive fertilizer with the seed

Soil temperatures below 10°C delay germination and emergence, reduce growth rate
and vigour of seedlings, and prolong the period of seedling susceptibility. Avoid deep
seeding which places seed into colder soil and forces it to grow through more soil to
emerge. This increases the time that the seedling is dependent on food reserves of the
seed and the period of susceptibility. Avoid deep seeding, which increases the infested
crop residue particles that come into contact with the seedling. Greatest losses come
from seeding early into cold soils and from deep seeding.

Maintain soil fertility and avoid harmful quantities of fertilizer with seed. Fertilizer
placed with the seed may delay or reduce germination and emergence, prolong the
period of susceptibility and increase infection. Avoid inadequate or unbalanced
nutrients, which also favour the disease complex fungi.

Reseeding a crop destroyed by the seedling disease complex is usually successful if the
soil temperatures and moisture conditions are favourable for rapid germination and
vigorous seedling growth.

Rotate with non-cruciferous crops. Severe damage can result when canola is sown after
canola or a canolasummerfallow rotation.

Seed treatment fungicides offer some protection against disease. However, the results
may be unpredictable because no single fungicide is effective against all three fungi.
Fungicide-insecticide combination seed treatments also provide early protection against
flea beetle injury.
 391

Root Rot Complex

Foot rot symptoms occur sporadically throughout canola growing areas. The fungi
causing these symptoms are potentially serious, but so far have been a minor problem.
Incidence, as well as intensity, is increasing throughout the prairies with some fields
having over 50% of the plants infected late in the season. Of the root rots, only brown
girdling root rot is of major economic importance.

Brown girdling root rot occurs only occasionally in the northern parkland zone, but in
the Peace River region of Alberta and British Columbia it is an extremely widespread
and a serious problem in B. rapa varieties. In this region, brown girdling root rot causes
greater yield losses than all other diseases. For the period 1987-1993, 100% of surveyed
fields were infected with estimated losses ranging from 56 to 784 kg/ha (1 to 14 bu/ac),
depending on the year, with an average loss of approximately 448 kg/ha (8 bu/ac) or
30%. Yield losses of up to 55% in individual fields have occurred. In any one year, one-
third of B. rapa fields may suffer significant losses, 10% in a season of normal moisture
and up to 50% in a wet season.

Foot Rot Symptoms

In the growing season, brown, hard, clearly defined lesions occur near the stem bases of
canola plants. The lesions may be black-bordered, and during periods of humid weather,
pink spore masses may develop on diseased root tissues. Discolouration of the upper
part of the taproot above the lateral roots may occur. In severe cases, the stem is girdled,
killing the plant. Yield loss may occur when the stem is onehalf girdled. Yield losses are
light when lesions occur late in the season. Affected plants may ripen prematurely as
scattered plants or in patches in the field. Where foot rot develops late in the season, the
earlier maturing B. rapa varieties may escape infection or lesions may not have time to
develop to the point that yield is seriously reduced.

Root Rot Symptoms

The symptoms are variable in colour and shape but can be grouped into four general
types:

 a light grey oval lesion of the upper taproot

 a dark grey discolouration of the lower taproot and internal tissue, later
becoming black (Figure 3)
 a light brown, soft, diffuse taproot lesion
 a dark brown, sunken, sharply defined taproot lesion

Figure 3. Root Rot

Photo by Phil Thomas

 392

Brown Girdling Root Rot Symptoms

Light brown lesions with irregular margins first appear at or after the onset of flowering,
usually 7.5 cm (3") or more below the soil surface on the taproot or main lateral roots.
Later lesions may appear anywhere on the taproot. As the lesions develop they expand,
grow together, become sunken and eventually girdle the taproot (Figure 4). The sunken
lesions become dark brown. Roots below the girdling rot off. The lesion continues to
develop upwards, sometimes to the soil surface but never moves into the stem. Root
tissues above the infected part become swollen.

Figure 4. Brown Girdling Root Rot

Photo by Beth Hoar

In moist conditions, the whole taproot may be destroyed up to the soil surface. Girdled
plants may survive and even set some seed if they are not uprooted or blown over by
wind.

In dry soil, a sound taproot stub remains. The above ground parts of the plant remain
turgid as long as there is any root connection with moist soil. Taproot stubs that retain a
few roots are sometimes capable of regenerating main laterals as well as fibrous roots.
Plants with girdled taproots wilt, dry up and shrivel, even though soil moisture may be
adequate for plants with normal root systems.

Yield losses will depend on the amount of root system lost by girdling. If only root
stubs are present or brown lesions girdle the taproots, the disease will result in
considerable yield loss. If brown spots are present, but do not girdle the root, actual
disease losses may be minimal. Losses are a result of increased pod sterility, loss of
seed weight, and seed shrivelling and plant death from desiccation or wind toppling.
Girdled plants that survive ripen prematurely and tend to be pulled out of the ground
rather than cut during swathing, increasing shatter losses. Damage from disease is
usually greatest when wet soil conditions during first flowering permit extensive root
rot development, followed by high temperatures and dry windy conditions.

Brown girdling root rot occurs on all principal soil types and textures of the Peace River
region, in all crops. Disease development appears to be favoured by fine-textured heavy
clay soils with high levels of copper (4 to 20 ppm). Research at the Agriculture and
Agri-Food Canada (AAFC) Research Centre in Fort Vermilion, AB found that disease
severity was similar for all tillage systems. Brown girdling root rot can be more severe
 393

when canola follows canola or in canola following clover or fescue than on canola
following summerfallow. Decomposing fescue sod, for reasons not clear, is conducive
to the development of this disease. It is unpredictable because it can also be severe
where canola has never been grown previously, and even on freshly broken land that
has never been cropped. Several cruciferous weeds, including stinkweed, shepherd's
purse and ball mustard, also suffer from root rot.

Management of Root Rot Complex

Consider these measures for control of root rot:

 Maintain recommended N, P, K and S fertility levels in the soil. Nitrogen

decreases disease severity. Liming the soil may be beneficial in reducing
disease severity.
 Allow at least three years between canola crops, and control volunteer
canola and cruciferous weeds during rotation. Consider including field
peas in the rotation (to improve the nitrogen level) to reduce disease
severity.
 Use B. napus varieties since they are only moderately susceptible to root
rot, compared to the more susceptible B. rapa varieties.
 Use the management practices outlined for the seedling disease
complex to establish a vigorous, uniform growing crop.
 Use a recommended seed fungicide treatment to control the seedling
blight stage of this disease. No economical chemical controls are
available for brown girdling root rot.

Blackleg

Blackleg is caused by the fungus Leptosphaeria maculans. It is a serious disease of

canola and can cause significant yield losses in susceptible varieties. Blackleg occurs in
a mild or weakly virulent strain and in a highly virulent strain. The weakly virulent, or
mild type is widespread in western Canada. This strain usually infects plants very late in
the season, rarely causing yield losses of even 1 to 2%. Therefore, it is considered a
minor problem. Virulent or severe blackleg infects canola seedlings and progressively
damages the growing crop in June and July. It causes major crop loss by severely
damaging or killing infected plants. The virulent strain was first detected in 1975 in east
central Saskatchewan. Since then virulent blackleg disease has become widespread
throughout Saskatchewan. By the late 1980's, blackleg was present in almost all fields
surveyed in Saskatchewan (Figure 5).
 394

Figure 5. Mean Percentage of Standing Canola Fields with Blackleg Infected Plants and
Infected Plants/Field in Saskatchewan (1975-1991)

Before the widespread adoption of moderately resistant to resistant varieties that

became available in the early to mid 1990's it was estimated that blackleg disease
caused over $500,000,000 in losses to Saskatchewan canola growers.

Surveys in Saskatchewan in 1989 found blackleg in 90% of the fields with an average
of 52% of plants infected per field. A few fields were reported with 100% infection with
yield losses higher than 50%. However, blackleg surveys in that province in the mid
1990's found that 75% of B. napus fields and greater than 90% of B. rapa fields had
blackleg at infections levels of only 5% and 7%, respectively. In Alberta, Manitoba and
Ontario virulent blackleg was identified in the early 1980's although most growers in
these provinces did not experience the levels of losses experienced in Saskatchewan.
Both provinces also reported declines in blackleg incidence in the early 1990's. This
decline in virulent blackleg incidence in western Canada occurred due to grower
adoption of more resistant varieties and sound disease management practices.

Symptoms

Blackleg infections may occur on cotyledons, leaves, stems and pods. Leaf spots are
dirty white, round to irregularly shaped, and usually dotted with numerous small, black
pycnidia (pepper-like spore-bearing structures (Figure 6). Pycnidia appear as tiny round
specks that may be seen more easily with the aid of a hand lens. Under moist weather
conditions, pink spore (pycnidia spores) masses ooze from the pycnidia.

Figure 6. Blackleg on Canola Leaf with Pycnidia

 395

Photo by Beth Hoar

On stems, blackleg lesions can be quite variable, but are usually found at the base of the
stem or at points of leaf attachment. Stem infection before the six-leaf stage is usually
associated with serious yield loss. Stem lesions may be up to several inches in length,
and are usually white or grey with a dark border. Numerous pycnidia form in the centre
of the lesion (Figure 7). Basal stem lesions may also appear as a general blackening at
the base, again with numerous pycnidia.

Figure 7. Blackleg Stem Lesions

Photo by Beth Hoar

Severe infection usually results in a dry rot or canker at the base of the stem. The
weakly virulent form of the fungus usually infects plants near maturity, resulting in
shallow stem lesions, rarely forming extended cankers that girdle the stem. The highly
virulent form of the fungus attacks the crop earlier. If basal infection begins early, stem
cankers appear from flowering onwards. As the season progresses, cankers penetrate,
deepen and may girdle stem bases, often completely severing the plant. By mid-July,
plants ripen prematurely and may start lodging. Less severely affected plants remain
standing but have restricted moisture and nutrient flow. Hard, black fruiting perithecia,
slightly larger than pycnidia, may form on the basal stem cankers late in the year or in
the following year (Figure 8).
 396

Figure 8. Blackleg Perithecia on a Canola Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Pods and seeds may also be infected. Infected pods ripen and shatter easily at harvest,
resulting in seed loss. The seed beneath pod lesions may be sunken or shrivelled and
pale grey. The earlier pod infection occurs, the less likely viable seed will be produced
as the fungus infects the seed coat and embryo.

Disease Cycle

The disease cycle is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Blackleg Disease Cycle

The fungus overwinters on infected seed and canola stubble. Seed infection is seldom
more than 1 to 2% and is not regarded as a major source of infection within crops.
However, infected seed can spread the disease into new areas. A 1% infected seed lot
could have up to 25,000 infected seeds/ha (10,000/ac). A canola crop planted with
diseased seed could develop scattered areas of infection over a field. Seed is infected by
dormant mycelium (the vegetative phase of the fungus) on or under the seed coat and
not by spores. Mycelium growth resumes when the seed germinates.
 397

The major source of widespread heavy field infection that causes high yield loss is the
spores produced from diseased stubble, especially infected root pieces. Stem infections
eventually progress internally down into the taproot of the canola plant. The taproot
being very woody in nature will resist decay and can help the blackleg pathogen survive
for three years or more. Seedlings, infected either from diseased seed or by spores from
previous crop stubble, develop fungal lesions on the cotyledons or stems. Under the
right conditions, spore-producing structures called pycnidia then appear as pepper-like
spots on the lesions. These pycnidia ooze out masses of tiny, short-lived summer spores
called pycnidiospores. These spores are spread short distances (up to 1 m or 40") by
wind and rain to nearby healthy plants to start new infections. Once the leaves are
infected the fungus grows down the petiole into the stem, eventually leading to the most
damaging phase of the disease, stem cankering, usually at ground level. This cuts off
moisture and nutrient movement in the plant. Flowering plants may start lodging as the
fungus girdles stem bases, often completely severing or cutting off the plant. Infection
before the six-leaf stage is usually associated with serious yield loss. The earlier the
infection occurs, the greater the likelihood of basal stem canker development. Infections
initiated after the six-leaf stage cause less damage than early infections. Less severely
affected plants may survive but produce less seed and these are of poor quality.
Wounded stems from hail or insects may be infected directly from spores germinating
in the wound. Pods may also be infected which can lead to a small level of infected
seed.

Stubble from plants with stem cankers produce pycnidiospores the following year.
Infected stubble can continue to produce pycnidiospores for three to five years. Another
type of spore may also develop in infected stubble after the disease has been present in
an area for some time. This larger and longer-lived sexual spore (ascospore) is produced
from the hard, black perithecia on basal stem cankers. Ascospores result from the
mating of two distinct strains of the virulent blackleg fungus that infected the same
plant. Ascospores are very common in heavily infected regions of Saskatchewan.
Ascospores are discharged from the previous year's stubble usually in July or August
but occasionally in May or June. Infected stubble will produce ascospores for three to
five years, with peak production normally occurring in the second year after infection.
Twoyear- old or older infected stubble may begin discharging thousands of these spores
into the air in April or May and can continue to produce spores until October (Figure
10).

Figure 10. Ascospore Production by Blackleg on One-Year-Old and Older Canola

Stubble Residue (#/1.5 hr sample/mo.)

About 1 mm (0.04") of rain and moderate temperature (16 to 20°C) are required to
induce a large ascospore discharge, although small discharges result from light showers
 398

or even heavy dew. Most ascospores are wind-borne only a few hundred metres (yards),
although some may travel 5 km (3 miles) or more. Ascospores that land on canola or
volunteer canola plants in the field or in nearby fields can begin new infections. Once
infection is established the disease can spread within a crop by spores produced in
pycnidia and distributed by rain splash. Canola stubble, especially larger root pieces,
can take two to three years to break down and up to five years during a series of dry
seasons.

Warm, dry conditions slow the spread of the disease while prolonged moist weather
favours rapid spread and development. Wild mustard is the only important weed host of
the virulent strain.

Management

Follow these steps to help control blackleg:

Resistant varieties
Grow B. napus varieties that are moderately resistant or resistant to blackleg in areas
with a high potential for virulent blackleg. A resistant variety is not immune to the
disease. Stems can still be infected as shown by the scale used for determining the
blackleg classification of varieties (Table 2).

Table 2. Classification of Canola Cultivars for Blackleg Resistance

Class % of Westar

Resistant <28

Moderately Resistant 29 to 45

Moderately Susceptible 46 to 63

Susceptible 64 to 100

Varieties rated "R" or "MR" for blackleg will suffer less yield loss than those with less
resistance. All current B. rapa varieties are susceptible to blackleg disease. In areas
where virulent blackleg is at low levels or has not been found, all registered varieties are
suitable. Mustard varieties are highly resistant to blackleg.

Rotation

Use a crop rotation of non-host crops with canola no more frequent than once every four
years to allow the canola stubble to decompose. While there is always a possibility that
blackleg could be introduced to a field by windborne spores, longer rotations reduce the
probability of high levels of disease infection. Avoid planting canola within 1 km (0.6
mi) of infected land for three years. Research studies on susceptible varieties in 1986 by
AAFC Research Centre in Saskatoon, SK showed that longer rotations increase the
probability that low levels of disease infection will disappear when the infected stubble
has rotted (Figure 11).
 399

Figure 11. Effect of Rotation on Blackleg Disease

Observations from this study:

1. In a field where canola had not been grown as a previous crop, 39% of
the plants were infected as spores were blown into the field from an
adjacent field. Even with moderate levels of infection yield loss was slight
due to low levels of severe basal stem cankers.
2. Similarly in a field with a three-year break between canola crops, 89% of
plants were infected but few developed severe basal cankers. After four
years much of the inoculum in the field had died out and plants often
had been infected at a later growth stage when they were less
susceptible to damage.
3. A field with a two-year break between canola crops showed a higher
incidence of infection, moderate basal cankers and a 24% yield loss.
4. With only a one-year break between canola crops nearly all of the
plants showed infection with a majority having severe basal stem
cankers and a severe yield loss of 48%. Even with a light level of infection
in the previous canola crop there was sufficient inoculum to cause
severe infection two years later.
5. In all the fields that had canola previously, most of the infection
appeared to come from old infected residue within the field itself and
not from adjacent fields. Similar results were shown in a 1999 Manitoba
AAFC study in which the incidence of blackleg dropped with longer
rotations (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Effect of Rotation on the Incidence of Blackleg Disease (Manitoba 1999)

Since blackleg reproduces sexually, an infected canola field will have a population of
many individuals that are the result of sexual recombination. When challenged with a
resistant variety, the individuals that tend to survive and reproduce on that new variety
are the more virulent in the population. Shorter rotations can increase the selection
 400

pressure to favour more virulent individuals in the blackleg population and may
overcome resistance in the variety being grown.

Seed

Purchase pedigreed seed that has been tested for blackleg. Seed testing is an important
preventative measure in areas where the disease is not established.

Fungicide Seed Treatments

Treat all canola seed with recommended fungicides. Even if seed does test blackleg-
negative, there could be a few infected seeds in the total seed lot. A fungicide treatment
will decrease the probability of blackleg surviving on the seed. Fungicides effectively
reduce seed-borne blackleg but do not guarantee 100% control. Where virulent blackleg
is already established, infected seed is of relatively little importance to disease
development in comparison to ascospore infection from infected stubble. Seed treatment
will protect plants from infected seed but will not protect seedlings from infection by
airborne spores. Seed treatment is essential to keep the disease out of areas where it is
not established. Seed provides an effective means of long distance spread and
introduction of the fungus into areas where it does not occur.

Weed Control

Practice proper weed control. Control volunteer canola as the disease can live from one
year to the next on volunteer canola and wild mustard. Without proper weed control a
long crop rotation will be ineffective.

Tillage

Bury canola stubble in the top 12 cm (5") of soil in the field. This speeds stubble
decomposition and reduces disease infection potential in nearby fields. Where soil
erosion is a problem incorporate the stubble just before planting. In the following three
years, use shallow tillage or direct seeding to avoid bringing infected residue, especially
root pieces, to the surface.

Foliar Fungicide

A registered foliar fungicide can be applied at the rosette stage for blackleg control,
however, there is unlikely to be much evidence of the disease at this stage. While it may
be possible to identify blackleg lesions on the leaves, stem cankers are generally not
visible at this growth stage. The fungicide will provide about three weeks of protection
that could delay the development of stem cankers and result in higher yields for
susceptible varieties. The plants can still be infected at later growth stages so some stem
cankers may be visible later in the season, and pod and seed infections could still occur.
 401

Sclerotinia Stem Rot

The fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum that occurs in all the canola growing areas of
Canada causes stem rot. Stem rot of canola is a sporadic but often severe disease in
Canada. The disease is usually most severe in the higher rainfall areas of Alberta and
Manitoba. Infections are usually light in the dryland areas and low to moderate
elsewhere (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Percentage of Fields Infected and Average Field % Infection by Region in

Manitoba 1997

However, the severity of stem rot varies from year to year, and even from field to field
within a region (Figure 14).

Figure 14. Sclerotinia Infection Variations within Areas of Alberta 1996

In a random survey of about 300 Alberta growers in the early 1980's, 35% reported
problems with sclerotinia stem rot; one-half with moderate to heavy damage. The yields
of those with moderate to heavy damage were 224 to 336 kg/ha (4 to 6 bu/ac) lower
than those reporting little or no damage.

Plants are infected when the canola crop is in bloom. Variation in the percentage of
infected plants is due to:

 differences in the quantity of infectious spores

 plant population
 crop height and vigour
 severity of lodging
 rainfall
 402

 soil moisture
 temperature

With the right combination of crop density and weather conditions or irrigation, heavy
infections can develop almost anywhere. Even after plants are infected, the severity of
stem rot symptoms and the resulting effect on yield will vary according to temperature,
rainfall, crop density and especially the stage of crop growth at the time of infection.

Yield losses reflect yield reduction per infected plant and the percentage of infected
plants in a crop. In general, when conditions for the disease are favourable and
infections occur throughout the flowering period, yield reduction per infected plant can
equal 50% or more. Yield losses can be attributed to:

 smaller and fewer seeds

 premature ripening
 shattered pods
 loss of smaller, shrunken seeds during combining

A formula has been developed to estimate the bushel loss due to sclerotinia infection
(loss/infected plant X infected plants X yield potential). For example, if the yield loss
per plant is 50%, 25% infected plants and a yield potential of 2,240 kg/ha (40 bu/ac),
the loss would be 0.5 x 0.25 x 2,240 (40) = 280 kg/ha (5 bu/ac).

However, if infections were delayed until late bloom or if dry weather set in after early
bloom, yield reduction per infected plant could be as little as 10%. Using the example of
a crop with 25% infected plants, the loss would be 0.1 x 0.25 x 2,240 kg/ha (40 bu/ac) =
56 kg/ha (1 bu/ac). Use this calculation as part of the process of deciding whether to
spray to control the disease.

Symptoms

Two to three weeks after infection, soft watery lesions or areas of very light brown
discolouration become obvious on the leaves, main stems and branches. Lesions
expand, become greyish white, and may have faint concentric markings (Figure 15).
Plants with girdled stems wilt, ripen prematurely and become conspicuously straw-
coloured in a crop that is otherwise still green. The stems of infected plants eventually
bleach and tend to shred and break (Figure 16). Infected plants may produce fewer pods
per plant, fewer seeds per pod or small, shrivelled seeds that blow out the back of the
combine. The extent of damage depends on whether the main stems or branches are
infected and at what stage during flowering infection occurs. Severely infected crops
frequently lodge, shatter at swathing and are difficult to swath (Figure 17).
 403

Figure 15. Sclerotinia Lesion on Canola Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Figure 16. Sclerotinia on Canola Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Figure 17. Sclerotinia Infected Stems in Lodged Canola

 404

Photo by Phil Thomas

When the bleached stems of diseased plants are split open, a white mouldy growth and
hard, black resting bodies (sclerotia) are visible (Figure 18). Sclerotia vary in size and
shape. They may be small and round like a canola seed or up to 2 cm (0.8") long and
cylindrical, ovoid or irregular in shape. Under moist conditions, sclerotia and the white
mouldy growth may also occur on the surface of infected areas of the plant. At harvest
the sclerotia are either threshed out with the seed or left in the field.

Figure 18. Sclerotia Inside Canola Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Disease Cycle

The sclerotinia disease cycle is shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19. Sclerotinia Disease Cycle

The stem rot fungus overwinters as sclerotia in the soil, in stubble at the soil surface and
mixed with seed. Sclerotia are storage organs that can remain viable in the field for five
years or more. Studies done at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon, SK
showed that sclerotia are present in virtually all soils of western Canada at numbers
sufficient to cause devastating infection levels. Each year some sclerotia will germinate
when conditions are suitable but others will remain dormant. Germination produces
either mycelium (microscopic filaments), which may infect plants in direct contact with
sclerotia, or spore-producing apothecia (small golf-tee shaped structures) as shown in
Figure 20.
 405

Figure 20. Apothecia

Photo by Phil Thomas

Most infections in canola result from airborne spores produced by apothecia at the soil
surface. However, for sclerotia to germinate and produce apothecia, they require
prolonged moist soil conditions (at least 10 days above the wilting point) and moderate
temperatures of 15 to 25°C. Normally, such conditions do not occur until the crop
canopy closes and permanently shades the soil surface. Since this is typically at the late
rosette stage, with the 10- day delay, apothecia appear as flowering starts. Only sclerotia
in the top few centimetres of soil will produce functional apothecia, since the apothecial
stalks are rarely longer than 5 cm (2"). Deeply buried sclerotia will not produce
apothecia but can remain dormant. If brought near the surface by cultivation, they may
germinate.

A single sclerotium can produce up to 15 apothecia, either at one time or over a period
of weeks. Apothecia only grow from sclerotia and not from any plant tissue or residue
in the soil. Occasionally apothecia emerge from inside plant tissue from sclerotia
trapped inside undecomposed stubble. In western Canada, apothecia normally begin to
appear in June but most develop during flowering. Apothecia can continue to develop
until late September but the critical period for causing damaging infections is from early
to full bloom. Research has shown that plant infection rarely developed before the
plants were in the mid-flowering stage and that apothecia rarely appeared in the field
before plants were in bud.

Apothecia (Figure 20) are typically 5 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6") in diameter. The upper end
of this range is about the size of a small fingernail or slightly smaller than a dime.
Apothecia produce millions of microscopic spores that are released into moving air
currents. Even the lightest breeze easily carries the spores across a field or into adjacent
fields, possibly as far as several kilometres (miles). Honeybees can also carry spores.

Spores cannot infect the leaves and stems directly-they must first grow in dead petals or
other organic material adhering to leaves and stems. The petals provide the food source
necessary for the spores to germinate, grow and eventually penetrate the plant. Infection
usually occurs in the leaf axils or at points of stem branching where the airborne or
petal-borne spores land and droplets of water can be frequently found (Figure 21).
Moist conditions from rainfall or heavy dew, which may keep leaves and stems wet for
two to three days, are also necessary for infection. Spores can remain alive for up to 21
days.
 406

Figure 21. Start of Sclerotinia Infection from Canola Petal in Leaf Axil

Photo by Beth Hoar

When leaves are infected the fungus can spread down into the stem. The fungus grows
and invades healthy stem tissue when conditions are favourable. A dense canopy
provides better conditions for symptom development. A study at Outlook, SK found the
incidence of sclerotinia was directly related to the degree of lodging (Figure 22).

Figure 22. Relationship Between Lodging and Sclerotinia Infection of Irrigated Canola

Heavy stands tend to lodge, and stem rot will spread from plant to plant by direct
contact, especially if wet weather delays swathing. Spread will also occur in wet swaths.
The fungus eventually forms new sclerotia in diseased plants that are returned to the soil
at harvest, completing the disease cycle.

Management

Rotation

Allow a rotation of at least four years between susceptible crops. While crop rotation is
less effective in controlling sclerotinia (Figure 23) (due to wind-blown spores from
nearby fields), research at AAFC Brandon, MB Research Centre shows that a longer
rotation reduces the overall risk of higher levels of infection through reduced primary
inoculum (apothecia). Sclerotia can survive up to five to 10 years in the soil. However,
over time they either germinate or are destroyed by soil microbial activity.
 407

Figure 23. Impact of Rotation on Canola Sclerotinia Disease

The stem rot fungus has a worldwide host range of over 400 species, mostly in
broadleaf plant families. Sunflower, safflower and occasionally flax crops are quite
susceptible to this disease. Mustard, field peas, beans, carrots, crambe, potatoes, lentils,
soybeans, fababeans, clovers and alfalfa are also susceptible to some degree. Weed
hosts that can produce sclerotia after infection include:

 chickweed
 stinkweed
 hemp-nettle
 thistles
 shepherd's purse
 narrow-leafed hawk's-beard
 false ragweed
 wild mustard

Cereals and grasses are not susceptible, and can help reduce viable sclerotia in the soil
through decay and germination in the absence of susceptible hosts.

Avoid seeding canola adjacent to a field which had a heavily infected crop the previous
year. Control of susceptible weeds and volunteer plants in cereal crops helps reduce
sclerotia levels.

Seeding

Since crop density is an important factor, use seeding rates lighter than or up to the
recommended seeding rate. Use clean pedigreed seed, free of sclerotia. Growers report
that fall seeded canola tends to have less sclerotinia infection than canola sown in early
to mid-May.

Tillage

Research in Ontario has shown that no-tillage combined with a good rotation results in
reduced numbers of apothecia. Burying the black sclerotia 8 to 10 cm (3 to 4") deep will
prevent the development of apothecia from reaching the soil surface. Burial of canola
residue speeds up sclerotia breakdown and reduces the spread of the disease. However,
later tillage brings sclerotia back up near the soil surface. In order to keep sclerotia
buried, use minimum and shallow tillage for cereals sown in fields where infected crop
stubble has been worked down and buried. The amount of disease control is usually
 408

proportional to the effectiveness of residue burial. Under conditions favourable for

disease spread, sclerotinia can spread even if less than 10% of crop residues are left
unburied.

Harvest

Growers can apply fungicide for sclerotinia control and achieve good to excellent
results in the standing crop. Unfortunately, this disease may progress rapidly in the
swath in wet years particularly in B. napus cultivars. Do not swath canola if rain is
forecast, particularly if the crop is immature (green) when cut. In wet compacted
swaths, particularly on the turns, sclerotinia rot progresses rapidly. The disease can be
detected by a rotten "egg like" smell coming from the swaths. This problem is obviously
more prevalent in the wetter regions of western Canada. The heavier and more compact
the swath, the greater the likelihood for sclerotinia to rot the swath before combining.

Steps to follow to control sclerotinia in the swath:

 direct combine the crop

 do not swath immature stands (at least 30% of the seed must be ripe)
 do not swath if rain is in the immediate forecast
 avoid compacting swaths
 use a high cut to allow for better drying
 avoid heavy swaths on the turns

Up to one-third of a canola crop may be lost in the swath due to sclerotinia rot.
Additionally, this damages and reduces the quality of the seed and increases the number
of sclerotes.

Variety

All canola varieties with flower petals are susceptible to sclerotinia stem rot. However,
apetalous varieties are tolerant to sclerotinia as they produce flowers without petals.
Since flower petals are the initial food source for sclerotinia spores their absence greatly
reduces, but not necessarily eliminates the risk of disease development. In short season
growing areas, B. rapa varieties tend to have lighter canopies and generally lower
infection levels.

Sclerotinia Forecasting

Forecasting systems have been developed for stem rot in canola that uses either petal
testing, a checklist or environmental risk maps based on environmental conditions. The
forecasting risk maps for Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba can be accessed on the
Canola Council's Web site.

While no forecast system is 100% accurate they do provide practical direction in

making a decision to control the disease.

Factors Involved in Sclerotinia Forecasting

 409

Many factors influence a forecasting system and its relationship to the actual incidence
of disease. Most predictive models evaluate several environmental and crop variables
such as:

 field cropping history

 field disease history
 apothecia presence
 rainfall
 soil moisture
 weather forecast
 canopy density

Other important variables affecting the relationship and incidence of the disease
include:

 changing inoculum levels during flowering

 heat units
 daily and weather related inoculum fluctuations
 light penetration
 leaf area index
 crop height

Field and nearby field cropping and disease history are an indirect means of measuring
the potential for presence of spores. While sclerotia within the field are considered the
main source of spores, those produced in nearby fields and blown into the crop can also
be important in disease development.

Scouting for Apothecia

The presence of apothecia is a good indicator of the potential for spore production.
However, scouting for apothecia may be quite difficult, as sclerotia are not found in
high numbers in most infected soils. Therefore, the sampling site or the individual
carrying out the sampling may influence accurate estimates of apothecia numbers. Also
each apothecia produces large numbers of spores so relatively few apothecia are needed
to cause a localized high level of disease. Scout low wet spots in the field that provide
better conditions for sclerotia to germinate, nearby fields that had canola or field peas
with some level of sclerotinia infection in the past two to three years and/or other dense
canola or other crops. Scout any crops, including heavy cereal stands that are dense
enough to produce conditions favourable for sclerotia germination and with a history of
sclerotinia in the past. Low wet spots and a dense canopy protect the sensitive apothecia
from desiccation and allow them to release infectious spores over a longer period.

Weather

Rainfall and soil moisture are necessary for sclerotia germination, spore production, and
spore germination and growth. Ideal canola growing weather is also ideal for sclerotinia.
Soil moisture is more of an indication of sclerotia germination and, therefore, the
potential for spore production rather than that of disease development. Frequently water
from heavy dews dripping off the plant is enough moisture for sclerotia germination.
 410

Weather forecasts can improve the reliability of the disease forecast because sudden
weather changes can cause infestations to occur unexpectedly or high-risk fields may
show limited disease development. Hot, dry windy weather can greatly reduce the risk
of sclerotinia infection.

Canopy Density

A dense canopy decreases evaporation and prolongs the period of favourable moisture
conditions within the canopy. Both soil moisture and canopy density are indirect
measures of moisture availability in a crop canopy. As a crop develops, the canopy
shades the soil surface and inhibits the evaporation of water. If soil moisture is high,
relative humidity levels within the canopy will be higher than that above the crop
canopy. If soil moisture is low, however, there will not be enough available moisture to
increase the relative humidity within the canopy for infection to develop.

Petal Test

The petal test method developed by the University of Saskatchewan is based on the fact
that the amount of disease that develops in the field is determined by both the number of
spore-carrying petals and by weather conditions. Rainfall, humidity and temperature
affect how many plants actually become diseased. Prediction of stem rot risk is based on
the numbers of spores present during flowering.

The petal test involves:

 collecting canola petals, starting at early flower

 placing petals in plates containing a culture medium specifically
designed to encourage growth of the sclerotinia fungus
 scoring canola flower petals in the culture plates by identifying colonies
of sclerotinia
 calculating the percentage of petals that were infected and estimating
the risk of disease from the results

The average percentage of infected flower petals can be used to estimate the probable
percentage of diseased plants that could develop in the field being evaluated. Use the
chart in Figure 24 as a guide to estimate probable per cent yield loss.
 411

Figure 24. An Estimation of Potential Yield Loss Based on Average % Canola Petals
Infected with Sclerotinia Spores at Early Bloom

When only the average per cent infected petals at early bloom are considered it is easy
to flow through the chart to estimate the probable per cent yield loss.

Canopy density influences the potential disease infection levels to some extent. Heavy
stands with dense foliage are likely to develop more disease for a given level of petal
infection than light, open stands. The effects of canopy density on disease risk are
shown by the transverse arrows at the top of the chart in Figure 24. For example, a crop
with low percentage (0 to 45) infected petals may be at a moderate disease risk if the
stand is moderately heavy. Conversely, a crop with high percentage (90 to 100) infected
petals may only be at moderate disease risk if the crop is open and light.

Weather also influences disease potential, as shown by the transverse arrows in the
middle of the chart. Changes in the weather as the crop goes from early to full flower
can increase or decrease levels of petal infection and change disease risk. If conditions
become drier after early flower, disease risk will decrease because of fewer infected
petals. Therefore, less disease would be expected than initially predicted. Conversely, if
conditions are dry at early flower but become wetter, disease risk may increase. Because
of the weather influence on petal infection and disease risk, the petal test kit
manufacturers recommend that a second or even third petal test be carried out if weather
conditions change appreciably after the first test.

Unfortunately, the relationships of disease with changes in petal infection are complex
and there are no simple rules to follow. The per cent infected petals may be low at early
flower because of low levels of apothecia or because dry weather conditions have been
unsuitable for spore production. Then prediction for both disease risk and yield loss
would be low and spraying would not be recommended. However, if conditions become
wetter and a second petal test is carried out, the per cent infected petals, disease risk and
yield loss estimates may increase. Disease risk predictions based entirely on later tests
may be overestimates because sclerotinia has less time to damage the plants and cause
yield loss. In this case, it may be economically viable to spray the fungicide at a reduced
rate.
 412

Research at the University of Guelph in Guelph, ON shows that measuring soil moisture
levels a week previous to and the week of petal collection helps increase the accuracy of
the petal test. A soil that is just above the wilting point will have enough soil moisture
to germinate sclerotia.

Checklist to Forecast Sclerotinia

The following sclerotinia checklist developed in Sweden can be a reasonably accurate

and reliable predictive forecast system that assists growers in deciding when to apply a
foliar fungicide. Growing conditions in Sweden are similar to the higher rainfall areas
of western Canada.

Fill out the checklist (Table 3) and assess the crop shortly after first flower. First flower
occurs when 75% of the canola plants have three open flowers on the main stem.
Usually this occurs during the last week of June or the first week of July.

Read each question and circle the point value assigned to the answer chosen. Count up
the points for each question and enter the total.

A second evaluation at 10 to 15% flowering would likely increase the accuracy of the
forecast.

Table 3. Sclerotinia Stem Rot Checklist (circle the risk points that apply to your
field)

Risk Factor Possible Answers Risk Points

More than six years 0

Number of Years Since Canola Crop Three to six years 5

One to two years 10

None 0

Low (1 to 10%) 5
Disease Incidence in Last Host Crop
Moderate (11 to 30%) 10

High (31 to 100%) 15

Low 0

Crop Density Normal 5

High 10

Rain in the Last Two Weeks Less than 10 mm (0.4") 0

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Table 3. Sclerotinia Stem Rot Checklist (circle the risk points that apply to your
field)

Risk Factor Possible Answers Risk Points

10 to 30 mm (0.4 to 1.2") 5

More than 30 mm (1.2") 10

High pressure 0

Weather Forecast Variable 10

Low pressure 15

None found 0

Regional Risk for Apothecia Development Low numbers 10

High numbers 15

Total Risk Points

Swedish researchers who developed this model (through evaluation of 800 fields over a
10-year period) found that with a total of less than 40 risk points, the risk of heavy
infection (disease incidence exceeding 25%) was low (Figure 25).

Figure 25. Frequency Distribution for Fields with More than 25% Infected Plants and

25% or Less Infected Plants

A threshold value of 40 risk points accurately identified 75% of the fields that need
spraying for sclerotinia but also 16% of the fields that did not need a fungicide. A
threshold of 35 risk points increased the accuracy to almost 90% of the fields need
spraying but also included more than 20% of the fields that did not need spraying.
Therefore, if the risk points are 40 or higher, it is likely worth spraying. If the risk
points are less than 40, it is not likely worth spraying.

Bloom Stage Identification

 414

If you plan to use a fungicide for sclerotinia control you must decide when to spray.
Sample several plants over the field and assess the number of open flowers. One way to
check for bloom stage is to find the main stem, pull off the secondary branches, and
count only the open flowers on the main stem. Generally, it takes a crop from two to
four days to move from first flower to 10% bloom (Table 4).

Table 4. Identification of Flowering Stages of Canola

Flowering B. napus Canola (flowers - main B. rapa Canola (flowers - main

Stage stem) stem)

10% 10 6 to 7

20% 14 to 16 10 to 12

30% 20 14 to 16

At 30% bloom, a field of canola is said to be in full bloom-when the maximum number
of flowers are open at one time (Figure 26 and 27).

Figure 26. Canola Field at 30% Bloom

Photo Courtesy of BASF

 415

Figure 27. Canola Plant at 30% Bloom

Photo Courtesy of BASF

The optimum time to spray is before the majority of petals begin to drop off and the
pods set. Put another way, spray the crop at its most yellow, the day when the maximum
number of flowers are open. The objective of the fungicide application is to cover as
many petals as possible while ensuring that some chemical also penetrates into the
canopy to help protect potential infection sites (such as leaf axils and bases). The
chemical is only active on those petals that are present at the time of spraying. The
chemical will not protect petals that emerge after spraying, but some chemical coverage
within the canopy may help to restrict infection.

If sprayed at the optimum time, the maximum number of fungicide-covered petals will
fall into the canola canopy (lower leaf axils, leaves and shoots). Infection of the canola
plant will only take place from sclerotinia-infected petals. When the petals fall into
lower leaf axils the presence of one or more petals carrying fungicide will likely prevent
sclerotinia infection.

For growers without the equipment to spray for sclerotinia, due to the very short time of
four to eight days from first flower to 20 to 30% bloom, book a custom applicator as
early as possible.

Foliar Fungicide

Where required, the use of fungicides not only increases yields but also reduces dockage
due to sclerotia contamination of the seed and small, shrivelled seed. Since the cost of
spraying a fungicide is high and sclerotinia disease incidence varies greatly among
years, regions and fields, systematic spraying is not profitable. By applying a fungicide
only when necessary, yield losses due to heavy infestations as well as unnecessary
 416

fungicide applications can be avoided. Sclerotinia stem rot can be effectively controlled
by a single protective fungicide treatment during full flower (growth stage 63 to 65) as
shown from disease control trials in northwest central Alberta in Table 5.

Table 5. Control of Sclerotinia with Aerial Application of Fungicide in Canola

(1981-1982)

Yield
Sprayed Sprayed Yield Unsprayed
Species Unsprayed Increase
Average (bu/ac) Yield (bu/ac)
and Average % (bu/ac)
%
Fungicide Infection
Infection
kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac

Brassica napus

Fungicide
3 2,425 43.3 56 1,294 23.1 1,131 20.2
1

Fungicide
7 1,305 23.3 70 812 14.5 493 8.8
1

Fungicide
11 1,658 29.6 76 902 16.1 756 13.5
1

Fungicide
6 2,184 39.0 19 1,977 35.3 207 3.7
1

Fungicide
10 1,288 23.0 70 812 14.5 476 8.5
2

Fungicide
4 2,128 38.0 19 1,982 35.4 151 2.7
2

Fungicide
3 1,753 31.3 31 1,394 24.9 358 6.4
2

Brassica rapa

Fungicide
2 1,613 28.8 18 1,770 31.6 157 -2.8
1

Fungicide
8 2,397 42.8 44 1,736 31.0 661 11.8
1

Fungicide
1 1,731 30.9 18 1,770 31.6 39 -.0.7
2
 417

Table 5. Control of Sclerotinia with Aerial Application of Fungicide in Canola

(1981-1982)

Yield
Sprayed Sprayed Yield Unsprayed
Species Unsprayed Increase
Average (bu/ac) Yield (bu/ac)
and Average % (bu/ac)
%
Fungicide Infection
Infection
kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac kg/ha bu/ac

Fungicide
2 2,072 37.0 44 1,736 31.0 336 6.0
2

Threshold disease levels are those where the cost of spraying equals the yield increase
due to fungicide application. Research results indicate that it may be economically
justifiable to apply a fungicide when field scouting (checklist or petal test) indicates that
disease levels will reach 15 to 25% in B. napus and over 30% in B. rapa by crop
maturity. Base threshold levels on current dollar return per bushel and application costs
of the fungicide per acre.

Alternaria Black Spot (Grey Leaf Spot)

Alternaria black spot is caused by the fungi Alternaria brassicae, A. alternata and A.
raphani. Black spot is one of the most common diseases of canola in western Canada.
Although Alternaria is present every year on the Canadian prairies, the severity of this
disease varies considerably from year to year and area to area based largely on the
moisture and temperature situation. The disease can infect all growth stages of the
canola plant.

Canola plants vary in their susceptibility to black spot attack throughout their
development. Aging plants are more susceptible than young or intermediate-aged
plants. Therefore, black spot epidemics intensify at flowering and reach their maximum
intensity in ripening plants. A heavy infection on leaves and stems reduces
photosynthetic potential of the plant, but is generally not damaging early in the season.
However, when the disease spreads extensively onto green pods it may increase the
green seed count and seed chlorophyll content, and cause premature pod shatter,
shrivelled seed, lower 1,000-kernel weight and reduce oil content.

Seeds may become infected following the development of the disease on pods,
adversely affecting seed quality and germination. Infected seeds are either killed or
damaged and are generally non-viable. An AAFC Saskatoon, SK Research Centre study
in 1989 looking at nearly 400 seed samples from Alberta and Saskatchewan found fairly
high levels of infected seed (Figure 28).
 418

Figure 28. Incidence of Alternaria Fungi in Seed Samples of B. rapa Varieties from

Saskatchewan and Alberta (1989)

The incidence of A. brassicae was higher and A. alternata lower in Alberta seed samples
due to higher August rainfall in that province in 1989. Further studies also found
infected seeds in B. napus varieties but at much lower levels than those of B. rapa.
Severely infected seed lots have shown reductions in germination of 12 to 30%.

The greatest yield loss from Alternaria black spot comes from pod shatter. Pod shatter
results from uneven drying of the disease-infected pods causing them to split,
particularly under dry, windy conditions in the swath. A 1988 University of Alberta
disease survey estimated an average 30% yield loss in B. rapa crops from black spot in
central Alberta. B. napus varieties usually suffer less damage than B. rapa varieties.
However, recent research has reported substantial yield losses in B. napus under
conditions favourable for disease development.

Symptoms

Alternaria black spot disease causes symptoms in the seedling stage on cotyledons and
in later growth stages on leaves, leaf petiole, stem, flowers, pods and seeds. Infected
seed may rot in the ground or produce seedlings with dark spots on the cotyledons.
Some infected seedlings may also exhibit damping-off or wirestem disease. All above
ground plant parts are susceptible to infection.

The disease first appears on the cotyledons in the form of small light brown lesions that
soon turn black due to the appearance of spore masses (under humid conditions) and act
as a source of infection for other parts of the plant. The initial infections on lower leaves
develop distinct brown to blackish lesions or spots with yellow halos around them
(Figure 29). The lesions vary in size (1 to 20 mm or 0.04 to 0.8") and colour, depending
on environmental conditions. They may be entirely grey under moist conditions, and
grey with a purplish or black border, or entirely black under less favourable conditions.
These lesions can multiply rapidly and later spread to the upper leaves, stem and pods.
 419

Figure 29. Alternaria Lesions on Canola Leaf

Photo by Beth Hoar

On severely infected leaves several lesions unite to cause defoliation under humid
conditions. Stem and pod lesions first appear as small brown or black dots that may
develop into conspicuous spots or longer and wider lesions of various shapes (Figure
30). The spots or lesions may be entirely black or dark-bordered with a greyish white
centre. In severe outbreaks, the upper part of the stems and pods wither. Pods may show
sunken, dark brown to black circular lesions (Figure 31). Deep lesions on pods cause
infection in the seed. Diseased seed just beneath the black spots on the pods can be
small, shrivelled, grey to brown. Grey or black seeds that are dark green inside are
likely to have been damaged by black spot and are unlikely to change colour in the
swath. Infected pods may ripen prematurely and shatter while the crop is standing or in
the swath (Figure 32).
 420

Figure 30. Alternaria on Canola Stems

Photo by Beth Hoar

Figure 31. Alternaria on Canola Pods

Photo by Beth Hoar

 421

Figure 32. Canola Pods Shattering due to Alternaria

Photo by Phil Thomas

Standard disease area diagrams developed by pathologists at the University of Alberta

in Edmonton, AB allow estimation of the intermediate levels of disease severity by
comparing a diseased plant with diagrams showing both more and less disease (Figure
33). To calculate the disease severity, the leaf and/or pod to be assessed are matched to
one of the diagrams of the black areas or areas damaged shown (representing 1%, 5%,
10%, 20% 30%, and 50%) for each leaf and/or pod covered by the actual lesions (Figure
33).

Figure 33. Leaves (a) and Pods (b) of Canola Showing Alternaria Infection Levels

Disease Cycle

Black spot fungi overwinter on infected crop residue, on cruciferous weeds and to a
lesser extent on/in seed (Figure 34).
 422

Figure 34. Alternaria Black Spot Disease Cycle

Spring infections on plants begin directly from infected seed or from spores produced
on crop residue or from infections on cruciferous weeds. Many cruciferous plants are
hosts on which the fungi can survive from year to year. These include tame mustard,
flixweed, hedge mustard, tumbling mustard and stinkweed. Spores, after landing on
susceptible plant tissue, remain intact until exposed to moisture from dew or rain, then
germinate, penetrate and cause lesions within a few days. The leaf lesions or spots are
important because they produce more wind-borne or rain-splashed spores that may
cause more infection on the same or neighbouring plants.

Humid conditions and moderate temperatures favour the disease. Cooler temperatures
(10 to 15°C) on days with rain and wind promote abundant spore production especially
on days where leaves remain wet over longer periods. Wind spreads spores throughout
the crop canopy. The cycle continues throughout the season under favourable
conditions. Black spot epidemics intensify at flowering when heavy crop canopies
promote humid conditions and reach their maximum intensity in ripening plants. High
concentrations of airborne spores are needed to initiate development of severe
epidemics on canola leaves and pods. Early lodging and cool wet weather in the
podding stage become critical factors that lead to major black spot outbreaks. Lodged
canopies remain wet longer promoting greater spore production. Hot and dry conditions
can interrupt black spot epidemics as the absence of moisture greatly reduces spore
production. Black spot disease can be quite variable across a field with more serious
infection levels on lower slopes than on upper slopes. Seeds may become infected
following development of lesions on the pods. At harvest time, spores produced on
stems, branches and pods may also infect the seed in the combine.

Management

Rotation

Crop rotation has a limited effectiveness in controlling black spot disease. Frequently,
fields that have not had canola grown for several years experience black spot, causing
considerable damage despite the rotation. Black spot spores are excellent wind travellers
and can spread to areas remote from the location of production. Three years of
 423

noncruciferous crops between canola crops will help reduce airborne spores from crop
residue. Control cruciferous weeds and volunteer canola during the rotation.

Tillage
Incorporate diseased stubble into the soil if canola is to be grown on an
adjacent field the following year. Buried stubble cannot release black spot
spores. However, the amount of disease control is usually proportional to the
effectiveness of residue burial. Unfortunately, under conditions favourable for
disease spread, Alternaria black spot can spread even if less than 10% of crop
residues are left unburied.

Varieties

While all varieties of canola are susceptible to black spot disease to various degrees,
growers may be able to lessen the risk of serious losses by sowing B. napus varieties
which are less susceptible than B. rapa. B. napus varieties have more leaf wax which
provides more tolerance to black spot disease.

Seed

Plant well-cleaned, high germination pedigreed seed. Use seed free of small, shrunken,
and infected seed to reduce the seed-borne level of Alternaria. In the laboratory,
Alternaria can be observed in the germination test for canola. It is identified by greyish-
white mycelium that covers an infected seed or has spread to a nearby seedling.
Presence of Alternaria is often noted on the seed lot certificate.

Fungicide Seed Treatments

Registered seed treatments are effective in reducing seedborne inoculum and increasing
seed germination. However, planting treated seed will not safeguard against black spot
since Alternaria also overwinters on plant residue and the spores are spread by wind.

Foliar Fungicides

Aerial fungicide application applied at 95% flowering provides economical control of

this disease. Research studies on the control of black spot disease by AAFC Saskatoon,
SK Research Centre and Alberta Agriculture Food and Rural Development showed
yield increases ranging from 9 to 36% where a fungicide was applied at late flowering
(Table 6).

Table 6. Canola Yield Increases with Fungicide Control of Alternaria

% Disease % Disease % Yield

Location/Year Species Incidence No Incidence Increase over
Fungicide Fungicide Treated the Check
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Table 6. Canola Yield Increases with Fungicide Control of Alternaria

% Disease % Disease % Yield

Location/Year Species Incidence No Incidence Increase over
Fungicide Fungicide Treated the Check

Medstead,
B. rapa 7.5 2.9 36
SK/95

Medstead/96 B. rapa 7.1 2.4 22

Canwood,
B. rapa 4.0 0.2 13
SK/96

Lake Lenore,
B. rapa 21.4 2.8 36
SK/96

Olds, AB/89 B. rapa 20.2 5.6 15.9

Innisfail, AB/88 B. rapa 29.1 17.6 9.2

Ellerslie, AB/98 B. rapa 20 8.8 17.2

Ellerslie/99 B. rapa 30 20 14.4

Ellerslie/98 B. rapa 15 13.8 12.7

Ellerslie/99 B. rapa 23.8 13.8 11.9

B.
Ellerslie/98 10 0 16.5
napus

B.
Ellerslie/99 22.5 11.8 11.9
napus

In addition, fungicide control of black spot disease also increased seed germination,
reduced green seed count from 8 to 4% and increased thousand seed weight relative to
the untreated controls in the research.

Harvest

Early swathing of badly infected crops may reduce serious losses from shattering.
Swath fields infected with black spot as straight cutting extends the time period over
which shatter damage from black spot occurs. Any practice that allows the crop to dry
more quickly following a rain or dew may reduce the impact of this disease. Adequate
balanced fertility and lower plant populations will help reduce early lodging. Adjust
swathers to produce open rather than heavy swaths. Avoid the use of wide swathers in
 425

heavy stands and swathing in the rain. A lighter swath exposed to good airflow and
rapid drying is less at risk.

Plant Stress

Factors that cause plant stress are known to increase the plant's susceptibility to black
spot disease. A nutrient deficiency can cause stress. Follow soil test recommendations
to ensure adequate fertility of both macro and micronutrients. Sulphur deficient plants
tend to be more susceptible to black spot disease. Apply insecticides when warranted
since insect injury predisposes plants to black spot disease.

Seed

Seed from southern and drier areas of the prairies generally carries less seed-borne
infection. Pedigreed seed growers can take steps to reduce infected seed levels.
Extended exposure of crops to wet weather after ripening can result in high levels of
seed-borne Alternaria and reduce seed germination. Harvest seed fields as soon as the
seed is properly matured and weather permits, using a grain dryer if necessary. To
improve the quality of seed lots use proper cleaning procedures to remove small,
shrivelled seeds that tend to contain higher levels of Alternaria and have lower
germination. Do not use seed lots with high levels of Alternaria for seed since the
overall vigour of the seed may be adversely affected.

White Leaf Spot and Gray Stem

This disease is caused by the fungus Pseudocercosporella capsellae. White leaf spot and
gray stem are widespread throughout the canola growing areas of western Canada.
Although this disease can be found in most fields when the crop is ripening, it usually
develops too late in the growing season to affect crop yields significantly.

Symptoms

White leaf spot appears in the summer. Severe leaf spotting can result in premature leaf
loss. As the crop ripens, large purple to grey-speckled stem and pod lesions develop. At
harvest, some plants may be completely discoloured and frequently the entire field turns
a purple or grey colour. Disease symptoms may appear earlier in the season on crops
under stress from lack of moisture, insufficient nitrogen or severe competition from
weeds.
 426

Figure 35. Gray Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Disease Cycle

The fungus overwinters as thick-walled mycelium on crop residue and produces wind-
borne spores in the spring that infect canola plants. Following infection in early
summer, white to buff-coloured spots develop on lower leaves. These lesions produce
wind-borne spores that cause the rapid spread of the disease in the ripening crop. The
disease is usually not seed-borne. The disease has a wide host range among cruciferous
weeds, including shepherd's purse, hare's ear mustard and ball mustard.

Management

Crop rotation and control of volunteer canola and cruciferous weeds help reduce
infection. Good crop production practices that reduce stress due to weed competition
and nutrient deficiency help delay disease development.

Aster Yellows

Aster yellows disease is caused by a phytoplasma (previously called mycoplasma-like

organism) and is spread by aster leafhoppers. This phytoplasma has an extremely wide
host range, and can infect about 300 species of plants. Generally, in most canola fields it
infects a very low percentage of plants. However, in years favouring the spread of the
aster leafhopper some fields have been observed with up to 15% or more infected
plants. The severity of this disease cannot be predicted from the number of aster
leafhoppers present due to many different factors such as weather conditions, numbers
of infected leafhoppers and rainfall amounts.
 427

Symptoms

Plants infected at an early growth stage fail to produce flowers and set pods. In western
Canada, most plants are infected when leafhopper populations are at a maximum in
mid-June to the end of June. Infected plants develop distorted leaf-like flower structures
that remain green and fail to ripen. Plants show a bunched appearance at the tips of
branches where blue-green, sterile, hollow bladders are formed in place of normal pods
(Figure 36). Normal appearing pods may be present on the lower portions of infected
plants but fail to set seed. These undeveloped pods remain on the plant but are usually
quite small.

Figure 36. Aster Yellows

Photo by Phil Thomas

Disease Cycle

The disease is spread primarily by the aster leafhopper (Macrosteles quadrilinetus). The
insect is olive-green or straw coloured with six dark coloured spots on the forehead. The
abdomen is charcoal and the wings are opaque. Adult leafhoppers cannot survive
winters in Canada. They may overwinter as eggs that take two weeks and five nymphal
stages to develop into first generation adults which appear in late May to early July
depending on the location. Adults may also migrate from the U.S., usually arriving in
early to mid-June. Because leafhopper movements are regulated by wind and weather
patterns, migrations are not consistent from year to year. Both local and long-distance
migration influences the incidence and severity of the aster leafhopper infections and
aster yellows.

Aster leafhoppers become infected by feeding on infected host plants. Leafhoppers must
feed on a susceptible plant for a sufficient time to inoculate themselves with aster
yellows. It has been estimated that about 2 to 5% of the leafhoppers may carry the
disease. Migrant leafhoppers may also arrive infected with aster yellows. After the
leafhopper is infected it takes two to three weeks for the leafhopper to become capable
of transmitting the disease. Leafhopper feeding on canola plants is not economically
damaging, but in the feeding process the plants may be infected with aster yellows.
Once in the plant the disease multiplies rapidly and symptoms may appear in one week
in younger plants and two to three weeks in older plants.
 428

Management

There is no practical means of controlling this disease in canola. Infected host plants act
as reservoirs of aster yellows and influence the level of disease in the next season.
Certain weeds in cultivated crops may influence the incidence of the disease. Host crops
can be winter wheat, wheat, oats, barley, rye, canola, potatoes, flax, sunflowers,
fababeans, tomatoes, sage, celery, lettuce, and carrots. Weed species include knotweed,
plantain, lamb's-quarters, sow thistle, ragweed, quackgrass, pineapple weed, wild asters,
wild carrot and stinkweed. Control of biennial and perennial host weeds in the field and
surrounding area may reduce the incidence of this disease.

Clubroot

Clubroot is caused by a fungus Plasmodiophora brassicae. In Canada, clubroot is a

serious problem in cabbage, cauliflower and rutabaga crops, chiefly in eastern Canada
and the coastal regions of British Columbia. The disease has been identified in Alberta
and Manitoba but has not appeared in canola in the prairie provinces. Where the disease
is a problem in other crucifers, especially in eastern Canada, be alert for disease
symptoms.

Symptoms

Galls appear on the roots of infected plants, ranging from tiny nodules to large, club-
shaped outgrowths that may involve most of the root system. The galls are at first firm
and white but become soft and greyish brown as they mature and decay. Severely
affected plants are stunted and wilt under moisture stress because much of the taproot is
destroyed.

Disease Cycle

Resting spores of the fungus can survive in soil for many years. In the presence of
susceptible roots, the spores germinate and release tiny organisms that swim in free
water to the surface of the rootlets, penetrate and form a fungal colony inside the root
cells. The fungal colony causes cells to enlarge and divide rapidly, resulting in the
characteristic galls. Late in the season, resting spores develop in the infected roots and
are released into the soil as the galls decay. Fields become infected mainly by the
movement of soil on cultivation equipment and by seedling transplants. The fungus
exists in many races to which some cultivated crucifers, for example cabbage, have
been bred for resistance.

Management

Infected fields must be kept free of susceptible crops for many years because of the
long-lived resting spores. Do not move cultivating equipment from infected to non-
infected areas before thoroughly cleaning the equipment. Liming may reduce disease
severity on acidic soils.
 429

Downey Mildew

Downey mildew is caused by the fungus Peronspora parasitica, a close relative of white
rust. Downey mildew occurs in almost constant association with staghead as part of the
white rust/downey mildew disease complex. Downey mildew also appears alone on
infected seedlings and leaves of the rosette stage of B. rapa during periods of cool, wet
weather in the spring. The fungus is soil-borne and seedborne and may persist in the soil
for five to 10 years. The fungus appears as a white mealy growth on the lower surface of
leaves (Figure 37) and on green stagheads caused by the white rust fungus (Figure 40).
The upper leaf surface over the infected area usually turns yellow. The disease cycle is
similar to that of staghead. The control recommendations are the same as for staghead.
Use a crop rotation with noncruciferous crops making certain to control volunteer
canola, stinkweed and wild mustard.

Figure 37. Downey Mildew on Underside of Canola Leaf

Photo by Phil Thomas

Fusarium Wilt

Fusarium wilt, a new fungal disease of canola, has been observed in the Peace River and
northeast agricultural regions of Alberta and in Manitoba.

Two soil-borne fungi, Fusarium avenaceum and Fusarium oxysporum, have been
identified as pathogens for this disease. These fungi were isolated from infected plant
tissue. Severe wilt symptoms were produced when healthy canola plants were
inoculated with the isolates-40 to 90% of the plants died, depending on the isolate.

Fusarium wilt of canola was first seen in Alberta in 1999, the first report in North
America. It was observed in several fields in the Peace River region of Alberta in
August of 1999. In one field near Ft. Vermilion, AB estimated yield loss was 30%. The
disease was also reported in the northeast region of Alberta, in July of 1999. A mean
wilt incidence of 7% was observed in fields in the Two Hills, AB area. Incidence in
individual fields ranged from 0 to 29%. For one field near Andrew, AB, estimated yield
loss was 18%. Fusarium wilt is not as common as other canola diseases but it can be a
problem. Some varieties of canola may be more susceptible than others to this disease.
 430

Symptoms

 Yellow or reddish-brown streaks, often occurring only on one side of the

stem or on the branches (Figure 38). Some plants may have an orange
discolouration at the base of the stem. Plants with minor infection may
also ripen prematurely and tend to shatter.
 Chlorosis and necrosis of stems, vascular discolouration, poor seed set
and premature desiccation (Figure 39).
 Premature death in severely infected plants. Stems and/or branches turn
brown, but plants remain upright with roots intact (Figure 40). No visible
lesions are visible on stems or roots. Plants are often stunted and have
small pods with no seeds.

Figure 38. Fusarium Wilt on Canola Stem

Photo by Beth Hoar

Figure 39. Fusarium Wilt on Canola Pods

Photo by Beth Hoar

 431

Figure 40. Canola Field with Severe Infection of Fusarium Wilt

Photo by Phil Thomas

White Rust (Staghead)

The fungus Albugo candida causes this disease. White rust is a common disease of B.
rapa cultivars throughout western Canada. Some cultivars have resistance to one of two
races that have been identified from B. rapa but are susceptible to the other. Cultivars
with resistance to both races are being developed. Cultivars of B. napus are resistant to
the current races of A. candida from B. rapa and from mustard. Yield losses in excess of
20% have been recorded on susceptible cultivars when severely infected. White rust can
cause disease problems on mustard (B. juncea) and occurs on cruciferous weeds. Races
are generally fairly host or species specific (for example white rust from the weed
shepherd's purse does not infect B. rapa and vice versa).

Symptoms

White to cream-coloured masses or pustules of "white rust" appear on the underside of

leaves from the seedling stage onward. Following infection of the stems and pods,
raised green blisters form that turn white during wet weather. The most conspicuous
symptom is the presence of swollen, twisted and distorted inflorescences called
"stagheads" that become brown, hard and dry as they mature (Figure 41).
 432

Figure 41. Staghead Symptoms on Canola that is also Infected with Downey Mildew

Photo by Beth Hoar

Disease Cycle

The fungus overwinters as resting spores in decaying infected plant tissues (mainly
stagheads) or as a seed contaminant. These spores may remain dormant in soil or on
seed for a number of years. In the spring, some of the spores germinate and infect the
cotyledons and leaves of young susceptible plants. These infections develop and white
pustules are formed on the underside of leaves or on stems. The pustules release chalk-
like, airborne spores that can spread the disease to other parts of the plant or to nearby
plants to cause secondary infections on leaves, stems or flower buds. Stagheads develop
from infected flower buds. At harvest, stagheads may be broken during threshing
resulting in contamination of the seed with resting spores.

Management

Grow resistant cultivars, use certified seed and use a crop rotation with at least three
years between canola crops.
 433

Canola Disease Management

Major disease damage can only occur when the following conditions are satisfied:

 the crop is susceptible

 the disease is present
 the environmental conditions are favourable for the disease
 the disease has sufficient time to develop to cause damage

Disease management strategies must counter one or more of these factors to reduce or
prevent initial disease populations, and to slow their rates of increase. Because disease
control is only part of the total production system, disease management must integrate
with other crop production factors.

A major component of disease management is proper field scouting. Scouting provides

the information on diseases present, their severity and potential crop loss if untreated.
Scout fields for disease weekly, from crop emergence until maturity. The information
gathered can be used to justify the use of fungicide application for disease control. It
will also prevent the unnecessary use and expense of fungicide application or ensure it
is applied when it will give the greatest economic return.

To scout fields for disease:

 Review the field history. Identify any fields that have had chronic disease
problems. Check for these diseases when scouting.
 Scout weekly. Start checking the field before emergence. If stand
establishment problems occur, take corrective action immediately,
before the seedbed moisture is depleted. Reseeding a crop destroyed
by a seedling disease is usually successful if the soil temperature and
moisture conditions are favourable for vigorous seedling growth. After
emergence check the most disease prone locations first. Foliar diseases
tend to be worst in lush heavy growth areas.
 Scouting requires examination of five to 10 randomly selected sites that
represent the majority of plants within the field. Closely examine the
leaves, stems and roots of each plant selected. The use of a magnifying
glass or hand lens may be particularly useful.
 Identify all diseases present as soon as possible. Some diseases increase
quickly (e.g. Alternaria) and must be dealt with promptly. Where
symptoms are in question consult with a crop specialist for further
information on disease identification. Provide one or two plants (root,
stem and soil).
 Keep good field records. Map the areas where diseased plants are
found to determine where to apply treatments, to monitor any disease
increase and to assist in planning future crop rotations. The map will help
if the same crop is grown in this field in future years.

Include the following practices in a disease management program:

 Follow a crop rotation in which canola is grown not more than once
every four years. Cereals and grasses are good rotational crops because
they are not susceptible to diseases of crucifers. Also, volunteer canola
 434

and cruciferous weeds can be easily controlled in these crops using

herbicides. If canola is grown in rotation with pulses, make sure the
canola directly follows the pulse crop. Pulses in the rotation provide
benefits that under most conditions outweigh any risk from sclerotinia.
Crop rotation by itself rarely gives complete disease control. Under
favourable conditions, spores can blow in from adjacent fields. Crop
rotation will delay the occurrence of some diseases in a field and in
many cases this delay is sufficient to allow the crop to escape serious
damage during its most susceptible growth stage.
 Select a variety first on its suitability to the frostfree period of the area
and second on its agronomic performance and disease reaction. Grow
B. napus varieties where possible because they are less susceptible to
the common diseases of canola.
 Select seed from relatively disease-free fields. Avoid seed from areas with
virulent blackleg. This will prevent its introduction through infected seed.
 Use direct seeding or reduced tillage, as research has shown that
significant crop losses from diseases are not substantially increased.
Under conventional tillage begin seedbed preparation in the fall, unless
the field is subject to appreciable wind and water erosion. Fall
incorporation of herbicides and fertilizers reduces the number of tillage
operations to be done in the spring, and conserves seedbed moisture.
 Sow canola shallowly into firm, moist, weed-free, warm soil. Use seedbed
practices that establish an optimum seedbed favourable for rapid
germination and emergence of seedlings, and less conducive to the
development of seedling diseases. Do not place harmful quantities of
fertilizer with the seed. Ensure that plants receive balanced fertility as
nutrient imbalances can predispose the crop to pathogen attack. A
vigorously growing, well-fertilized crop can compensate for pathogen
attack depending on the disease.
 Treat seed with a recommended combination fungicide-insecticide
seed treatment to provide protection during the emergence period from
seedling diseases and flea beetle injury.
 Begin crop scouting as soon as the crop is sown.
 In areas where sclerotinia stem rot has been a problem, evaluate canola
fields and adjacent cereal crops for the potential risk of the disease. If
the crop is high-risk, apply a fungicide.
 Examine the crop throughout the season for the presence of diseases
that may affect crops to be sown in adjacent fields the following year.
Grey leaf spot (Alternaria black spot), sclerotinia stem rot and blackleg
are potentially serious diseases that can be spread from field to field by
airborne spores. Cultural practices, such as ploughing infected stubble,
may reduce the build-up of those diseases in the following crop year.
Avoid seeding canola adjacent to fields that were heavily diseased the
previous season.
 New fungicides are continually being developed for improved disease
control. Be certain to apply fungicide at the optimum time and in the
proper concentration. Follow the label instructions. Since registrations
changes from year to year, obtain the current provincial fungicide
guidelines annually. Always check annual publications for current
recommendations.
 435

 Seek out assistance from public and private crop specialists to help in
identifying and managing canola diseases.
 436

Chapter 11 - Harvest Management

1. Harvest Management
o Swathing vs. Direct Combining Canola
o Swathing Canola
 When to Swath
 Seed Colour Change
 Assessing Your Field
 Effect of Swathing Date on Yield and Quality
 Green Seed
 Chemical Desiccation and Pod Sealants
o Swathing Operation
 Types of Swather
 Swather Operations and Setting
o Combining Canola
 Harvesting Swathed Canola
 Direct Combining Canola
o Combine Harvesting Operations and Settings
 Windrow Pick-up
 Dividers and Reels
 Front Auger and Elevator
 Cylinder Speed and Concave
 Straw Walkers
 Wind Adjustment, Chaffer and Clean Grain Sieve
o Grain Losses
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Effect of Sub-Sample Number on Percent Accuracy of
Composite Sample for Nitrate-N with 80% Precision
o Figure 2. Diagnosing Nutrient Deficiency Symptoms
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Essential Plant Nutrients
o Table 2. Approximate Amount of Nutrients in the Above Ground
Portion of a 1960kg/ha (35bu/ac) Canola Crop

Chapter 11 - Swathing, Combining

Harvest Management

Proper harvesting and storage of canola are the final steps in profitable canola
production. While good agronomic practices can maximize canola yields and returns,
proper harvest and storage management are essential to realize those yields. Seed and
quality losses caused by untimely harvesting, inappropriate harvesting techniques,
improper handling, inadequate storage, or some combination of these practices, all
result in reduced crop value. Therefore, timely harvest and proper storage will help
maximize yield, quality and returns.
 437

Swathing vs. Direct Combining Canola

Canola is often harvested with the same swather and combine equipment as cereal crops
with some adjustments. Canola can be direct combined, or swathed for uniform
maturity and later threshed. Swathing involves cutting the crop and placing it in rows
directly on the cut stubble. This hastens the drying rate of the crop, ensures even
ripening and reduces the possibility of seed losses from wind and hail. After the crop
dries to uniform seed moisture content of 8 to 10% moisture (usually five to 10 days
after swathing), it is ready for harvesting.

The advantages of swathing canola are:

 earlier harvest (eight to 10 days) and more even seed maturity—this is

particularly important in fields where maturity is uneven
 earlier harvest to avoid fall frost and accelerate dry down, especially in
short season areas
 earlier harvest to allow for double cropping or fall seeding
 more flexibility with a large acreage since the timing of harvest is not as
critical
 reduced shatter losses during the harvest operation—especially in
crops infected with Alternaria
 swathing can be run around the clock (unlike direct combining) to assist
with the harvesting of large acreages
 cutting weeds allows a cleaner and drier sample that will reduce the risk
of heating in storage and reduce the number of weed seeds that reach
maturity

In western Canada, B. napus canola is generally swathed because it tends to ripen

unevenly and shatter easily due to adverse weather conditions later in the season. B.
rapa varieties can be direct combined because they mature earlier and resist shattering.
B. napus can be direct combined after using desiccation or after using a pod sealant or a
combination of both (see section on Chemical Desiccation and Pod Sealants).

Swathing Canola

When to Swath

Swath at the proper seed colour change to reduce green seed and seed losses from
shelling, and ensure quality required for top grades and prices. The best time to swath
for optimum seed yield and quality is when average seed moisture content is 30 to 35%.
The colour of the seed is a good indicator of seed moisture content and is more
important than the overall colour of the field in determining the stage of crop maturity.
Seed in all pods on a plant reach physiological maturity and complete filling at about
40% moisture. Physiologically mature seed loses moisture at about 1 to 3% per day.
Seeds slowly turn from green to light yellow, or reddish-brown to brown, depending on
the weather and variety. The crop is at the optimum 35% moisture stage for only three
to five days under good drying weather.

When field topography, soil type and moisture are similar, the crop will usually mature
evenly. However, variability in a canola field usually means the canola matures at
 438

different rates. There may be a range of seed colour change in a field—30% in flat
areas, shelling on hilltops and 5% in lowlands. Ideally, swath at three different times in
the same field—first the ridges, then the side slopes and finally the low areas.
However, this is usually impractical. Generally, the flat areas are the highest yielding.
Therefore, base the decision to swath on optimizing yield—look at where most of the
yield is in the field and swath when that area is ready.

With a large acreage, swath before the crop reaches the optimum seed colour change. If
swathing starts when seed colour change is approximately 20%, the majority of the crop
can be swathed at or near optimum seed colour change. If 5% or more of the pods are
covered with Alternaria black spot disease, swath early to reduce potential shatter
losses.

Avoid swathing during hot (30°C), dry weather. Very hot and dry, windy weather
after swathing may stop chlorophyll clearing due to low seed moisture. This may result
in some immature seed with green colour. The enzyme responsible for clearing the
chlorophyll requires moisture. Swath during the cool evening hours, at night, or early
morning to allow the seed to dry down at a slower rate. This lowers the chance of green
seed and lower oil content. Rain or irrigating the crop will help maintain moisture in the
seed. Delaying combining can often allow some of the green seed colour to clear in the
windrow.

If conditions are cool and it is late August or early September and frost is coming,
consider swathing early (at 10% seed colour change). This can help minimize green
seed due to frost. A crop swathed three days prior to a frost will have less potential for
frost damage. However, canola seed does not continue to fill while the plants cure in the
swath. If the seed has not accumulated its full complement of oil and protein at the time
of swathing, no further accumulation will occur in the swath and some potential yield
will be lost from immature seed.
 439

Figure 1. Seed Colour Change To Assist in Determining Proper Time of Swathing

 440

Seed Colour Change

The best time to swath for optimum seed yield and quality is when average seed
moisture content is 30 to 35%. At this moisture level, seed colour change on the main
stem is at 30 to 40%. Most of the seed that has changed colour will be from the bottom
third of the stem in B. napus varieties, while in B. rapa varieties some of the middle and
upper pods will have seed which has changed colour. When seed in the bottom pods has
turned colour, seed in the top, last formed pods will be filled or nearly filled. Canola
seed within the pod will change colour an average of 10% every two to three days.
Under hot, dry conditions, seed colour change can occur rapidly. When conditions are
cool, seed colour change can take longer.

Assessing Your Yield

Here's a list of tips for assessing seed colour change:

 Start inspecting your canola field approximately seven to 10 days after

flowering ends. Canola is usually ready to swath about 20 to 30 days
after the end of flowering. The end of flowering is defined as the stage
when only 10% of plants have any flowers.
 Take time to assess a field. Sample various parts of the field to make an
accurate assessment of the overall maturity of the crop. Stand on the
road or in the back of your truck box and look at the field. Look at ridge
tops, low lands and similar areas, making mental notes how each area
appears. Varying plant densities, soil type, and moisture availability
affect the rate of seed maturation.
 Walk out and sample at least five to 10 plants in the different areas of the
field. Most of the seed in the top pods should be firm, and roll, as
opposed to break or crush, when pressed between the forefinger and
thumb.
 Using Figure 1, take notes on the seed colour percentage of the plants.

Examine only pods on the main stem. Seed in pods on the bottom third of the main stem
mature first and will turn colour much sooner than seed in the pods of the top third of
the main stem. Make note of how many pods have Alternaria black spot and what
percentage of each pod is covered with the disease.

After assessing the main stem, look at the seed from the pods on the side branches to
ensure they are firm with no translucency, especially with low plant populations where
the plants have numerous branches.

Count seed with small patches of colour (spotting) or seeds that have changed colour
completely as “colour changed.â€

Effect of Swathing Date on Yield and Quality

Field scale trials in western Canada have shown that optimum seed yield and quality
were achieved when B. rapa varieties were swathed at 40% seed colour change on the
main stem. However, the optimum time for B. napus was between 20 and 40% seed
colour change (Table 1.)
 441

Table 1. Effect of Time of Swathing on B. napus Canola Yield, Oil and Protein

% Seed Colour Location Yield Oil Content (%) @ Protein Content (%) @
Change Years (%) 8.5% Moisture 8.5% Moisture

0 to 10% 25 90 40.8 20.7

10 to 20% 25 96 41.5 21.7

20 to 30% 25 100 42.2 21.6

30 to 40% 25 100 42.8 21.6

The trials found that swathing at 0 to 10% seed colour change on the main stem resulted
in reduced yield, oil and protein. Swathing at 10 to 20% or 20 to 30% seed colour
change had little effect on yield or protein. The variations in oil content seldom
exceeded half a percentage point.

Research at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada in Saskatoon, SK showed that once

canola plants are swathed, the seed does not continue to fill (Figure 2). Seed swathed
before accumulating its full complement of oil and protein will not accumulate any
more after swathing, resulting in potential yield loss.

Figure 2. Effect of Swathing Date on Seed Weight after Swathing

Research studies have shown that time of swathing usually has little effect on green
seed levels except under abnormal 1103 Oil Content (%) @ 8.5% Moisture % Seed
Colour Change Location Years Yield (%) Protein Content (%) @ 8.5% Moisture 0 to
10% 25 90 40.8 20.7 10 to 20% 25 96 41.5 21.7 20 to 30% 25 100 42.2 21.6 30 to 40%
25 100 42.8 21.6 situations. In all research trials, swathing even prior to seed colour
change did not increase the green seed levels. Swathing at a seed moisture content over
45% moisture (0-10% seed colour change on the main stem) reduced average seed size
and immature seed turned a reddish colour. Occasionally, reductions in seed size were
recorded with swathing at 15 to 20% seed colour change on the main stem. However,
under abnormal conditions, swathing too early can occasionally result in green seed
 442

when plants are under moisture stress and very hot, windy weather dries out the pods
and seed in the swath before chlorophyll has had a chance to clear.

As B. napus has a narrower range in development time (due to fewer branches and
pods) than B. rapa, it is possible to swath B. napus earlier without yield loss due to
immature seed. This range in development time is affected by any factor that influences
the number of branches and pods. Since dense or high population stands of canola have
fewer branches and a narrower range in development, swath them earlier. Since low
population stands tend to branch more profusely and have a wider range in
development, swath them at the higher end of the seed colour change range.

Green Seed

Green seed occurs when the chlorophyll in the seed has not degraded or cleared. Green
seed appears to be related not only to variety maturity but also environmental factors. In
particular, temperature influences not only the rate of chlorophyll clearing but also the
timing relative to seed development, as measured by the decrease in seed moisture
content. An inherent difference between the species causes B. rapa to clear its
chlorophyll more readily than B. napus during seed ripening.

The majority of the canola green seed problem in western Canada is usually the result of
frost. Even a light frost can fix the green colour by damaging the enzymes that clear the
chlorophyll in higher moisture seed, preventing additional clearing regardless of how
favourable weather conditions may become. A killing frost also causes rapid
dehydration of seed and plant tissue. The seed enzymes that clear chlorophyll work
rapidly at high temperatures but slowly at low temperatures. Freezing temperatures have
much less effect on seed chlorophyll content at lower seed moisture levels. Seed at 20%
moisture is safe from frost damage. Swathing one to three days prior to freezing
temperatures may reduce seed chlorophyll levels by allowing for a more rapid seed dry
down when compared to standing crops at the same stage of maturity. The time required
to dry down the swathed crop to a “safe moisture†level is always dependent on
the weather conditions experienced following swathing.

To minimize high green seed:

 Swath B. napus varieties at 10 to 15% seed colour change on the main

stem to reduce the risk of frost damage in short season areas.
 Start swathing large acreages early to reduce crop windrowed at too
late a maturity stage. B. napus canola can take 15 to 22 days to progress
from 10% seed colour change to 35% seed colour change on the main
stem.
 Avoid swathing too early in hot, dry weather (30 to 35°C). The heat can
rapidly dry the crop resulting in shatter losses from swathing too late or
excessive seed shrinkage from swathing too early.

Chemical Desiccation and Pod Sealants

A chemical desiccant usually produces more uniform crop ripening by chemically

drying down all green vegetative growth. Canola must be desiccated at the correct stage
 443

to optimize yield and seed quality. Desiccation may also reduce the incidence of pod
shatter and seed loss, making it an alternative to swathing.

For B. rapa varieties, desiccation can eliminate the need to swath while providing some
weed control. However, B. napus cultivars are more prone to shatter than B. rapa
cultivars. Desiccation and direct-combining should only be considered for B. napus
canola in:

 heavy crops that lodged early and have weeds grown through the crop
 crops that mature unevenly due to topography or uneven stand
establishment
 where swathing machinery is unavailable
 in late maturing fields, which may not mature in time under normal
conditions before a killing frost

For B. napus varieties, a heavily lodged crop canopy may help prevent shatter loss by
wind. Check your provincial recommendations for current information on registered
desiccants.

When seed is mature but before pods become dry and split, pod sealants will slow pod
dry down and prevent the movement of moisture into and out of the pod, reducing
shatter losses. Combine timing is crucial for minimizing shatter losses as the sealant
efficacy diminishes with time and from repeated rains. Sealants slow crop dry down and
harvest by five to 14 days. This could be a concern in shorter season growing areas.

Swathing Operation

Types of Swather

Swathers can be either self-propelled or power-take-off driven. The draper belt style of
windrower is superior to the auger style in reducing crop damage. Self-propelled
machines are more suited to heavy, tall stands or in undulating fields that require greater
manoeuverability. Regardless of the equipment used, the windrow must flow smoothly
through the swather without bunching. Stands that are exceptionally tall, thick or lodged
and tangled make it difficult to lay an unbunched swath. Bunching leads to 1104 uneven
drying and combining problems as well as development of diseases such as sclerotinia
stem rot under wet or humid weather conditions. At the bottom of bunched or heavy
swaths this disease can damage up to 50% of the canola pods. Therefore, a swather must
have the following essential features to handle canola:

 At least 1.1 m (3.5') depth (front and back) of the table or platform to
handle the crop material.
 A large throat opening of 1.0 to 1.3 m (3.3 to 4.3'), which is at least as
wide as the distance between the draper belts.
 A vertical clearance of up to 1 m (3.3') under the swath opening to allow
large swaths to pass through without interference.
 A throat opening free of projections that may catch or bunch the swath
as it passes through the machine. It’s important to avoid bunching as
this leads to both harvesting and drying problems.
 444

 A swather with ample reel and table adjustments to handle the range of
crop conditions. The major problem is the amount of material in heavy
crops to be forced through the throat of the swather.
 An adjustable draper belt speed.
 A divider capable of separating heavy and tangled crops. Difficult crop
conditions may require specialized attachments on the swather to assist
with the feeding of the crop. The vertical knife is similar to the sickle bar
knife of the windrower, but it is in a vertical position on the divider end of
the swather. In a lodged and tangled crop, the vertical knife operates
far more efficiently than a cone or looped-steel rod divider as it improves
the division of the crop and reduces “bunching†problems. There
are several types of divider of which the double knife with two moving
blades appears to be the best suited for all crop conditions since it
reduces the shatter loss in drier crops.
 Canola crops do not often flatten so badly that a conventional swather
with a batt reel will not handle them. But in difficult conditions, a pickup
reel set well forward, will help during swathing.

Swather Operations and Setting

Cut the crop just under the pods to reduce the amount of crop passing through the
throat, without missing any of the lower pods. This leaves a maximum amount of
stubble on which to lay the windrow and ensure adequate air circulation through the
swath. Such swaths tend to settle into the stubble and escape wind damage. This also
minimizes the amount of material that must be handled by the swather and combine. If
bunching occurs, adjust the width of cut, height of cut and the forward speed of the
swather so that the throat of the machine will handle the swath without bunching. For
best results:

 Set the reel as high and as far forward as possible with the batts at the
top of the crop to hold plants gently against the knife.
 Make the reel rotation speed slightly faster than the ground speed of the
swather. This speed will just lay the cut material gently back on the table
to avoid shelling.
 Use a middle-range belt speed for most swathers. A fast draper belt
speed tends to produce a hollow twisted swath; a slower belt produces
a more compact swath, but it may bunch and sit high on the stubble. A
mid-range speed will usually cause the cut crop to become slightly
tangled and easier to pick up at harvest. The need to create a formed
canola swath is not as critical as in cereal crops.

In areas where light fluffy swaths could be lifted and blown by the wind, a light roller
pulled behind the swather will help anchor the swath in the stubble. Set the roller so that
it just anchors the swath into the stubble without shelling any ripe pods. Excessive
pressure on the roller will produce a swath that is too compact to dry quickly and
difficult to pick up without shelling the canola. Leave the swath as high as possible in
the stubble so that the combine pickup can slip under it without tearing the cut crop.
 445

Combining Canola

Harvesting Swathed Canola

Swathed canola is ready to harvest under normal conditions about five to 14 days after
cutting—when seed temperature and moisture content have dropped to 10%, which is
considered a safe storage level. Most seed will be mature with little or no green colour.
Use a moisture meter to ensure correct timing. If there is green seed present, allow a few
more days in the swath for further colour change. Green seed may change colour in the
swath but does not change significantly once combined and stored.

Before combining, use a crush strip to determine the amount of seed that is green inside.
A small percentage of green seed will reduce grade (No. 1 Canada allows 2.0%
distinctly green, while No. 2 Canada and No. 3 allow 6.0 and 20.0% respectively). The
use of wide swathers on tall, heavy crops can result in very large swaths that can take
longer to cure, especially at the centre of the windrow. Bunching in the swaths also may
contribute to a green seed problem as the crop dries out and cures unevenly. In addition,
during wet or overcast weather, sclerotinia stem rot may cause significant yield loss in
heavy or compact swaths. In Alberta, yield losses of up to 30% from stem rot have been
estimated in the windrow during wet fall weather. Canola swaths dry more quickly than
cereal swaths after a rain or heavy dew so combining can begin sooner. Canola
combines well under conditions that may be too moist for cereals. The chances of taking
off top grade canola are much better under rainy conditions than with cereals.

Direct-Combining Canola

Direct combine canola crops that have been desiccated or that are uniformly mature and
relatively free of green weeds or Alternaria disease. In western Canada, field scale trials
have shown that B. rapa varieties lend themselves well to direct combining. However,
B. napus varieties had a higher risk of shatter losses when over-ripe (Table 2).

Table 2. Effect of Swathing Versus Direct Combining Canola on Yield, Oil and
Protein

Location Yield (% of Oil Content (%) @ Protein Content (%)

Treatment
Years Swathing) 8.5% Moisture @ 8.5% Moisture

B. rapa (S)* 24 100 40.4 20.3

B. rapa
24 99 40.6 20.3
(DC)

B. napus (S) 28 100 42.8 20.1

B. napus
28 89 43.5 19.9
(DC)

S= Swathing DC= Direct Combine

 446

Canola is ripe when the pods are dry and rattle when shaken. Seed is dark brown to
black or yellow in colour at maturity depending on variety. Stems may still be partly
green at this stage. Bottom pods on the plant ripen first and at harvest some of the small
top pods may still be greenish. Green pods will usually pass through the header
unthreshed. Start harvesting when overall seed moisture has fallen to 10% moisture or
less and green seed is minimal.

At 10% moisture and above, seed in storage can heat rapidly on hot days, particularly if
there is a significant proportion of immature seed. To avoid shatter losses, harvest B.
napus varieties without delay when green seed levels are low and seed moisture reaches
10%. The longer a ripe B. napus crop stands in the field, the greater the potential for
shatter losses. Rain on a standing crop increases the potential for shatter losses as it
promotes saprophytic organisms growing on the pods.

Reduce shatter losses by combining:

 a ripe crop at higher seed moisture levels and drying the seed
 in the cooler part of the day
 at night when pods are damp from dew
 when wet with rain
 at night during periods of very hot weather

However, seed moisture levels must be continuously monitored to ensure they do not
exceed safe storage levels.

Combine Harvesting Operations and Settings

Before harvesting, check combines completely. Cover holes or cracks with plastic tape
or a silicon rubber-sealing compound, especially in the table, front elevator and grain
tank. When leakage occurs it is usually through the stone trap, the top of the feeder
housing, or through the lower inspection doors on the elevators.

In addition to repairing leaks, it’s important to keep combines in good mechanical

condition. Worn or loose chains such as feeder conveyors, internal conveyors and
elevators may cause seed cracking. Make certain that cylinder bars are in good
condition and properly aligned. Missing or torn straw walker curtains, broken sieves
and loose drive belts can result in seed dropping out of the back of the combine.

Combine operating speed must be set at the specifications detailed in the operator’s
manual and then fine tuned for conditions in the field.

Swaths are picked up using a rubberized draper belt, an aluminium draper fitted with
fingers or direct cut open front headers. The rubber belt type pick-up with rubber or
synthetic fingers is preferred in canola as the gentle action helps to reduce shatter losses.
The aluminium pick-up is more suited to bunched swaths. Direct cut headers require
crop lifter attachments for the width of the windrow to lift the windrow into the header.
The rest of the cutter bar may be covered to prevent or reduce the amount of green
second-cut stubble entering the combine. Wide large capacity, open-front headers may
be capable of handling more than one swath.
 447

Windrow Pick-Up

To minimize front-end pod shatter losses on a swath pick-up equipped combine, adjust
swath pick-up speed and forward travel speed so that the windrow will be gently lifted
without tearing or pushing. Set the swath pick-up to run just under the swath. If the
swath pick-up is too high or the speed too fast, the swath will be dragged and jerked up
onto the table. On the other hand, if the speed is too slow, the swath will be pushed and
bunches of crop will be fed into the auger.

Dividers and Reels

A major problem in direct combining tall canola is ensuring freedom from blockages at
the dividers and header components to maintain a smooth crop flow through the
combine. Long dividers or vertical power dividers can be effective in preventing crop
blockages. A normal batt reel is usually satisfactory, but in heavy lodged crops a pick-
up or finger reel is desirable. To minimize shatter losses, set the reel well back and as
high as possible to act as a precaution against stems falling forward. Set the reel speed
to gently assist the crop into the combine. A reel that is set too low or too fast will result
in shatter losses.

Front Auger and Elevator

Adjust the table auger as high as possible. If the adjustment is insufficient to give 8 to
10 cm (3 to 4") clearance, it may be necessary to slot the adjustment holes. If the
clearance is too small, the stems will be broken, the pods threshed open, and seed may
be lost. The front elevator carries a much bigger volume than is normal for cereal straw.
Check carefully for tension and freedom to float.

Cylinder Speed and Concave

Canola is not a difficult crop to harvest. In fact, under normal conditions most of the
seed threshes out in the front or in the elevators. Set the cylinder speed at about 60% of
that used for cereals. Set at 650 to 700 rpm for small diameter (46 cm, 18") cylinders,
and 450-600 rpm for large diameter (61 cm, 24") cylinders. Excessive cylinder speed
causes seed cracking and skinning and excessive smashing of pods and stems, which
may then be difficult to remove from the seed. Too slow a speed reduces the capacity of
the combine. Slow the cylinder speed to where the amount of cracked seed is just
acceptable.

Avoid breaking stems and pods and keep unthreshed pods to a minimum. This will
reduce overloading the sieves and allow seed separation without excessive dockage or
load on the return conveyor. Make sure the concave is wide open (40 to 50 mm at the
front, 1/3 to 1/5"). Keep the clearance at the rear narrow - from 3 to 13 mm (1/100 to
1/20").
 448

Straw Walkers

Unthreshed pods, broken pods and stems returned from the walkers tend to overload the
sieve and the return conveyors. If baffles are fitted over the walkers, lift them as high as
possible to allow a smooth flow of stems.

Wind Adjustment, Chaffer and Clean Grain Sieve

Proper adjustment of fan and sieves for the cleaning action is important since canola
seed is light and can easily be blown out of the combine or remain mixed with the chaff.
Unlike the cleaning action for cereals, the cleaning action for canola depends more on a
shaking separation and less on wind separation. While it is necessary to reduce the fan
speed, allow enough wind to maintain a “live†sieve. Direct air as uniformly as
possible under the entire length of the sieve to keep the sieve “alive†. Otherwise,
stems, pods and seed will move over the sieves in a mat and losses can be high. Set the
fan at half to three-quarter speed. Where shutters control the wind, set them less than
half open. Too high a fan speed will blow canola seed out with the chaff and allow a
large number of pods in the return. Start with a lower fan speed and gradually increase it
until separation of chaff and seed occurs with no seed being blown over the chaffer
sieve.

There is a close relationship between adjusted fan speed and sieve openings. Closing the
sieve tends to direct the air to the rear rather than up, but at the same time tends to
increase air velocity through the sieve. Open the top sieve or chaffer enough for good
separation (1/4 to 1/3 open, or 6 to 10 mm (1/50 to 1/25"). This will keep the seed from
going over the top and out the back of the combine. Ensure that air lifts the chaff on the
sieve with a shaking action conveying the material along. Raise the chaffer extension
slightly (5 to 10°) at the rear and open it enough to allow unthreshed pods through to
the return. A chaffer opening that is too narrow, coupled with insufficient wind, can
result in high seed losses.

Adjust the lower sieve depending on the sample seed quality in the grain tank. If too
much residue is present in the tank, close the sieves slightly. If the sample is overly
clean, seed may be going back to the return conveyor, so open the sieves slightly. A
lower sieve setting at 3 to 6 mm (1/100 to 1/50") will usually be sufficient. Excessive
returns result in seed crackage and the overloading of one section of the combine
resulting in high seed losses. If the returns are too high, there may not be enough wind,
the top sieve may be too open, or the cylinder-concave is over threshing. The best seed
sample will be made when humidity is high, for example at night or soon after a rain.
During high daytime temperatures (over 30°C) smashed pod pieces will contaminate
the sample, but because of their weight a small percentage of this admixture may be
acceptable. In areas with high temperatures during harvest, skinning of the seed will
often occur during the hottest part of the day, and the problem cannot be corrected by
further adjustments. Stop harvesting until the temperature falls later in the day.

Grain Losses

High seed losses out of the front and the back of the combine are possible if adjustments
are not correct. Therefore, frequent checks and readjustments must be made in the field.
 449

A loss of 1 kg/ha (0.02 bu/ac) is equal to 23 seeds of B. napus and 42 seeds of B. rapa
per square metre remaining in the field. Average harvesting losses in the field can range
from 10 to 50 kg/ha (0.2 to 1 bu/ac). A standard grain monitor, suitably adjusted, is
satisfactory for canola seed. The loss monitor can warn of changes in the grain loss rate
but it does not accurately measure the amount of loss. The loss monitor will indicate
relative changes in loss rate. An increase in the meter reading is a signal to reduce the
feed rate by slowing down. A reduction in the meter reading is a signal that the feed rate
may be increased in order to improve productivity. Changes in crop conditions often
occur during the day. The loss monitor will indicate when combine adjustments are
necessary to compensate for changing weather conditions.

References

Bergstrom, D.W. 1993. Effect of seed moisture content at swathing on yield and
quality of rapeseed in northwest Alberta. Alberta Agric. Res. Institute. Project No. 83-
0025.

Cenkowski, S., S. Sokhansanj, and F.W. Sosulski. 1989a. Effect of harvest date and
swathing on moisture content and chlorophyll content of canola seed. Can. J. Plant Sci.
69: 925-928. Cenkowski, S., S.

Sokhansanj, and F.W. Sosulski. 1989b. The effect of drying temperature and
chlorophyll content of canola seed. Can. Inst. Food Sci. Technol. J. 22: 383-386.

Daun, J.K. 1987. Chlorophyll in Canadian canola and rapeseed and its role in grading.
7th International Rapeseed Congress, Poznan, Poland. May 1987.

Evans, I.R. 1994. Practical crop protection. Alberta Agric., Food and Rural
Development, Edmonton, Alberta. Agdex 606-3.

Hang, A.N., and G.C. Gilliland. 1988. Winter rapeseed research program in
Washington State. In proceedings of the Pacific Northwest Canola Production
Conference, Pasco, Washington. Feb. 1988.

Kephart, K.D., M.E. Rice, J.P. McCaffrey, and G.A. Murray. 1988. Spring rapeseed
culture in Idaho. Idaho Agric. Exp. Sta. Bulletin 681.

McGregor, D.I. 1992. Swathing canola stops seed filling. Research Letter. Agric. Can.
Res. Sta., Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.

McGregor, D.I. 1994. Relationship between chlorophyll clearing and moisture loss. p.
26. In An Overview of Canola Agronomic and Varietal Research 1990-1993. Canola
Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Murray, G.A., D.L. Auld, L.E. O’Keeffe, and D.C. Thill. 1984. Winter rape
production practices in northern Idaho. University of Idaho Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. no.
634.

Sylvester, R., R.J. Makepeace, and H. Broad. 1984. A code for stages of
development in oilseed rape (B. napus L.). Aspects of Applied Biology. 6: 399-419.
 450

Szot, B., and J. Tys. 1991. The influence of the Spodnam DC preparation on the
agrophysical properties of rape siliques and on the seed losses at maturation and
harvest. p. 174. 8th International Rapeseed Congress, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, July
1991.

Thomas, D.L, M.A. Breve, and P.L. Raymer. 1991. Influence of timing and method
of harvest on rapeseed yield. J. Prod. Agric. Madison, Wis.: American Society of
Agronomy. 4: 266-272.

Thostenson, A.A., and C.R. Hennings. 1990. Canola (rapeseed) production systems in
the Pacific Northwest. First International Canola Conference, Atlanta, GA.

Underwood, N. 1994. Canola Production Centre - Western Canada - A Three Year

Report. p. 26-27. Canola Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

Ward, K., R. Scarth, J. Daun, and P.B.E. McVetty. 1992. Effects of genotype and
environment on seed chlorophyll degradation during ripening in four cultivars of oilseed
rape (Brassica napus). Can. J. Plant Sci. 72: 643-649.

Wright, E.B. 1994. The influence of an artificially induced fall frost on the seed quality
of Westar canola. p. 19. In An Overview of Canola Agronomic and Varietal Research
1990-1993. Canola Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba.
 451

Chapter 12 - Storage, Conditioning

1. Storage of Canola
o Seed Maturity and Condition
o Seed Moisture, Temperature, and Time
o Moulds, Insects and Mites
o Dockage
o Cultivar Type
o Storage and Handling
o Conditioning of Canola
 Aeration
 Operation of Aeration Systems
 Aeration of Canola
 Natural, Near-ambient, or Unheated-air Drying
 Operation of Natural-air Drying Systems
 Natural-air Drying of Canola
 Heated-air Drying
 Drying Temperatures
 Drying Considerations
o Handling and Conditioning of Canola in Other Climates
o Summary
o References
2. List of Figures
o Figure 1. Fall and Winter Moisture Migration in Stored Canola
o Figure 2. Canola Storage Time Chart
o Figure 3. Aerating to Change Canola Grain Temperature
3. List of Tables
o Table 1. Changes in the Level of Frost Damaged Green Canola
Seed During Storage
o Table 2. Maximum Period (Days) without Visible "Clumping" of
Canola by Moulds
o Table 3. Relationship Between Seed Moisture Level and Relative
Humidity of Ambient Air for Drying Canola
o Table 4. Theoretical Airflow Rates for Natural-air Drying of Canola
o Table 5. Safe Drying Temperatures for Canola

Storage of Canola

Factors affecting the quality of canola in storage include seed maturity and condition;
seed moisture; temperature; length of storage; moulds; insects and mites; dockage;
cultivar type; climate; and the storage and handling methods used.

Seed Maturity and Condition

The original condition of the seed is probably the most important factor affecting its
storage. Freshly harvested canola can maintain a high respiration rate for up to six
weeks before becoming dormant. This process is often referred to as "sweating" and is a
very unstable condition for binned canola. Monitor stored canola regularly because
rapidly respiring seed produces heat and moisture favouring the growth of storage
 452

moulds. Mould growth and respiration produces additional heat and moisture further
increasing the temperature within the seed bulk. Eventually the seed may become heat
damaged. Storing the crop in a dry, cool condition reduces the effects of sweating.

Immature seed is distinctly green when crushed. Based on crushed seed examination,
No. 1 and No. 2 Canada canola grades may contain a maximum of 2.0 and 6.0%
distinctly green seed, respectively. Financial penalties are levied for distinctly green
seed in stocks offered for commercial sale due to added refining costs and adverse
effects on the shelf life of canola-based food products. Green seed is a problem when
fields are harvested before the seed has turned colour, when the crop is frozen, or when
it suffers from heat and drought stress near maturity. During normal development, the
green colour disappears upon maturation but arrested development will result in
chlorophyll retention.

Leaving the seed in the swath for four days will reduce the proportion of distinctly
green seed at harvest. Drying high moisture (greater than 30%) samples at 80°C is also
effective in reducing the proportion of distinctly green seed to less than 3%. However,
20°C to 40°C are the best drying temperatures for samples containing less moisture.
Longterm storage (five months) may slightly reduce the percentage of green seed.

Developing canola seed is frequently affected by frost in localized areas of the Canadian
prairies. Occasionally, an early frost will cause damage over widespread areas. In late
August 1982, a frost arrested seed development over much of the canola growing area
of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Approximately 38% of the total crop graded No. 3
Canada or Sample Account Damaged compared to 4% of the crop in these grades in
1981. Most of the 1.16 million tonnes of frost-damaged seed produced in 1982 was not
readily marketable and, therefore it required storage over winter.

Quality changes were observed in 60 bins of farm-stored canola monitored within a

200-km radius of Winnipeg, MB from November 1982 to April 1983. In November, the
contents of one bin reached 102°C with steam observed rising from the centre surface.
Temperatures in bins that did not heat were 8 to 13°C. Generally, the quality of seed in
official grades Canada No. 2, Canada No. 3 and Sample Account Damaged did not
decline in storage. The percentage of green seed declined slightly in 28 bins of Brassica
napus examined during the storage period (Table 1). Spoilage and heating problems in
frost-damaged canola are most likely to occur during the first months of storage and can
be prevented by frequent monitoring, aeration and the use of small, readily accessible
granaries.

Table 1. Changes in the Level of Frost Damaged Green Canola Seed During
Storage

% Green Seed
Seed Grade
Early November Mid April

Canada No. 2 4.3 4.4

Canada No. 3 8.0 6.6

 453

Table 1. Changes in the Level of Frost Damaged Green Canola Seed During
Storage

% Green Seed
Seed Grade
Early November Mid April

Sample 18.2 17.6

Occasionally, canola crops are covered by snow before they can be harvested. In
October 1984, a lot of canola was covered by snow in northern Alberta and seed was
harvested the following spring. Samples of this canola were compared to samples of
fall-harvested seed from the same area. Spring harvested seed stored more poorly than
fallharvested seed. It had greater increases in free fatty acids, conductivity (electrolyte
leakage when placed in water) and storage (post-harvest) moulds. It also had larger
losses in viability (indicators of quality loss) when stored hermetically at 10 or 12.5%
moisture content.

Seed Moisture, Temperature, and Time

The moisture level and temperature of the canola will influence and even cause events
that occur during storage and may sometimes lead to spoilage and self-heating. Canola
seed is more prone to deterioration in storage than cereal grains and must be stored at a
lower moisture level to prevent moulding. Under the Canada Grains Act, the maximum
moisture at which canola can be marketed, as straight grade (dry) is 10% moisture.
Since seed with 10% moisture can be sold without penalty, it is often assumed to
represent a safe level. The upper safe relative humidity limit is 70% at which point
moulds begin to grow. This equates to 8.3% moisture for canola and 13.9% moisture for
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) at 25°C. The oil fraction of canola seed absorbs less
moisture than the starch and fibre fractions of wheat seed, therefore, the equilibrium
moisture level for canola is much lower than that of wheat. The amount of water to be
evaporated from canola to safeguard it from moulding is, therefore, usually greater than
in cereal grain. Both moisture level and relative humidity are dependent on temperature.

Temperature is important for three main reasons:

 temperature and moisture influence enzymatic and biological activities

and thus the rate of spoilage
 temperature differences within bulk commodities favour mould
development through moisture migration
 the high temperature of seeds harvested and binned on a hot day is
retained within unaerated bulks for many months due to the insulating
effects of the bulk

Temperature differences result in moisture moving from warmer to colder areas of the
bin. During late fall, cold air sinks in the grain at the outside of the bulk and warm
moister air, in the centre of the bulk, rises and condensation may occur when it reaches
the cold seeds near the surface. This free moisture near the surface can lead to rapid
spoilage (Figure 1). In late spring and summer, it is possible to get moisture migration
 454

in the opposite direction if the outside temperature is warmer than the seeds. Warming
action from the sun on the bin causes air to move up near the outside wall of the bin and
down through the centre of the bulk. Moisture is reabsorbed by the cooler canola in the
centre of the bin (Figure 1). Removing a portion of the seeds from the centre of the bin
is a method of interrupting the increase in temperature and moisture in the central core.
Significant migration occurs in canola at moisture levels as low as 8% when placed into
storage at high temperature and not cooled by aeration. Moisture migration and
temperature differences are further discussed under Climate.

Figure 1. Moisture Migration in Stored Canola

Moisture level and temperature determine the safe storage period for canola; the storage
time chart shown in Figure 2 predicts the keeping quality of canola over five months,
under varying temperatures and moisture.

Figure 2. Canola Storage Time Chart

If the temperature or moisture level of the canola falls within the spoilage area of the
chart, either the seed moisture or temperature or both need to be reduced. Moisture level
can be reduced either by delaying combining to allow further drying in the swath or by
artificially drying the seed. Aerating the bin contents can reduce the temperature. If the
seed is binned at above 25°C, or if pockets of immature seeds or green weed seeds are
present, 8.3% moisture is too high for long-term, safe storage. For storage longer than
five months, canola should be binned at a maximum of 8% moisture.
 455

To successfully store canola for periods of six to 24 months, pay particular attention to
conditioning and monitoring. Quality seed may be stored two to three years if its
moisture and temperature are properly maintained.

Moulds, Insects, and Mites

Seeds in storage provide a good substrate for storage moulds, the most important cause
of seed deterioration. Mould spores, occurring in the soil and on decaying plant material
in the field, are distributed among the seeds during harvesting operations. Each species
of storage mould flourishes at a different relative humidity level and temperature. Some
species, for example Eurotium amstelodami Mangin, grow at low humidity, affect seed
germination, and produce water as a consequence of metabolism during their growth.
Higher moisture levels may enable more damaging moulds to grow. These moulds
include Aspergillus candidus link and Aspergillus candidus species, all of which impair
seed germination and are often associated with hot spots - areas within bulk seed that
have a higher temperature than the surrounding material. Moulding and heating can
occur very quickly in moist canola, and where this happens, the seeds are likely to
clump together. There can be a marked increase in the level of free fatty acids, probably
brought about by the growth of moulds. Heated seeds are dark brown instead of a
normal yellow or reddish brown colour and produce a distinct tobacco-like odour in the
oil and meal that is difficult to remove by processing. The result is that the quality of the
stored product for processing is greatly reduced.

The speed at which moulding occurs in freshly harvested canola is important because it
influences drying and storage management decisions. The spoilage time of freshly
harvested rapeseed stored aerobically in tubes has been determined at five temperatures
ranging from 5°C to 25°C and at seven moisture levels ranging from 6% to 17% at each
temperature. Spoilage as expected was more rapid at higher temperatures and higher
moisture levels. Seed clumping preceded the appearance of visible mould colonies and
seed germination was affected much later. Seeds at 25°C and 10.6% moisture clumped
together after 11 days and visible mould colonies appeared after 21 days, however
germination was still unaffected after 40 days. Seed clumping (Table 2) is the best
criterion for determining the maximum period available for drying before fungal growth
because the appearance of the seed will have already deteriorated by the time fungal
colonies become visible. Under normal harvest conditions, seed over 10% moisture
should be dried within one to two weeks to avoid spoilage.

Table 2. Maximum Period (Days) Without Visible "Clumping" of Canola by

Moulds

Days Without Clumping

Initial Moisture (%) Temperature °C

25 20 15 10 5

17 4 4 6 11 20
 456

Table 2. Maximum Period (Days) Without Visible "Clumping" of Canola by

Moulds

Days Without Clumping

Initial Moisture (%) Temperature °C

25 20 15 10 5

15.6 4 6 6 11 28

13.7 4 6 11 20 46

12.3 8 6 18 25 109

10.6 11 18 42 42 238

8.9 23 48 116 279 300

6.7 69 180 300 300 300

During 1974 to 1976, considerable spoilage and heating of stored canola occurred on
western Canadian farms. Spoilage and heating of the 1974 and 1975 crops were
reported by 19 to 25% of the managers of western Canadian primary elevators.
Generally, crop districts with high elevator spoilage coincided with districts of high
incidence of farm spoilage and heating in 1974. The higher the seed moisture level, the
higher the probability of spoilage and heating even with turning (moving grain from bin
to bin during storage). Monetary losses resulting from bin heating of canola were
estimated to be at least 3 million dollars Canadian for the 1975 and 1976 crop years.

Insects occur in stored canola bulks but vary in their ability to survive and establish
infestations. On whole seed, the merchant grain beetle (Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel))
was able to multiply 1.87 times in 12 weeks, but the rusty grain beetle (Cryptolestes
ferrugineus (Stephens)) failed to complete its life cycle. Generally, whole seeds are less
vulnerable to infestation than crushed seeds and only a few insect species can tolerate
the high oil content of canola. Insects are usually associated with high levels of dockage
in bulk canola. The optimum temperature for rapid growth of insects is in the range of
30°C to 35°C; their activity is greatly retarded by temperatures below 18°C and they
cannot multiply. If bulk seed is cool and dry, insects will not thrive. However, seed may
go into storage at acceptable levels of moisture and temperature and, at a later date,
develop pockets of high moisture and temperature suitable for insect activity.
Infestation of binned seed by insects and mites will reduce the safe storage times shown
in Figure 2.

Mites which are less than 0.3 mm (0.01") long, carry mould spores in and on their
bodies. Some mites can eat the surface and interior of canola seeds affecting seed
weight and quality and often feed on moulds; heavy contamination by some mite
species will leave a distinctly minty odour. Canola was found to be more vulnerable to
 457

mite infestation than barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) when stored in farm bins in Manitoba
during 1973-76. Grain mites and their predators heavily infested canola. It was
suggested that the prey mites multiplied by feeding (probably selectively) on fungal
species, dockage (grain dust, broken grain kernels, weed seeds, etc.). Predatory mites
favoured by low temperatures during the cooler months effectively checked the prey
mite populations. Turning canola in the spring reduced temperature and moisture
differences between the warm centre and cooler edges, but also dispersed mould spores
and mites throughout the bulk reducing them to acceptable levels.

The distribution of the three most important British genera of stored-product mites in
bulks of canola, wheat, and barley at a range of relative humidity was studied over a 10-
year period. In winter, in both aerated and non-aerated bulks, grain feeding mites
Acarus and Glycyphagus spp. were frequently present on seed surfaces dampened by
moisture. In summer, the mites were usually most abundant below the surface,
regardless of the relative humidity of the bulks. The difference between summer and
winter distributions appeared to be related to the drying of the surface layers during the
spring and summer; this may have caused the mites in those layers to reproduce less
quickly. Populations of the predatory mite (Cheyletus eruditus (Schrank)) were usually
more evenly distributed than those of Acarus and Glycyphagus and appeared less
sensitive to seasonal moisture and temperature changes. Aeration of 9% moisture seeds,
at air temperatures below 5°C for four months, reduced the population of Acarus spp. to
4,000 per kg compared to 36,000 per kg in non-aerated bins.

Moulds, insects and mites occurring in grain bulks seldom act alone but interact with
the grain and with each other. High populations of moulds and mites often co-occur and
interact together in farm-stored canola.

Dockage

Dockage is material that must be removed from grain by the use of approved cleaning
equipment in order for grain to be eligible for the highest grade for which it may
qualify. Over the years the amount of dockage in farm deliveries of canola to elevators
in western Canada has averaged 9%. Dockage in canola consists mainly of wild oats,
other weed seeds, volunteer cereal grain, broken seeds, broken pods and soil particles.
This dockage normally has a moisture level 3% to 4% higher than that of the canola
seed. Large amounts of broken seeds influence the rate of respiration because they
provide a substrate for the growth of moulds. During binning of canola, the chaff
concentrates toward the wall of the bin. Fines or particles smaller than canola increase
the resistance to airflow while chaff or particles larger than canola, decrease the
resistance. An equal proportion of fines and chaff in a canola load increases the
resistance to airflow. Spreaders have not been found to distribute dockage and chaff
more uniformly than spout fills.

Cultivar Type

Few storability studies have compared B. napus and B. rapa varieties. In a 1978 storage
quality study of 106 samples of B. napus and 71 of B. rapa obtained from primary
elevators across western Canada were assessed as sound, spoiled or heated. High fat
acidity and conductivity levels, low pH of soak water, weathered seed surfaces, strong
off-odours, and a brown seed interior on crushing, low germination levels, and high
 458

frequency of Aspergillus spp. storage moulds were correlated and indicated

deteriorating quality in both species of canola. Canola samples were considered high
quality with:

 seed with a sweet odour

 no visible mould
 less than 1% other seeds
 greater than 90% germination
 more than 97% yellow seeds after crushing
 conductivity of less than 75 milliohms per centimetre
 fat acidity value of less than 30 milligrams KOH per 100 g of moisture-free
seed

Storage and Handling

Canola is very sensitive to heating in storage and therefore requires better bin
construction than that required for cereals to exclude moisture. The small size and free
flowing characteristics of canola mean that high quality construction is necessary to
prevent leakage. Roof and door openings, joints between structural components, and
even boltholes must be sealed to avoid losses. As heating and moisture migration
problems tend to be more severe in larger storage structures, canola should be stored in
the smallest bins available, without sacrificing convenience and efficient handling.

Wooden granaries are prone to seed leakage and also provide access for the entrance of
moisture, insects and rodents. Steel granaries, on the other hand, require almost no
maintenance and can be more easily sealed against pests and weather. Also, if
conditioning of hot or damp grain is necessary, metal bins are best suited to the
controlled movement of air through the grain mass. Regardless of the construction
material used, storage structures must be as weatherproof as possible, yet still allow
easy access to the bin for sampling and monitoring. The weather proofing process must
include the floors of bins that are set on concrete. Concrete floors may resist the
movement of water through the slab, but moisture can still enter the bin in the form of
vapour. For this reason, it is important to place a vapour barrier, such as polyethylene,
between the concrete and the gravel base.

The susceptibility of canola to heating justifies extra care when placing the grain into
storage. Because canola undergoes a sweating process before becoming dormant, the
top hatch of the bin should be left open for several days during dry weather to allow
heat and moisture to escape. Cleaning the seed prior to storage will enhance the
efficiency of conditioning operations.

During transportation, all cracks in trucks and other equipment must be sealed with duct
tape or caulking to prevent leakage and tightly covered to prevent canola seeds being
blown away. Augers should operate at full capacity to prevent the seeds from flowing
back down the tube and belt conveyors should be enclosed in a trough to keep the seeds
from running off-line. Kernel damage during handling is usually not a problem unless
below 7% moisture content.
 459

Conditioning of Canola

The term conditioning usually refers to those processes that involve the movement of air
through seed to ensure safe storage over a period of time. Conditioning systems are used
to cool or dry freshly harvested hot or moist seed, to avoid spoilage in storage. These
systems also help to prevent moisture migration caused by temperature gradients that
can occur in moist seed. Conditioning also reduces the effects of respiration manifested
as sweating, and is used even in areas where the seed usually can be harvested in a
satisfactory state. The use of conditioning systems permits extension of the harvest
season, since canola can be removed from the field in a tough (10.1% moisture) or
damp (12.5% moisture) condition; the harvest can be started earlier and continued later.
The degree to which the harvest season can be extended will depend on the level of
conditioning available. Conditioning also reduces field losses, as advancing the harvest
means there will be less exposure of the canola to weather conditions that can affect the
yield and grade. In addition, harvesting at a higher moisture level will reduce
mechanical losses due to premature shattering of pods. With conditioning, producers
can reduce the incidence of harvesting and selling of overly dry grain, thus minimizing
economic losses.

Know the condition of the seed to properly operate conditioning systems, particularly
natural-air systems. Monitor the seed condition to avoid danger of spoilage and to know
when the operation is complete. A final sampling for both temperature and moisture
content is advisable before long-term storage. The most critical factor in monitoring
seed condition is knowing any changes that have occurred. Accurate monitoring,
therefore, requires repeated sensing of conditions at specific locations. Permanent
sensors in a bin add to the cost of a monitoring system, but ensure that measurements
are always taken at the same place. Portable probes can be used effectively, but do not
provide the same precision for repeated monitoring.

Conditioning systems can be divided on the basis of both the purpose and the state of
the air used in the operation. Natural-air systems use the surrounding or ambient air to
condition the grain, whereas heated-air conditioning systems use energy to heat the
ambient air. Heated-air conditioning systems have a higher capacity for drying canola
because of the increased drying ability of heated, low-humidity air and the higher
airflow rates usually used. Conditioning systems are usually separated into aeration,
natural-air drying, and heated-air drying categories; combinations of these systems,
involving two or more of these operations, are also used. The systems described relate
to the climate of western Canada; for those used in other climates, see Handling and
Conditioning of Canola in Other Climates.

Aeration

Aeration systems are used to preserve seeds by cooling and by preventing moisture
migration. They are used during seed storage, between harvesting and drying operations
and after heated-air drying.
 460

Operation of Aeration Systems

The purpose of an aeration system is to produce the lowest practical temperature and the
least temperature variation within the stored seeds. The amount of air required to change
the temperature of the seed will produce very little change in moisture level. At
moisture contents above 11%, aeration should not be used alone unless seed
temperatures are near or below 0°C. Management of aeration systems differs in fall,
winter, spring, and summer.

The airflow rates for aeration of canola are normally 1 to 2 L per second per m3. With
an airflow rate of 1 L per second per m3 about 150 to 200 hours of fan operation are
needed to change the temperature throughout the bin; at 2 L per second per m 3 this time
is halved. Aeration fans should be started as soon as the canola covers the floor of the
bin so that immediate cooling can take place. Fans must be operated continuously until
the temperature of the canola is near the average outside temperature. The operation of
aeration equipment during extended periods of high relative humidity (over 80%) may
promote mould growth, even in dry canola. However, continuous aeration through one
or two days of high relative humidity will not damage the canola, as long as an equal
time of dry weather follows. Since aeration is essentially a cooling procedure, the
temperature of the air is more important than the relative humidity. When the outside
temperature has dropped below the temperature of the stored canola by 5 to 10°C, the
canola should be cooled again. No conditioning operation is complete until the
temperature and moisture levels of the entire bulk have reached the desired level. After
the bulk has reached the desired storage temperature, the bin should be checked
periodically for evidence of heating or moisture migration.

Aeration can be accomplished by moving air upward or downward through the grain
bulk (Figure 3).
 461

Figure 3. Aerating to Change Canola Grain Temperature

There are advantages and disadvantages to each direction, but in most situations upward
air movement is preferred. Upward air movement permits the aeration progress to be
easily determined by checking the canola temperature at the top of the bin. Also, with
an upward airflow, the fan can be started prior to filling and air leaving the duct will
help to keep the perforations clear of fines as filling progresses. The disadvantage of
moving air upward is the potential for condensation to form on the underside of the roof
when aerating warm seed in cold weather. Moving air downwards and exhausting it at
the bottom minimizes condensation. However, in downward air movement, the canola
at the bottom is the last to cool and the hardest to check to determine when aeration is
complete. A further disadvantage of downward movement is that when warm seed is
added to the bin, the heat from the added seed is drawn through the previously cooled
seed and warms it up again. When aerating in summer, downward movement will draw
the hot air from under the roof down through the rest of the bulk, another disadvantage.

Under hot, humid harvesting conditions, such as often occur during late July and August
in southwest Ontario, aeration can result in a greater potential for condensation within
the bin. Moisture condensed on the inner bin roof will then drip onto the bulk surface
favouring mouldy crust development and insect pest populations. In this case, cross-
ventilation to remove warm air rising from the bulk surface is effective before
condensation occurs. Delaying aeration until air temperatures have moderated will
avoid the problem.
 462

Aeration of Canola

The specific requirements of aeration systems for canola are determined by the
susceptibility of the seed to spoilage and its physical characteristics. The small size of
both canola seeds and the void spaces around the seeds increases the resistance of this
crop to airflow. Aeration fans must operate at static pressures two to three times greater
in canola than in cereals, consequently systems designed for cereals may not produce
adequate airflow rates through canola; and the risk of spoilage to the seed may be
substantial. In B. napus varieties of canola, aeration fans typically operate at static
pressures of 200 pascals (0.8") at a seed depth of 3.4 m (11'), and 500 pascals (2.0") at
8.3 m (24') depth. The smaller seeds in the B. rapa varieties can increase these static
pressures to 300 pascals (1.2") and 750 pascals (3.0") for the 3.4 m (11') and 7.3 m (23')
depths, respectively.

Many duct and perforated floor arrangements are available for use with aeration
systems. Given the sensitivity of canola and the difficulty in forcing air through it, a
large perforated floor area is required. Perforations must be small enough that seeds
cannot enter the air passages. A 6 m (19') deep bin requires a minimum of at least 15%
perforated floor area; a 10 m (33') deep bin should have at least 25% perforation to
avoid excessive air velocities. A completely perforated floor usually produces uniform
airflow throughout the bulk and reduces the chance of unventilated spoilage pockets
developing. Uniform air distribution is more difficult to achieve in flat (horizontal)
grain storage than in cylindrical bins because flat storage usually has less uniform grain
depths; to help offset the associated airdistribution problems, higher airflow rates of 2 to
3 L per second per m3 are used. Foreign material in the canola bulk may reduce the
overall static pressure requirements, but increase the possibility of spoilage.
Furthermore, the concentration of dockage at the centre and outer edges of the bin
creates uneven resistance to airflow and hinders the effectiveness of conditioning
operations. The uniform distribution of fine and coarse material is advantageous when
canola is being aerated.

Natural, Near-Ambient, or Unheated-Air Drying

Moisture can be removed from stored canola by passing outside air at high flow rates
through the bulk with the only heat coming from the fan and motor. Grain in a
ventilated bin begins to dry where the air enters the bulk, usually at the bottom of the
bin. A drying front develops and moves slowly upward through the bulk. Below the
drying front the grain is at the temperature of the incoming air and at a moisture level in
equilibrium with the incoming air. Incoming air at 70% relative humidity, for example,
will result in moisture levels of between 8 and 9% for canola seed (Table 3).

Table 3. Relationship between Seed Moisture Level and Relative Humidity of

Ambient Air for Drying of Canola

Relative humidity (%) 50 57 65 72 77 82 86 88

Moisture level (%) 6 6.6 7.4 8.2 10.0 11.2 12.8 13.9
 463

The grain above the drying front will remain at a moisture level within about 1% of its
initial storage condition. The rate of movement of the drying front is mainly affected by
the airflow rate per unit mass of seed. To dry all the stored crop in the least possible
time requires a uniform air pattern throughout the bulk. The airflow pattern in a bin
equipped with a completely perforated floor and a levelled grain surface is uniform
unless a centre core of densely packed seed and dockage has formed under the filling
spout. The required airflow rate for unheated-air drying depends on the type of seed,
when the crop is harvested, its initial moisture level, and the outdoor air conditions.
Typical airflow rates for unheated-air drying are in the range of 5 to 25 L per second per
m3. For the lowest equipment and operating costs, the lowest recommended airflow is
used. Choose minimum airflow rates for in-bin drying so that the crop dries just before
it undergoes unacceptable spoilage. Theoretical minimum airflow rates for natural-air
drying of canola in the area of Winnipeg, MB without loss in quality are given in Table
4.

Table 4. Theoretical Airflow Rates for Natural-air Drying of Canola

Predicted Minimum Air Flow Rate Requirements for

Natural-air Drying in the Winnipeg Area*

Date Initial Moisture Level (%)

11 13 15

Air Flow Rate, (litres per second per m3)

August 15 11 15 28

September 1 13 20 23

September 15 17 20 24

*Predictions are based on the top layer dried to 10.0% moisture within 15 - 20 days for
the median of 17 years of recorded meteorological data.

The drying of canola by near ambient air is currently favoured in western Canada rather
than the use of hot air. Near ambient drying is preferred because there is a saving of
energy, a smaller initial investment in equipment, and an improvement in the quality of
the dried product compared to that dried with hot-air systems.

Operation of Natural-Air Drying Systems

The fans should be started as soon as the canola covers the perforated areas of the bin
floor and should be operated continuously in the fall until either the crop temperature is
reduced to 0°C or the crop is dry. In spring, if drying was not completed the previous
fall and no spoilage has occurred, continue drying when the air temperature rises above
0°C. Even under humid or rainy conditions operate the fan continuously to ensure that
the main drying front will continue moving through the bulk despite the risk of
 464

rewetting the bottom slightly. As long as the fan is operated for a few days after the
humid period, the moisture will redistribute through the bulk and will not cause
spoilage. Re-wetting can be an economic benefit if the canola at the bottom has dried
below the maximum allowed selling moisture level. Although it improves the storage
quality, any drying below this regulatory value reduces the saleable mass, and thus the
monetary value of the bulk.

Natural-Air Drying of Canola

The proper design of natural-air drying systems is important because of the need to dry
the bulk quickly enough to prevent spoilage. High airflow rates are used which result in
high static pressures. The airflow resistance of a grain mass is directly related to the
depth, so reducing the grain depth is one way of bringing static pressures into an
acceptable range. Fans drying B. napus canola operate at typical static pressures of
1,000 pascals at a depth of 3.0 m (10'), and 2,000 pascals at a depth of 4.3 m (14').
Using comparable fans to condition B. rapa, depths are restricted to 2.6 m (8.5') and 3.6
m (12'), respectively. Bulk density and porosity are major considerations in designing
near-ambient drying and aeration systems because these physical properties affect the
resistance to airflow of the stored mass. The bulk density and porosity of B. rapa
(cultivar Tobin) and B. napus (cultivar Westar) were studied using loose and dense
filling methods (dense fill simulates packing when seed falls from a significant height).
The bulk density of Westar was 3.6% lower than that of Tobin canola. Dense fill
resulted in bulk densities about 12% higher and porosities about 14% lower than the
respective properties for loose fill. High flow rates require an effective design for the air
distribution system. The ducts delivering air to the bin, together with any transitions
along this network, must have sufficient area for the required airflow. Fully perforated
floors for natural-air drying systems are recommended especially for canola.

Heated-Air Drying

Heated-air drying is used when aeration or natural-air drying fails to adequately

condition canola. This may occur when ambient (outdoor) weather conditions are wet
and cold or when canola is very damp following harvest. Rapid drying is essential to
prevent spoilage. Other circumstances for heated-air drying are the need for an early
harvest and rapid drying to meet best markets or contractual obligations, and to reduce
the risks at harvest to producers having lower field-harvesting capacities. Hot air drying
differs from natural-air drying in that heated-air will absorb considerably more moisture
from the grain, and the warming of canola forces moisture out much more rapidly. Bin,
batch, and continuous heated-air dryers may be used to dry canola. Multistage drying,
using grain dryers and highcapacity aeration systems are also used effectively. An
efficient system of augers, hoppers and other handling equipment is necessary when
heated-air drying systems are used to ensure a continuous flow of grain from the field to
the bin.

Drying Temperatures

Canola destined for seeding purposes should be dried at less than 45°C; however, for oil
extraction, seeds can be dried at up to 82°C. Lower temperatures are used when canola
is damp (over 12.5% moisture) or when it is to be stored for over six months. Over-
 465

drying causes cracking of the seed coats; damaged seeds undergo a marked rise in the
level of free fatty acids causing a reduction in oil quality. Seeds dried to moisture levels
below 6% are very fragile and subject to mechanical damage during handling, whereas
seed above 7% moisture will not suffer cracking. However, visible cracks and
blackening were observed when seeds were dried at an extreme temperature of 250°C.
Canola drying temperatures are shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Safe Drying Temperatures for Canola

Maximum Temperature of Drying Air °C

Grain Condition (% moisture) Commercial Grain

Seed Grain
Mixed During Drying Unmixed

Tough (10%) 49 82 71

Damp (12.5%) 43 71 60

The maximum air plenum temperature for drying canola depends on seed moisture
level, seed viability temperature, expected storage period, type of dryer used, and other
factors. Generally, a wetter seed requires a longer drying process at a lower drying
temperature. Seed viability is adversely affected when drying temperature is too high;
damage is more likely to occur when the seeds are dry or nearly dry. To prevent seed
damage, it is important that maximum seed temperature does not exceed the maximum
allowable temperature for the type of seed and its intended purpose. A non-recirculating
batch dryer or a dryer which does not mix or circulate the seed requires a lower
operating temperature, as seeds next to the hot-air plenum will warm to near the hot-air
temperature. For these dryers, temperatures 5 to 10°C lower than those listed for
commercial use are advisable.

Drying Considerations

Drying decisions will depend upon the maximum time periods available for drying
before mould growth occurs (Table 3). The drying rate for canola is less than that for
cereals because of the reduced airflow through the smaller, more densely packed seed.
As canola offers more resistance to airflow than cereal grains, the fan on a dryer
operating at the same speed used for grain will produce a higher static pressure but
considerably less airflow. This causes the temperature of the hot-air plenum to rise
unless the fuel flow is reduced. Another consideration in drying canola is leakage. Grain
dryers are designed mainly for wheat and corn (Zea mays L.) and must be adjusted and
checked for canola losses through leakage or being blown from the drying chamber by
the higher static pressure. Screens and floors of dryers more than 10 years old should be
checked for rust perforation to prevent canola leakage. Green weed seeds and canola
stems and pods may interfere with the passage of canola through the dryer and at high
drying temperatures stationary canola may catch fire. Canola seeds may also ignite
when they go by the burner. Fire risk when drying canola may be reduced by cleaning
the seed to remove light or fine material. Before drying, removing accumulations of
 466

debris from the walls and other areas of the dryer, using wind deflectors to prevent
drawing airborne material through the burner, avoiding over-drying the seed, and
putting canola through the dryer on warm sunny days without starting the burner.

Handling and Conditioning of Canola in Other Climates

The previous sections describe the handling and conditioning of canola on the western
Canadian prairies that have mainly a temperate continental climate; part of which is
semi-arid. In this region, in most years, canola is stored without quality deterioration
using aeration and natural-air drying at moisture levels of 8 to 9%. Heated-air drying is
used in years with wet harvests.

In Ontario and the United States the climate may differ considerably both between areas
and within each canola production area. Canola harvesting and storage practices vary
according to the regional climate, quality requirements, and experience with the crop.

In Kansas, it is recommended that canola be stored at a moisture content of 8 to 9% and

temperatures of 10°C or less. For every 6°C or 1% moisture reduction below 25°C and
9% moisture, the storage life will double. Aeration fans are needed on any bin used to
store canola, regardless of the storage time. Fully-perforated floors and aeration fans of
0.37 to 2.24 kilowatt are required to reduce temperature. It will take more than twice as
long to move a cooling front through canola as grain, sorghum or wheat. Under Kansas
conditions moulds and mites develop on canola if moisture content is above 9 and 8%,
respectively. At 20°C, mites develop from egg to adult in about 14 days, however, if
temperature is 4.5°C, development will take several months. High-temperature batch
and continuous-flow dryers are frequently used. If the moisture content is above 17%, it
is advantageous to dry the seeds in two passes. The first pass reduces moisture content
to 12%, then the canola can be transferred to a bin for drying with natural-air. Too much
moisture extracted at one pass can lead to shrivelling and cracking of the seed as well as
limit the drying performance. Natural-air and low-temperature drying work well with
canola if the moisture content is below 15% and the drying depth is less than 3 m.

In North Dakota, heating and spoilage occurs at moisture levels of 9 to 10% and canola
as low as 8.5% moisture should be examined for heating at regular intervals. If
harvested at high moisture, natural-air drying or heated-air drying is recommended. To
maintain seed quality, a maximum drying temperature of 43°C is recommended for
commercial production.

In Montana, canola is harvested at optimum storage moisture of 8 to 9% and stored in

the smallest available bins with aeration. Fans are operated continuously until the
temperature is near the average of the ambient air and long enough to be certain the
cooling front moves completely through the bulk. Harvest temperatures may reach 27 to
32°C, therefore aeration should continue long enough to get the seed temperature below
21°C.

In Maryland, seed will not store safely with more than 10% moisture and will not be
considered acceptable by canola buyers. If seed is harvested with more than 10%
moisture, it is likely to be discounted because of green seed. When marketed, seed
quality is further discounted if seed moisture exceeds 9% moisture. It is essential that
suitable drying facilities be available if seed moisture content at harvest exceeds 10%.
 467

In South Carolina, quality and handling regulations include a 1% discount for every
0.5% moisture above 9% with further financial discounts for the presence of heat
damaged seeds over 0.1%, and musty, sour or weevil infested seeds.

In Georgia, it is recommended that only clean seed be stored; seed moisture should not
exceed 8 to 9% for storage of more than a few days; and aeration and air movement are
used for short-term storage. Fans should be used in wet weather to prevent hot spots and
mould development if seed contains more than 9% moisture. Periodically operate fans
to remove any moisture that may have accumulated after drying to reduce the chance of
mould growth. To control mite levels, bins should be thoroughly cleaned before seed is
stored.

In Western Europe, the climate is either temperate oceanic (United Kingdom, France,
Denmark, western Germany) or temperate continental (Sweden, Poland, eastern
Germany). Because of frequent wet weather, canola is normally harvested at a higher
moisture level than in western Canada. To permit successful storage for a year or more
requires drying from 20% moisture down to 7% moisture. A moisture level of 8%
permits storage for only a few months before spoilage occurs. Aeration is adequate for
seed lots with moisture contents of up to 10%, but seeds with greater than 12% moisture
should be pre-cleaned and dried with hot-air in a continuous-flow dryer; mite
infestations are a serious problem at higher seed moisture levels. According to Swedish
guidelines, the seeds should be dried to a moisture content where they remain viable.
Seed viability rapidly decreases to 40% from 100% when moisture levels increase from
9 to 12%.

A study at Yorkshire, U.K. found the moisture level of the incoming canola seed varied
considerably from about 8 up to 30% in extreme cases. A large proportion of the crop
left the farm immediately for drying on contract by farmers or merchants using
continuous-flow dryers. Safe drying temperature was up to 66°C to maintain the oil
quality, but if the moisture level was above 17%, temperature was reduced to slightly
above 50°C to safeguard germination. Very wet samples were often passed through the
drier twice to reduce the likelihood of damage. Floor drying of rapeseed is frequently
practiced in the U.K., with air blown through a 1.3 m deep layer of seeds via mesh-
covered ducts at the bottom of the bulk.

Summary

Stored canola differs from stored wheat because, unlike wheat, adverse changes can
occur very rapidly. Canola goes through a period of active respiration after binning, and
if the heat and moisture are not quickly removed, mould growth and increased
respiration soon occurs. Seeds can be conditioned to avoid spoilage in storage, to extend
the harvest season, and to reduce field losses. Conditioning systems using aeration,
natural-air drying or heated-air drying or a combination of these can ensure safe storage.
Going from cereal grains to canola during drying operations requires temperature
readjustment because reduced airflow increases drying times and the possibility of
unsafe temperature build-up. Under western Canadian conditions, canola can be stored
readily for long periods of time at moisture levels of 8 to 9% if seed temperatures are
below 20°C and insect and mite infestations are not present.
 468

This Chapter originally prepared by John T. Mills, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
Winnipeg, Manitoba.

References

Appelqvist, L.A., and B. Loof. 1972. Postharvest handling and storage of rapeseed. In
L.A. Appelqvist and R. Ohlson (eds). Rapeseed: cultivation, composition, processing
and utilization. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Arinze, E.A., S. Sokhansanj, and G.J. Schoenau. 1993. Development of optimal

management schemes for in-bin drying of canola grain (rapeseed). Computers and
Electronics in Agriculture. 9: 159-187.

Armitage, D.M. 1984. The vertical distribution of mites in stored produce. p. 1006-
1013. In D.A. Griffiths and C.E. Bowman (eds) Acarology VI, Vol. 2.

Ellis Horwood, Chichester, U.K. Auld, D.L., and K.A. Mahler. 1991. Production of
canola and rapeseed in the U.S. p. 978-983. 8th International Rapeseed Congress,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, July 1991.

Bailey, J. 1980. Oilseed rape harvesting losses can be high. Arable Farming. May 1980.
p.59 and 61.

Bandel, V.A., F.R. Mulford, R.L. Ritter, J.G. Kantzes, and J.L. Hellman. 1990.
Canola production guidelines. Cooperative Extension Service, University of Maryland,
System, College Park. Fact Sheet 635.

Bergland, D.R., and K. McKay. 1992. Canola production. North Dakota Extension
Service, Fargo, ND. Bulletin A-686 (revised).

Bern, C.J., and L.F. Charity. 1975. Airflow resistance characteristics of corn as
influenced by bulk density. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. Paper No. 75-3510.

Burrell, N.J., G.P. Knight, D.M. Armitage, and S.T. Hill. 1980. Determination of the
time available for drying rapeseed before the appearance of surface moulds. J. Stored
Prod. Res. 16: 115-118.

Canadian Grain Commission. 1994. Official grain grading guide. Canadian Grain
Commission, Winnipeg, Man. Canola Council of Canada. 1981. Canola storage. Canola
Council of Canada, Winnipeg, Man. Canola Farming Fact Sheet 4. 2pp. Cass, J. 1991.
Canola storage. Tips to help you through harvest. Intermountain Canola Newsletter, Fall
1991. Idaho Falls, Idaho. p. 3-4.

Cenkowski, S., S. Sokhansanj, and F.W. Sosulski. 1989a. Effect of harvest date and
swathing on moisture content and chlorophyll content of canola seed. Can. J. Plant Sci.
69: 925-928.

Christensen, C.M., and H.H. Kaufmann. 1969. Grain storage. The role of fungi in
quality loss. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
 469

Daun, J.K. 1982. Oilseeds-processing. p. 794-839. In grains and oilseeds handling,

marketing, processing. Canadian International Grains Institute, Winnipeg, Man.

Daun, J.K., and J.T. Mills. 1979. Incidence of heat damage in rapeseed shipped from
western Canada 1974-76. Can. J. Agric. Econ. 27: 72-75.

Daun, J.K., L.A. Cooke, and R.M.Clear. 1986. Quality, morphology and storability of
canola and rapeseed harvested after overwintering in northern Alberta. JAOCS 63:
1333-1340.

Fleurat-Lessard, P. 1973. Les Acariens des stocks de graines de colzas. Centre

Technique interprofessionnel des Oleagineux Metropolitans, Paris. No. 31. 44pp.

Friesen, O.H. 1981. Heated-air grain dryers. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ont. Publ.
1700.

Friesen, O.H., and D.N. Huminicki. 1986. Grain aeration and unheated-air drying.
Manitoba Agriculture, Winnipeg, Man. Agdex 732-1.

Hall, C.W. 1980. Drying and storage of agricultural crops. Avi Publishing Co.
Westport, Conn.

Harner, J.P. III. 1989. Handling and storage. p. 11-13. Kansas State University
Cooperative Extension Service, Manhattan, Kansas. Bull. 706.

Hudson, R.D., J.M. Woodruff, G.A. Shumaker, S.C. Hodges, T.R. Murphy, D.
Monks, P. Bertrand, and C. Hammond. 1991. Canola a new crop for Georgia. Canola
Production Guide. Georgia Extension Canola Committee.

Jayas, D.S., and S. Sokhansanj. 1985. Resistance of airflow of rapeseed (canola).

ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. Paper No. 85-3516.

Jayas, D.S., S. Sokhansanj, and N.D.G. White. 1989. Bulk density and porosity of
two canola species. Trans ASAE 32: 291-294.

Jayas, D.S., S. Sokhansanj, E.B. Moysey, and E.M. Barber. 1987. Distribution of
foreign material in canola bins filled using a spreader or spout. Can. Agric. Eng. 29:
183-188.

Manitoba Agriculture. 1980. Harvesting, storage and grades. p.601-638. In Rapeseed

'80. Manitoba Agriculture, Winnipeg.

Mills, J.T. 1976. Spoilage of rapeseed in elevator and farm storage in western Canada.
Can. Plant Dis. Surv. 56: 95-103.

Mills, J.T. 1989. Spoilage and heating of stored agricultural products. Prevention,
detection, and control. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ont. Publ. 1823E.

Mills, J.T. 1990. Protection of farm-stored grains and oilseeds from insects, mites, and
moulds. Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Ont. Publ. 1851E.
 470

Mills, J.T., and R.N. Sinha. 1980. Safe storage periods for farmstored rapeseed based
on mycological and biochemical assessment. Phytopathology 70: 541-547.

Mills, J.T., K.M. Clear, and J.K. Daun. 1984. Storability of frostdamaged canola.
Can. J. Plant Sci. 64: 529-536.

Mills, J.T., R.N. Sinha, and H.A.H. Wallace. 1978. Assessment of quality criteria of
stored rapeseed- a multivariate study. J. Stored Product Res. 14:121-133.

Moysey, E.B., and E.R. Norum. 1975. Storage, drying and handling of oilseeds and
pulse crops. p. 507-540. In J.T. Harapiak (ed.) Oilseed and pulse crops in western
Canada - a symposium. Western Cooperative Fertilizers Ltd., Calgary, Alta.

Muir, W.E. 1973. Temperature and moisture in grain storages. p 49-70. In R.N. Sinha
and W.E. Muir (eds) Grain storage: part of a system. AVI, Westport, CI.

Muir, W.E., and R.N. Sinha. 1986. Theoretical rates of flow of air at near-ambient
conditions required to dry rapeseed. Can. Agric. Eng. 28: 45-49.

Nash, M.J. 1978. Crop conservation and storage in cool temperate climates. Pergamon,
Oxford. Pathak, P.K., Y.C. Agrawal, and B.P.N.

Porter, P.M., C.E. Curtis, J.H. Palmer, and L.A. Stanton. 1990. Canola production
in South Carolina. Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service Publ. EC 669.

Raymer, P.L., D.L. Auld, and K.A. Mahler. 1990. Agronomy of canola in the United
States. p.25-35. In F. Shaidi (ed.) Canola and rapeseed production, nutrition and
processing technology.

Singh. 1991. Effect of elevated drying temperature on rapeseed oil quality. JAOCS 68:
580-582.

Sinha, R.N., and H.A.H. Wallace. 1977. Storage stability of farmstored rapeseed and
barley. Can. J. Plant Sci. 57: 351-365.

Thostenson, A.A., and C.R. Hennings. 1990. Canola (rapeseed) production systems in
the Pacific Northwest. First International Canola Conference, Atlanta, GA. Canola
Storage Time Graph.

Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Sinha, R.N. 1972. Infestibility of oilseeds,
clover, and millet by stored-product insects. Can. J. Plant Sci. 52: 431-440.
 471

Chapter 13 - Grading
1. Grading
o Dockage Determination
o Canola Grading
o Grading Factors
 Broken Seeds
 Colour
 Conspicuous Admixture
 Contaminated Grain
 Damaged Seeds
 Distinctly Green
 Earth Pellets
 Ergot
 Excreta
 Fertilizer Pellets
 Fireburnt
 Foreign Material
 Heated
 Inconspicuous Admixture
 Insect Excreta
 Odour
 Rime
 Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
 Staghead
 Stones
 Treated Seed
o Independent Grading
o Crop Quality Information
o References
2. List of Tables
o Table 1. Primary Grade Determinants Table - Canola
o Table 2. Primary Grade Determinants Table - Rapeseed

Chapter 13 - Grading
Grading

The grade descriptions, definitions and tables in this chapter are taken from the
Canadian Grain Commission Grain Grading Guide. As this information is subject to
change, the Canadian Grain Commission accepts no responsibility for the accuracy of
the information in this publication. Check the Grain Commission Web site at
www.cgc.ca for current information.

Canola from Canada is recognized for its high quality that is maintained through
breeding programs, seed multiplication regulations, and the Canadian grain grading
system. Although canola and rapeseed are both members of the same botanical family,
 472

the designation “Canola†has been established and is applicable to varieties which
meet the canola standard for low erucic acid and glucosinolates.

The Canada Grain Act provides for the grading of both canola and rapeseed. Canola
grades are applied to varieties that meet the “canola†standards. Rapeseed grades
apply to varieties designed for industrial use, but these are grown and delivered under
special identity preserved contracts.

The grading system allows canola shipments to be segregated into grades according to
quality. It assures the grower of a fair return for the product while allowing the
processor access to a large quantity of seed within acceptable quality standards.

Dockage Determination

When canola is delivered to a licensed primary or terminal elevator and/or to a crushing

plant, a representative sample is drawn. This sample is used for determining grade and
dockage. Dockage is defined under the Canada Grain Act as “any material
intermixed with a parcel of grain, other than kernels of grain of a standard of quality
fixed by or under this Act for a grade of that grain, that must and can be separated from
the parcel of grain before that grade can be assigned to the grain.†In other words,
dockage in canola refers to the readily removable foreign material that is removed in the
cleaning process. Dockage is removed by following set procedures as described by the
†Official Grain Grading Guide.†Copies of this publication can be obtained from
the Canadian Grain Commission from its Web site at www.cgc.ca or from its office in
Winnipeg at:

Canadian Grain Commission

600-303 Main Street,
Winnipeg MB R3C 3G8
Telephone: (204) 983-2770
Fax: (204) 983-2751

The sample taken from the delivery point is referred to as the “unclean†or
“dirty sample.†Its weight is the gross weight of the sample. Dockage is assessed
on the gross weight of the sample. Dockage is assessed in two stages:

 normal cleaning procedures, using the Carter dockage tester

 cleaning for grade improvement–this cleaning is done at any time
after normal cleaning has been completed

Commercially clean primary samples can have up to 0.5% for broken and reasonably
sound canola or rapeseed deducted from the gross weight of the dockage. In not
commercially clean primary samples, there is no allowance for broken and reasonably
sound canola or rapeseed. All material removed by the slotted sieves is assessed as
dockage.

Dockage is not reported for samples grading:

 Canola, Sample Canada Account Fireburnt

 Canola, Sample Salvage
 473

 Canola, Sample Condemned

After normal cleaning, cleaning for grade improvement using approved equipment can
be done if the grade of a delivery can be improved by additional cleaning. It is possible
to improve the grade by assessing additional dockage by the removal of either excessive
inseparable weed seeds or damaged canola, provided that not more than about 5.0% of
the canola is removed for each single grade improvement achieved. For canola that
qualifies only for Sample Canada, Account Admixture or Sample Canada, Account
Damaged after cleaning for grade improvement, dockage is assessed using the
appropriate equipment.

Machine Separation is defined by the Canadian Grain Regulations, and applies to cereal
grains or mixtures of cereal grains in canola. It is required only at licensed terminal
elevators, although it may be done at other elevators. The procedure does not apply to
canola graded in eastern Canada. Machine separation must be performed on canola
samples if both the following conditions apply:

 the dockage removed contains more than 6.0% of cereal grain, based
on the gross weight of the sample
 the cereal grain removed qualifies for a grade other than screenings
after cleaning by approved procedures

In addition:

 dockage material removed by a machine separation is added to total

dockage
 machine separations are recorded by grade
 machine separations are reported to the nearest 0.1%

For example:

 85.0% Canola, No. 1 CAN

 9.4% Wheat, No. 1 CWRS
 5.6% dockage

Wild oats in canola are classed as dockage, except when in admixtures with other grains
that qualify for a Mixed Grain grade, otherwise, all material removed by the Machine
Separation is included in the total dockage assessed.

At the end of these steps, dockage is calculated from the sum of the following:

 material that remains on the top of the round-hole sieve less any cereal
grain or mixture of cereal grain, which is eligible for machine separation
 material removed as dockage from a machine separation
 material that passes through the slotted sieve
 material removed by aspiration
 material that passes over the No. 000 riddle
 inseparable material, up to established grade tolerances, handpicked
from the cleaned sample
 474

o In Canola, Rejected (grade) Account Stones, dockage includes

inseparable material handpicked from the cleaned sample up to
the tolerance for the grade of the sample.
o In Sample grades, inseparable material is not included as
dockage. When the weight of the inseparable admixture exceeds
2.0% of the net weight, the admixture becomes a second reason
for the sample grade. This is recorded in Remarks.
 soft earth pellets handpicked from the cleaned sample
 material removed by cleaning for grade improvement

The sample after cleaning and removal of dockage is referred to as the “cleaned
sample.†Its weight is the net weight of the sample. Percentages by weight for
grading refer to percentages of the cleaned sample, or the net weight.

Canola Grading

After dockage has been removed and determined, the “cleaned sample†is graded
on the basis of a visual assessment of grading factors and a mechanical application of
established tolerances that would reduce or adversely affect the end-use quality of the
seed. Each of these factors may lower the oil or protein content of the seed thus
reducing the economic return to the processor, or may lower the oil and meal quality,
making it more difficult (or impossible) to process into acceptable final products. These
grading factors appear as defects of the seed due to environmental conditions. The
grading system classifies seed on the basis of the effect of the factors on the end-use
quality of the product, but also the ability of the grower to produce seed free of these
factors.

The grading system establishes maximum allowable tolerances for these grading factors
listed below as outlined in Table 1 on page 1305 (page 1306 for rapeseed).

Grading Factors

Broken Seeds

Any broken canola that remains in the sample after cleaning and is otherwise sound is
considered to be sound.

Colour

In assessing colour the following are considered:

 the general degree of maturity of the sample

 the amount and degree of discolouration, such as from weathering
 the proportion of damaged seeds, which are distinctly green or
otherwise colour-damaged
 the amount of rime or light rime is considered in the overall appearance
of the sample (rime is the pod lining that adheres to the seed)

Immaturity (green seeds) in a sample of canola occurs when the seed is harvested before
it has reached physiological maturity. Mainly, immaturity increases the amount of
 475

chlorophyll in the oil. Chlorophyll is undesirable in finished products not only because
of its colour and reduced shelf life but also because it might promote off-flavours. Oil
losses and processing costs in the refining process increase with higher levels of
chlorophyll. Colour is assessed for the cleaned samples. The general degree of maturity
and the amount and degree of discolouration, such as weathering, is considered in
conjunction with the proportion of damaged seeds present. Consideration is given to
such factors as light rime or redness associated with growing conditions, which affect
the general appearance but which are not extremely detrimental to quality. A Standard
Sample of the grade is used to assist in evaluating colour. Standard Samples are
prepared by the Chief Grain Inspector of the Canadian Grain Commission and
represent, as nearly as possible, the minimum of each grade, considering the
predominant factors in the current crop.

Conspicuous Admixture

Conspicuous admixture refers to seeds that remain in the sample after cleaning and are
easily distinguished from canola without the use of magnification, including:

 domestic seeds such as flaxseed, yellow mustard, whole shrunken or

broken kernels of other grains
 weed seeds such as cow cockle, lamb’s-quarters, cleavers,
smartweed, ball mustard and pigweed

Representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 10 g (0.35 oz), optimum - 25 g (0.88

oz), and for export - 25 g.

Major factors affecting purity in canola are the presence of weed seeds and sclerotinia
bodies, which are not separable from the samples. Weed seeds may adversely affect
quality. Weed seeds usually have lower oil contents and higher free fatty acids and
chlorophyll than canola. Many weed seeds are from the Cruciferae (mustard) family and
contain oil with high levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates. Conspicuous admixture
refers to inseparable foreign material handpicked from the cleaned sample such as
yellow domestic mustard, pigweed, millet, cockle, or inert material which is
conspicuous and readily identifiable from canola.

Contaminated Grain

Contaminated grain has been adulterated with pesticide treated seed, or is grain that has
been treated with any desiccant, inoculant or fertilizer, or is grain that contains any
evidence of fertilizer, e.g., fertilizer pellets, or other chemical substance.

Damaged Seeds

Damage in canola includes seeds that are:

 distinctly shrunken or shrivelled

 badly discoloured from mould
 completely and densely covered with rime
 excessively weathered, sprouted, distinctly green, heated or otherwise
damaged.
 476

The representative sample (minimum - 5 g (0.18 oz), optimum - 10 g, and export - 10 g)

is handpicked of visually damaged seeds. Their percentage by weight is determined.
The remaining portion is crushed in 100-seed strips for analysis (minimum - five strips,
optimum - 10 strips, and export - 10 strips). A crush is made with only one pass of the
roller under firm pressure. The count of the damaged seeds on the strip is converted to
percentage by weight. This percentage is added to the percentage of visually damaged
seeds and crushed damaged seed for total damage.

Sprouting may occur in canola when mature seed is subjected to high moisture or
humidity either before or after harvest. The seeds germinate using oil as a source of
energy and in doing so create undesirable free fatty acids. As the cotyledons develop,
chlorophyll is manufactured. Sprouted seeds, therefore, have a lower oil content, higher
chlorophyll and more free fatty acids than sound seeds. Frost damage in canola results
in misshaped and shrivelled seeds, many with incomplete seed coats. Frost damaged
seeds have lower oil and protein content and higher levels of free fatty acids.

Distinctly Green

Distinctly green tolerances are applied to crushed seeds that are a distinct green
throughout. Pale green or immature seeds are taken into account in the evaluation of
colour. Number of crushes (100-seed strips) for analysis is a minimum - five, optimum -
10, and for export - 10.

For certain samples, the subjective evaluation of green seeds and overall colour does not
accurately estimate the chlorophyll present in the seed. A more accurate instrumental
estimation of chlorophyll levels is available and may be considered in grading canola in
the future.

Earth Pellets

Hard earth pellets are pellets that do not crumble under light pressure. Soft earth pellets
are pellets that crumble under light pressure.

Ergot

Ergot is a plant disease producing elongated fungus bodies with a purplish-black

exterior, a purplish-white to off white interior, and a relatively smooth surface texture.
Representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 100 g, (3.5 oz) optimum - 500 g (1.1
lb), and for export - 500 g.

Ergot is a fungus, which attacks cereal grains, particularly rye, and results in disease
bodies in place of the kernel of grain. Ergot does not infect canola plants, but is
undesirable in canola intended for human purposes.

Excreta

There is a separate tolerance for insect excreta in canola.

 477

Fertilizer Pellets

Fertilizer pellets are considered a contaminant in grain. Hard fertilizer pellets are pellets
that do not crumble under light pressure. One pellet is one stone. Soft fertilizer pellets
are pellets that crumble under light pressure.

Fireburnt

Samples that show any evidence of being charred or scorched by fire are considered
fireburnt. Evidence includes odour, pieces of charred wood, etc. Fireburnt seeds pop
when crushed. Samples considered fireburnt are graded Canola, Sample Canada,
Account Fireburnt.

Foreign Material

Foreign material in canola includes anything that is not canola, such as stones, ergot,
sclerotinia, conspicuous admixture and inconspicuous admixture.

Heated

Heated refers only to seeds that are distinctly or badly bin burnt. Heated seeds have a
heated odour. Crushed seeds may be:

 black - badly bin burnt

 dark chocolate brown - distinctly heated
 light tan - slightly damaged from oxidation

If they have an odour or are present with brown or black crushed seeds, they are
considered heated. Otherwise, they are included in Total damage, not heated.

The number of crushes (100-seed strips) for analysis is minimum - five, optimum - 10,
and for export - 10. Five crushes are examined for evidence of heating. If no heated
seeds are detected the crushes are assessed for other damage. If at least one heated seed
is detected, an additional five crushes are assessed for heated seeds.

Heating occurs as a result of heat generated by microbial action and respiration in stored
seeds. Damaged canola is more susceptible to heating during storage than sound seed.
Heated seeds generally impart to the oil an unfavourable odour and colour, which is
difficult to remove. Heating reduces the protein quality and increases free fatty acids.
The presence of heated seed also indicates the increased probability of mould residues
in the sample and therefore the threat of toxins. The Canadian grade regulations have
very low allowable limits for heated seed.

Inconspicuous Admixture

Inconspicuous admixture is defined as seed of common wild mustard, domestic oriental

mustard and domestic brown mustard that are not readily distinguishable from canola.
The representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 1 g, optimum - 5 g, and for
 478

export - 5 g. To determine the percentage by weight of inconspicuous admixture, the

sample should be analyzed with the aid of a microscope.

The seed coat characteristics of canola are very different from the mustards. This
difference can only be determined with a microscope.

Insect Excreta

Representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 100 g, optimum - 500 g, and for
export - 500 g.

(Note: Excreta, from insects feeding on canola plants, which is gathered along with
seeds at harvest are undesirable).

Odour

There is no numeric tolerance for odour. Aspects considered include:

 the basic quality of the sample

 the type and degree of odour
 the presence of visible residue causing the odour

If Odour is the Grade Determinant and There is: Then the Grade is:

Canola, Sample
A distinct objectionable odour not associated with
Canada, Account
the quality of the grain, but not heated or fireburnt
Odour

Canola, Sample
A distinct heated odour Canada, Account
Heated

Canola, Sample
A distinct fireburnt odour Canada, Account
Fireburnt

Rime

Rime is the lining of the pod adhered to the seed. Seeds that are completely and densely
covered with white rime are classed as damaged in any grade. Seeds with light rime
sparsely covering the seed coat are:

 classed as sound if not otherwise damaged

 considered in the evaluation of colour

Representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 5 g (0.18 oz), optimum - 25 g, and

for export - 25 g.
 479

Sclerotinia Sclerotiorum

Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a fungus producing hard masses of fungal tissue, called

sclerotia. The sclerotia vary in size and shape, and have a dark black exterior, a pure
white interior and a coarse surface texture. Representative portion for analysis is a
minimum - 10 g, optimum - 25 g, and for export - 25 g.

Sclerotinia bodies are undesirable in canola since they are active fruiting bodies and are
difficult to kill. Unfortunately, some sclerotinia bodies are formed in the same general
size and shape as canola and are harvested along with the seed. These bodies are
extremely difficult to remove.

Staghead

Staghead or white rust is a fungal disease of Brassica rapa canola. It affects the
flowering parts of the plant, resulting in distorted antler-like structures that are often
covered by white or grey powdery spores. For grading, staghead bodies are considered
Conspicuous admixture. Representative portion for analysis is a minimum - 10 g,
optimum - 25 g, and for export - 25 g.

Stones

Stones are hard shale, coal, hard earth pellets, hard fertilizer pellets and other non-toxic
materials of similar consistency. In eastern Canada, grain containing 2.5% or less stones
is graded Sample on account of stones. In western Canada, grain containing 2.5% or
less stones is graded Rejected on account of stones. In eastern and western Canada,
grain containing more than 2.5% stones is graded Sample Salvage. Representative
portion for analysis is a minimum - 100 g, optimum - working sample and for export -
working sample.

Admixtures of stones, filth, dirt, etc., with canola destined for crushing, is detrimental
for food use.

Treated Seed

Pesticide treated seed is grain which has been adulterated with an agricultural chemical
for agronomic purposes. These seed dressings contain a dye to render the treated grain
visually conspicuous to a grain inspector. The colour of the dye varies depending on the
type of treatment and the type of grain. The current colour standards for pesticide seed
treatments of cereals and canola are pink/red and baby blue, respectively. The coatings
or stains may appear greasy or powdery and the surface area distribution ranges from
tiny flecks to compete coverage.

Independent Grading

If there is a disagreement between the producer and the primary elevator manager as to
grade or dockage, either party may request an independent grade determination by an
inspector of the Canadian Grain Commission. In such a situation, a representative
sample of 750 grams (1.5 lb), satisfactory to both parties, is forwarded in a suitable
 480

container to the district inspector. Shipping charges must be prepaid, and the shipping
tags clearly marked “Subject to Inspector’s Grade and Dockage.†The sample
must be properly identified and bear the name of both parties who are to receive the
inspector’s report. The sample will be graded and dockage assessed by the
inspector, and both parties will be notified in writing of the grade and dockage. The
Canadian Grain Commission provides this service for a fee.

Table 1. Primary Grade Determinants Table Canola, Canada (CAN)

Standard of Quality *Standard of

*Grade Cleanliness
Name Commercially Pure
*Variety Degree of Soundness
Seed

Not more than 1.0% of

Any variety of other seeds that are
canola equal to Reasonably well conspicuous and that
No. 1
acceptable matured, sweet, good are not readily
Canada
reference natural colour separable from canola,
varieties to be assessed as
dockage

Not more than 1.5% of

Any variety of other seeds that are
canola equal to Fairly well matured, conspicuous and that
No. 2
acceptable sweet, reasonably good are not readily
Canada
reference natural colour separable from canola,
varieties to be assessed as
dockage

May have the natural Not more than 2.0% of

odour associated with other seeds that are
low-quality seed, not conspicuous and that
No. 3 Any variety of
distinctly sour, musty, are not readily
Canada canola
rancid, or any odour separable from canola,
that would indicate to be assessed as
serious deterioration dockage

Grade, if No.
Canola, Sample
3
Canada Account
Specs not
Admixture
metCanada

*Grade Damage Foreign Material

Name
 481

Insect
*Distinctly Sclerotinia Stones Conspicuo
*Heated% *Total% Ergot% Excreta% Excreta
Green % % % Admixture
%

No. 1
2.0 0.1 3.0 0.05 0.02 0.1 0.05 0.05 1.0
Canada

No. 2
6.0 0.5 10.0 0.05 0.02 0.2 0.10 0.05 1.5
Canada

No. 3
20.0 0.5 10.0 0.05 0.02 0.2 0.10 0.05 1.5
Canada

2.5% or
less
Canola,
Rejected
(grade)
Account
Stones,
Grade,if Canola Canola Canola Canola Canola Canola Canola Canola
or
No. 3 Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample
Canola,
specs Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada
Sample
not Account Account Account Account Account Account Account Account
Canada
met Damaged Heated Damaged Ergot Excreta Excreta Admixture Admixture
Account
Stones
Over
2.5% -
Canola
Sample
Salvage

Defined in the Canada Grain Regulations Schedule 111 Table XV1

Table 2. Primary Grade Determinants Table Rapeseed, Canada (CAN)

Standard of Quality *Standard of

*Grade Cleanliness
Name Commercially Pure
*Variety Degree of Soundness
Seed

Any variety of Reasonably well Not more than 1.0% of

No. 1 canola equal to matured, sweet, good other seeds that are
Canada acceptable conspicuous and that
natural colour
reference are not readily
 482

Table 2. Primary Grade Determinants Table Rapeseed, Canada (CAN)

Standard of Quality *Standard of

*Grade Cleanliness
Name Commercially Pure
*Variety Degree of Soundness
Seed

varieties separable from canola,

to be assessed as
dockage

Not more than 1.5% of

Any variety of other seeds that are
canola equal to Fairly well matured, conspicuous and that
No. 2
acceptable sweet, reasonably good are not readily
Canada
reference natural colour separable from canola,
varieties to be assessed as
dockage

May have the natural Not more than 2.0% of

odour associated with other seeds that are
low-quality seed, not conspicuous and that
No. 3 Any variety of
distinctly sour, musty, are not readily
Canada canola
rancid, or any odour separable from canola,
that would indicate to be assessed as
serious deterioration dockage

Grade, if No.
Rapeseed, Sample
3
Canada Account
Specs not
Admixture
metCanada

Damage Foreign Material

*Grade
Name *Distinctly Insect Sclerotinia Stones
*Heated% *Total% Ergot% Excreta%
Green % Excreta % % %

No. 1
2.0 0.1 3.0 0.05 0.02 0.1 0.05 0.05
Canada

No. 2
6.0 0.5 10.0 0.05 0.02 0.2 0.10 0.05
Canada

No. 3 20.0 2.0 20.0 0.05 0.02 0.3 0.15 0.05

 483

Damage Foreign Material

*Grade
Name *Distinctly Insect Sclerotinia Stones
*Heated% *Total% Ergot% Excreta%
Green % Excreta % % %

Canada

2.5% or
less
Rapeseed,
Rejected
(grade)
Account
Grade,if Rapeseed Rapeseed Rapeseed Rapeseed Rapeseed Rapeseed Rapeseed Stones, or
No. 3 Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Sample Rapeseed,
specs Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Canada Sample
not Account Account Account Account Account Account Account Canada
met Damaged Heated Damaged Ergot Excreta Excreta Admixture Account
Stones
Over 2.5%
-
Rapeseed
Sample
Salvage

* Defined in the Canada Grain Regulations Schedule 111 Table XX11

Crop Quality Information

The Grain Research Laboratory of the Canadian Grain Commission monitors certain
quality characteristics of the Canadian canola crop. This information is made available
to growers and the trade in published reports. Each fall, the Commission conducts a
survey of oil, protein, chlorophyll, fatty acid composition and glucosinolate levels in the
new crop and publishes the information in the Western Canadian Oilseeds bulletin. The
quality factors for canola cargoes are also determined and summaries are provided
monthly in the Grain Commission’s Exports of Canadian Grain and Wheat Flour
bulletin.

References

Official Grain Grading Guide. 2001. Canadian Grain Commission

 484

Chapter 14 - Marketing
1. Marketing
o Background
 Country Elevator
 Crushing Plant
 Producer Car
 Grain Dealers
 Futures Market
o Building Blocks to a Marketing Strategy
 Price Determination
 Futures, Cash and Street Prices
 International Factors
 Domestic Factors
o Market Analysis
 Fundamental Analysis
 Technical Analysis
 Up-trending (Bull) Market
 Down-trending (Bear) Market
o Strategy Review
 Year to Year
 During the Year
o The Mechanics of Marketing
 Using the Futures Market
 Hedging
 The Mechanics of Trading
 Margin Money
 Choosing the Hedge Month (Carrying Costs and Spreads)
 Cash Markets
 Relationship of Cash to Futures
 "Unpriced" Marketing Strategies
 A Note on Price Quotations
 Options on Futures
 Trading Options
 Option Premiums
 Option Premiums and Futures Prices
 Using Options on Canola Futures
 Option Strategies for Canola Growers
o Delivery Options
 Elevator and Crushing Companies
 Production Contract
 Deferred Delivery Contract
 Basis Contract
 Deferred Pricing Contract
 Grain Pricing Order or Target Price Contract
o Summary
 The Elevator System
 Crushing Companies
 Producer Cars
o Marketing Glossary
 485

2. List of Tables
o Table 1. Canadian Supply and Demand - August/July Crop Year
o Table 2. World Production, Major Vegetable and Marine Oils
o Table 3. World Production of Canola and Rapeseed
o Table 4. World Production of Oilseeds
o Table 5. World Production of Major High Protein Meals
o Table 6. Perfect Hedge in a Declining Market
o Table 7. Perfect Hedge in a Rising Market
o Table 8. Up-trending Market - Cash Grain is Sold before Futures
Contract is Bought Back
o Table 9. Down-trending Market - Cash Grain is Sold before Futures
Contract is Bought Back
o Table 10. Effect of a Basis Change on a Hedge
o Table 11. Example of Basis Calculation for Canola
o Table 12. Monthly Cost of Holding Canola
o Table 13. Examples of Strike Prices
o Table 14. Option Premiums
o Table 15. Put Options: Strike Price - Put Premium = Minimum Selling
Price
o Table 16. Selling Price
o Table 17. Offset Option
o Table 18. Net Selling Price
o Table 19. Buying Futures Contract vs. Buying Calls
o Table 20. Potential of Options Position vs. Long Future Position

Marketing

Growers make several marketing decisions in the spring, one of which is what they will
plant. While this decision is based partly on market signals, other factors enter into the
"what to seed" decision, such as crop rotation, climatic conditions and experience with a
crop. Growers can affect their bottom lines by focusing on production management that
maximizes productivity or by reducing per unit costs. Production and marketing are a
partnership to improve grower returns. Successful marketing depends on a good plan. It
takes into account the financial requirement of the farm and the options available to
meet those requirements.

Background

Canola is an "open market" or "non-board" commodity. Consequently, the canola

grower "sells direct" to the canola buyer.

Compared to many commodities produced in Canada, which are largely dependent on

export markets, canola demand is more evenly distributed between domestic and export
markets. Excluding seed retained for seed and feed, between 40 and 45% of canola is
used domestically and the remainder exported. This dual market, coupled with open
market selling, provides growers with several marketing alternatives and options within
those alternatives.

In the open market system, growers receive the price of canola on the day they sell or
price their canola. Price is a function of supply and demand, therefore it fluctuates
 486

accordingly. The decision on when best to market canola will depend on several
parameters:

 financial position
 cash flow requirements
 price
 transportation
 storage facilities
 weather

The decision on where to market canola will be influenced by:

 delivery opportunities
 pricing and contracting options
 service
 price

The following delivery alternatives are available.

Country Elevator

The local elevator is the collection point for a grain handling company. In most cases,
the canola purchased from growers is resold to the end user. (It may also be sold to a
broker or exporting company, which has no country collection system.) The grain
company purchases canola in order to fill sales which it already has made, or anticipates
making, in the export market. Some country elevators may also act as off-site collection
and storage points for canola crushers.

Crushing Plant

Canola seed is crushed primarily for its edible vegetable oil content. Canola meal for
livestock feed is a by-product of crushing. A regular supply of canola is required to
maintain ongoing operations at the plants. While constant operation is preferable
(except for periods of plant maintenance), some of the plants have closed for extended
periods when faced with negative crush margins. Roughly 45% of the oil and 60% of
the meal produced by the Canadian crushing industry must find a home in the export
market.

Producer Car

Growers can choose to load their own railway cars, bypassing the country elevator
system. Growers must apply to the Canadian Grain Commission for producer cars.

Grain Dealers

Grain dealers are essentially grain/canola marketers or brokers. They may not have an
extensive infrastructure for gathering grain or oilseeds nor do they usually make sales
directly into foreign markets. They arrange for a sale to an exporter in Vancouver,
 487

purchase canola from growers, and are then allocated rail cars, called dealer cars, to ship
the canola to Vancouver to meet their sales commitments.

Futures Market

If financially beneficial, growers may decide to use the futures market to "lock in" a
price and liquidate the futures contract position when they deliver the canola in the cash
market. Farmers may also deliver against a futures position via a third-party agreement
with a merchant participant. For more information contact the Winnipeg Commodity
Exchange Inc. (WCE) Web site at www.wce.ca or by calling (204) 925-5000.

When making a marketing decision, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of various
options and strike a balance that achieves the goals. Remember, what appears to be
advantageous one year may not be the next. Consider all the options in light of current
circumstances.

The degree to which growers market their crop will depend on their level of interest,
capabilities, time demands, and their risk aversion. Some choose to do minimal
marketing, preferring to sell to the local elevator for a set price when cash is required.
Due to time demands, growers may appreciate the full line of services offered by the
country elevator. It may be worth the time to reduce downside price risk by hedging the
crop through the futures market. If growers feel they need a guaranteed market for a
percentage of their crop, they can enter into a production contract with a canola crusher.
It may be more efficient to load producer cars and assign the savings against time and
labour. One may use a combination of any or all of the above in order to take advantage
of the benefits offered by each.

Growers may decide to average their returns, in effect creating a pooled price, by selling
at regular intervals during the year. Price is often the determining factor in whether to
sell. However, growers who practice effective marketing need to look past the apparent
price and consider:

 What does the price include (for example, is there service attached to it
and can growers make use of the service)?
 What is the cost of not accepting the price (for example, consider the
carrying costs, such as storage and interest associated with the
particular option)?
 What are the chances for future price movement-either for or against?
 Does the price provide an acceptable level of return?

In developing a marketing strategy, take two key factors into consideration (because
they will have a bearing on when and how to sell canola)-cash flow requirements and
cost of production. The timing of cash injections into the operation will help determine
during what periods of the year to sell canola. The cost of production (fixed and variable
costs) will provide a guideline as to what is an acceptable selling price. The market has
as much tendency to go down as up, so determine what price is required to cover costs.
Hoping for a certain price (speculating) won't cover expenses. Know what is a realistic
expectation and what is purely speculation.
 488

Building Blocks to a Marketing Strategy

Price Determination

Under most circumstances, the primary consideration in a decision to hold or sell canola
will be price. In order to develop a marketing strategy, be aware of the factors that enter
into price determination. While the price for oilseeds is established internationally, there
are domestic influences that also contribute to the final price.

Price is a result of the interaction of supply and demand. Basic economics say that as
long as there is no interference with market forces, demand in excess of supply will
drive prices up, stimulating more production. Conversely, supply in excess of demand
drives prices down, causing decreased production and the possibility of increased
demand. Where there is no market interference or artificial barrier, supply and demand
always try to seek a balance or equilibrium point. Supply and demand situations can
change from day to day, month to month and year to year. For example:

 An exporter makes a sale, which requires seed from the country;

demand at the company's country points increases.
 The supply is higher in September/October when the crop is harvested
than in July.
 As world population increases, demand for vegetable oil increases from
year to year.

One other fact to consider related to supply and demand is price elasticity. Price
elasticity is an indicator of what will happen to sales as prices move up or down. For
example, wheat is relatively price inelastic compared to canola. As there is a limit to the
amount of wheat humans can or will consume, a decrease in price will not necessarily
stimulate increased demand. However, in the case of vegetable oil, because it is used as
a source of food and as a cooking medium, decreased prices will increase demand.
People become less conscious of conserving their frying and cooking oils, and
consequently use more. In a declining market growers are relatively better off with a
price elastic commodity than one that is price inelastic.

When considering the supply side of the picture it is important to keep in mind not just
the current year's production but also carryover or carry-in stocks. These are stocks of
canola from the previous year's production that have not yet been used. Canadian
carryover stocks consist of canola on hand at the end of the year, either on farms or in
commercial channels that had not yet been crushed or exported. World carryover stocks
consist of all commercial and farm stocks held anywhere in the world. (The level of
carryover stocks is a measure of how tight or loose is the supply/demand balance.) For
example, if carryover stocks are high, buyers will bid less aggressively because they
know there are ample stocks; sellers will be more willing to sell (within limits) and
prices will decline.

While carryover stocks are a good indicator of price trends from year to year, they are
not that helpful over a longer time period. This is because carryover stocks alone give
no indication of changing consumption patterns over time. A more effective indicator is
the stocks:use ratio. It's a measure of the canola carryover as a per cent of annual canola
usage. The ratio allows for changes in usage. For example, a carryover of 600,000
 489

tonnes (t) in 1977-78 would have been quite burdensome with a stocks:use ratio of 36%.
In 2000-01, that same tonnage would be considered tight with a stocks:use ratio of 15%.
Therefore, a useful way to measure supply/demand trends, and gain an indication of
future prices, is to calculate the stocks:use ratio for the current year and compare it to
historical ratios (Table 1).

Table 1. Canadian Supply and Demand - August/July Crop Year (000 tonnes)

95/96 96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02

Beginning Stocks 589 1,030 563 363 633 2,157 1,088

Production 6,436 5,062 6,393 7,643 8,798 7,205 4,926

Imports 97 103 141 158 124 225 226

Total Supply 7,122 6,196 7,096 8,164 9,555 9,587 6,240

Exports 2,804 2,519 2,964 3,900 3,885 4,859 2,524

Domestic Crush 2,753 2,712 3,239 3,062 2,983 3,013 2,293

Seed, Feed and Waste 641 363 490 569 581 627 208

Total Demand 6,198 5,594 6,693 7,531 7,449 8,499 5,025

Ending Stocks 990 563 361 633 2,106 1,088 1,215

Stocks/Use 16.0 10.1 5.4 8.2 9.6 9.6 6.2

Source: Statistics Canada, Canola Council of Canada

Totals may not add due to rounding

Futures, Cash and Street Prices

How can canola growers follow price movement to determine the timing of canola
sales?

Most growers will be familiar with grain and oilseed market or price reports, which are
broadcast daily or listed in farm publications weekly. Most growers are familiar with
the three market price terms futures, cash and street. There is often confusion between
the terms cash and street price, and sometimes there is uncertainty as to how the futures
price is established and its relationship to the cash and street price.

The futures price is determined through a bid system at a public commodity exchange.
In its most simplistic sense, the futures market allows buyers and sellers to come
together to publicly discover what one is willing to commit to pay for a commodity and
what the other is willing to commit to sell it for at some time in the future. Typically,
 490

prices rise if domestic and/or international indicators suggest there will be a shortage or
improved demand, and prices will fall if oversupply or decreased demand is expected.

The cash price is the price paid for immediate delivery at a given location (spot
oilseeds). Most cash prices are quoted for oilseeds at a terminal position (for example,
Vancouver). In a perfect market, cash and futures prices differ by the cost of carrying
the canola from the present to the future month. However, because perfect markets are
rare, cash prices could be at a discount or premium to the futures price, depending on
the supply and demand at the current time at the terminal location. In a perfect market
situation, the cash price will be equal to the futures price during the delivery month
(adjusted for quality and location differences).

The street price is the price received at the local elevator, crushing plant, or from the
grain dealer. Street and futures prices are related. The spread (or difference) between
them is referred to as the basis, and reflects the difference in value of a cash deal versus
a deal to fulfill the terms and conditions of the futures contract. It includes such costs as
elevation, freight, cleaning, storage, quality, storage requirements and opportunity costs
of an elevator's storage bins.

International Factors

The world oilseed market is very complex. Oil World, a German publication, which is
the bible for those in the edible oil trade, lists 12 commodities as the major sources of
edible oils and fats in the world (Table 2).

Table 2. World Production, Major Vegetable and Marine Oils (million tonnes)

96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02f

Soybeans 20.9 23.2 24.6 25.3 27.1 29.2

Palm 17.6 17.1 19.4 21.2 23.5 23.8

Sunflower Seed 9.1 8.4 9.3 9.5 8.7 7.7

Canola/Rapeseed 11.5 12.2 12.7 14.5 14.0 13.6

Cottonseed 4.1 4.1 3.9 3.9 3.9 4.3

Peanut 4.6 4.3 4.8 4.5 4.8 5.5

Coconut 3.1 3.4 2.4 3.0 3.5 3.3

Olive 2.8 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.7 2.8

Corn 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.0

Fish 1.3 0.8 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.0

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Table 2. World Production, Major Vegetable and Marine Oils (million tonnes)

96/97 97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02f

Total 76.8 78.0 82.8 87.8 91.3 93.2

Source: Oil World Annual 2002

Totals may not add due to rounding f = forecast

Price levels for oilseeds are determined by the world demand for their two products, oil
and meal. Taking into account quality differences, the various oils or meals must remain
price competitive with each other. The relative price of any one oilseed will depend on
the availability of, and demand for, its oil or meal. However, if the price gets too far out
of line, substitution will occur and bring prices back into line.

Production and export subsidies have often significantly altered supply patterns in the
international marketplace and can be one of the leading contributors to depressed prices.

Palm production has radically altered the price structure for vegetable oils. Production
management changes have put palm oil onto the world market not only at a low price,
but in increased volumes. In the early 1980's, pollinating insects were introduced to the
palm plantations, which increased yields substantially. Prior to this period, high
volumes of palm oil entered the marketplace at irregular intervals, depending on
precipitation levels. With improved pollination, yield levels now move in a two-year
cyclical pattern. After a year of high yields, as a result of increased pollination, the palm
trees enter a year of semi-dormancy and reduced yields. Not all trees are on the same
cycle so production is not that variable.

Palm is not a high protein, meal-producing commodity. So not only does it depress
prices through increased volumes, it also can cause problems for oilseed crushers by
changing the revenue contributions from the oil vs. protein meal.

Canola prices tend to follow soybean prices because of the dominant position of
soybeans in the world oilseed market. Soybeans account for about half of world oilseed
production. However, the price relationship between soybeans and canola will depend
on the relative values of oil and meal. In many years, world oilseed crushers crush to
meet meal demand. Consequently, oilseeds with a high meal content, like soybeans, are
preferred and canola values will be pressured. In years when there is a contraction of
world livestock numbers, meal demand decreases and high oil-bearing seeds like canola
are preferred. As a result, canola would trade at a relative premium to soybeans.
Therefore, when watching markets, look at the relative change in livestock numbers, as
well as any developments in animal feeds that would displace oilseed meal protein.

While the overall price level may be trending up or down for the crop year and the
immediate future, occurrences during the year can cause price rallies and declines
independent of the overall trend.

Rallies will occur if there is an indication or belief that anticipated production levels of
an oilseed crop will not be reached. Declines can occur when harvested crops enter the
 492

market or production appears to be more than anticipated. Prices react to news, founded
or unfounded.

As the U.S. soybean crop is a predominant contributor to world oilseed supplies, any
news about the crop will affect world soybean and canola prices. The U.S. soybean crop
year is from September to August. The United States Department of Agriculture
(USDA) regularly releases crop, stocks and supply demand estimates. The markets will
react to these reports if the news is different than expected. For example, if the trade,
through market intelligence, estimates that growers intend to seed 58 million acres, but
the USDA planting intentions report indicates growers anticipate only 56 million acres,
prices will rally for the period immediately after the report until other factors, such as
weather, start to affect the outlook.

Early in the U.S. crop year, from September to about January, the market tends to
concentrate on the final size of the crop just being harvested and the demand prospects.
As the crop year advances, traders begin to be increasingly concerned about the size of
the upcoming crop. Early in the crop year the market is concerned about the size of the
carryover stocks following July 31. From January on, the market concentrates on both
carryover stocks in August of the same year and one year later.

Throughout the growing season weather is an important consideration in price

movement. The term "weather" market means prices are reacting to changes in weather.
Early in the growing season if conditions are dry around seeding, prices may strengthen
in anticipation of lower than expected production. If a generalized rain occurs, prices
fall.

In addition to the American soybean situation, there is another factor which impacts
soybean and canola prices- the South American (SA) soybean crop. SA produces
approximately the same amount of beans as the U.S. The SA crop is harvested in the
February/March period, and is in effect a second harvest. Consequently, the size and
condition of the harvest will impact prices in the late winter. Further, because of the
need for foreign exchange, SA suppliers price their beans to sell. They work toward
having all their beans sold by September to avoid competing with the U.S. harvest. In
effect, this leaves the U.S. as a residual supplier to the world. Increases in SA
production take market share from the U.S., impact prices during the period of the
crop's marketing, and add to world inventories by the amount of displaced U.S. exports.

A number of other factors contribute to price movement and price trends, which are
more difficult to monitor for those who are not regular followers of world economics.
World economic conditions impact prices. The relative wellbeing of importing nations
impacts demand. Relative values of currencies could increase or decrease the demand
for a certain oilseed or its products and shift demand to substitutes. Alternatively,
currency movement could make other countries competitive in the traditional market of
another country. For example, if the American dollar strengthens in comparison to the
Japanese Yen and Canadian dollar, American soybeans become more expensive for the
Japanese. The Japanese tendency in such a situation is to increase canola purchases.
 493

Domestic Factors

While the world marketplace sets the general price trend, and international conditions
during the growing season will cause temporary fluctuations, factors specific to Canada
will affect the price of canola on a day-to-day basis.

As there is a domestic crushing industry in Canada, and because canola is the dominant
oil used in this country, canola prices do not necessarily follow a fixed price ratio to
soybeans. If Canadian canola supplies are tight there will be a tendency for canola to
trade at a premium to soybeans and soybean products.

Localized situations will also affect the price growers receive for their canola. For
example, growers may find that one elevator company is offering a lower or higher
price relative to the others. If the price is higher, the company is trying to attract canola
because it has a buyer. It can afford to increase its price (by narrowing the basis)
because it has a sale arranged and consequently has a lower carrying cost. If a company
has ample supplies of canola in store and anticipates it will have to carry that canola for
a period of time before it can be sold, it will widen its basis to cover this cost.

If supplies are tight, the basis narrows as companies compete to purchase canola to fulfil
their market commitments. When supplies are ample, the basis widens. This can occur,
in particular, at harvest time when there is substantial canola available. As commercial
channels fill, the basis widens to discourage further deliveries until the product can be
exported or processed.

The basis may tend to narrow in periods of low prices because growers become
reluctant sellers. They become willing to carry their canola in expectation of improved
prices. To attract canola supplies, companies with sales commitments offer the growers
more by narrowing the basis. As well, the cost of carrying company-held canola is less
as prices decline, so this will affect the basis.

Market Analysis

To make marketing decisions, make some predictions about future canola prices. The
price outlook for various grains and oilseeds is important when making seeding
decisions. Expectations of future price levels will influence the timing of grower sales.
If prices are expected to go down, price immediately. If prices are expected to rise, hold
off selling until later, as long as the anticipated price increase will cover the carrying
costs of holding the grain.

The task of market analysis is to predict price levels in the future. Price prediction
involves three components:

 direction (up or down) of the price move

 timing (when)
 magnitude (how much)

No method has ever been developed which can be used to forecast grain prices with
perfect certainty. Some methods are more reliable than others.
 494

Market analysts use two general methods of price forecasting, fundamental analysis and
technical analysis.

Fundamental Analysis

Fundamental analysis is the assessment of all the known supply/demand factors to

determine the expected level of prices to prevail in the future.

For example, if the stocks:use ratio is at a historic high for a given commodity, the
futures price for that commodity will be depressed. The decision may be not to plant
that crop.

However, if the crop is in hand or in the ground, there are other fundamental indicators
to watch when determining when to market or price the crop. September to November,
harvest months for Canadian canola and U.S. beans, usually bring abundant supplies
and a strain on handling and transportation facilities. Historically, prices are lower at
harvest than later in the year. The decision may be not to sell at harvest time.

The USDA releases U.S. planting intentions at the end of March. If the report indicates
planting will be significantly lower than the trade anticipated, the market will rally. But
if the overall world supply of oilseeds is burdensome, this is a temporary market move
and the decision may be to take advantage and forward price or sell during the rally.

These are just a couple of examples of how, by keeping an eye on changing world
conditions, to determine the appropriate time to sell or price canola to best advantage.

Technical Analysis

Technical analysis is a more complicated form of market analysis, which takes a fair bit
of commitment because it requires regular records of prices. One form of technical
analysis is often referred to as charting. It is the study of past price behaviour in an
attempt to forecast where prices will go in the future.

A set of price charts provides a record of past prices and an historical perspective on the
market. Price charts can be made for a range of commodities both in Canada and the
U.S. Charts can also be made for a specific futures contract month, or the nearest futures
month throughout the year. Charts can be made for street price, comparing it to the
nearby and more distant futures months to get a feel for basis changes.

When charting futures contracts, the most common chart is the bar chart, which records
either the weekly or daily high, low, open and close. After charting several prices, price
trends and volatility in the market can be identified. It is important to develop a sense of
historical perspective as a means to understand why market moves occurred. Without
such a perspective, charts can be misleading.

The grower may want to plot the moving average for a price in order to assess trends. It
is constructed by adding the new day's price and dropping the first price in the average.
Any number of days may be used in calculating the average. Along with the moving
average, the daily price is plotted on the chart. Because the moving average includes
prices for previous days, it will lag behind the actual change in price. If the price line
 495

cuts across the moving average line, it is a signal that the price direction is changing.
For example, in an up-trending market both the price and moving average are going up.
If the market reverses direction, the price will drop faster than the moving average.
While not foolproof, moving averages may signal a top or bottom in a market, which
may be in an up or down trend.

Charting volume and open interest also provides clues to market direction in the futures
market. Volume is the amount of trading that took place in a given day and is measured
in terms of contracts traded. Open interest is the number of contracts outstanding (for
example, not offset or delivered against) at the end of the day.

Some general guidelines with respect to volume and open interest are:

Up-Trending (Bull) Market

 If volume and open interest are both up, and prices are up, the market is
considered strong.
 If both volume and open interest are down, but prices are higher, the up
trend is considered weak.

Down-Trending (Bear) Market

 If volume and open interest are up, but prices are down, the down trend
is considered strong.
 If volume and open interest are down and prices are down, the down
trend in the market is considered weak. In this circumstance a large
amount of contract liquidation will have occurred, and the remaining
contract holders are not selling in large volume in anticipation of a
market turnaround.

When developing analysis methods keep in mind that technical analysis is not a
replacement for fundamental analysis but rather a supplement. When gathering
information for either method of analysis, check with professionals who work in the
field.

Another factor can affect the market. Sometimes prices appear to move independently
of what the fundamental or technical analysis indicates. In these cases the market is
being influenced by the behaviour of those who are participating in the market. If, for
example, a mood of optimism sweeps buyers, prices will increase for no apparent
reason. It is important to be aware that there can be psychological factors that affect the
market to avoid being carried away with undue optimism or pessimism.

Strategy Review

The above should give growers a reasonable idea of some of the things they need to
keep in mind as they plan their marketing strategies. They need to be aware of
international and domestic market conditions. They should now be able to identify
factors that affect prices from year to year, as well as during the year. Here's a review of
some of the factors to keep in mind.
 496

Year to Year

 stocks:use ratio and carryover stocks

 contraction/expansion of livestock numbers
 currency exchange situations between exporting and importing nations
and among exporting nations
 palm production cycle
 trends, which may indicate shifts in production or consumption of any
one oilseed
 policies of foreign governments concerning subsidies

During the Year

 weather conditions in the major oilseed growing areas-in particular the

U.S. soybean belt
 timing of USDA and Statistics Canada crop, stocks and supply/demand
reports
 basis levels
 timing of world harvests, U.S. soybeans, South American soybeans and
Canadian canola

The degree to apply this information is applied will depend on personal interest in
marketing and the marketing options that best suit farm operations. The amount of
information needed to make an informed decision may appear overwhelming. However,
do need not feel it is necessary to gather and keep track of all the details. There are
knowledgeable sources of information within the industry that can and should be used.

Most provincial departments of agriculture have market analysts who specialize in

oilseeds and/or grains. Statistics Canada has statisticians who follow domestic and
international markets related to oilseeds. Agricultural economics departments of
universities will also have one or more professors who follow markets. Commodity
brokers, oilseed crushing companies and grain handling companies should be able to
supply market information. Growers who are experienced in marketing or use a number
of marketing options are also good sources of information. Check with these sources for
their magazine, newsletter and Web site or e-mail recommendations that help in
analyzing the market. Ensure a good cross-section of contacts. Analyze the responses
from contacts to fit the pieces together to form a foundation for a marketing plan.

Now a look at the mechanics, which allow growers to put their fundamental and
technical analyses to work. Tables 1 to 5 provide an overview of the world production
of oilseeds and the supply and demand for Canadian canola.

Table 3. World Production of Canola and Rapeseed (million tonnes)

00/01 01/02 02/03f

European Union (15 countries) 8.96 9.52 9.26

Central Europe 2.23 2.23 2.23

 497

Table 3. World Production of Canola and Rapeseed (million tonnes)

00/01 01/02 02/03f

Russia 0.11 0.12 0.11

Ukraine 0.18 0.12 0.10

Canada 7.13 7.01 3.20

U.S.A. 0.92 0.70 0.72

China, PR 11.38 10.14 10.40

India 3.75p 4.66 3.80

Australia 1.78 1.69 0.65

Other countries 1.00 0.97 1.11

World 37.44 37.17 31.57

Source: Oil World Weekly Nov. 15, 2002

Totals may not add due to rounding
p = preliminary f = forecast

Table 4. World Production of Oilseeds (million tonnes)

97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02p 02/03f

Soybeans 158.46 160.59 160.18 175.26 183.40 188.46

Cottonseed 34.52 32.83 33.57 33.98 36.93 33.90

Peanuts 20.10 21.99 21.31 22.86 24.35 22.30

Sunflower Seed 23.45 27.40 26.85 23.11 21.50 23.46

Canola/Rapeseed 33.11 36.13 42.62 37.44 36.53 31.57

Sesame Seed 2.67 2.64 2.71 2.96 2.81 2.83

Palm Kernels 4.80 5.80 6.14 6.53 6.62 6.90

Copra 5.08 3.87 5.17 5.60 5.16 4.92

Linseed 2.37 2.83 2.89 2.34 2.15 2.22

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Table 4. World Production of Oilseeds (million tonnes)

97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02p 02/03f

Castor Seed 1.16 1.16 1.27 1.33 1.01 0.98

Total 258.72 295.24 302.71 311.40 320.46 317.53

Source: Oil World Weekly, Nov. 15, 2002

Totals may not add due to rounding p = preliminary F = forecast
Crops harvested in the Northern Hemisphere during the latter part of the first year are
generally combined
with those harvested in the Southern Hemisphere during the crop year October to
September 30

Table 5. World Production of Major High Protein Meals (million tonnes)

97/98 98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02f

Soybeans 100.8 106.2 109.6 117.5 126.8

Cotton 15.5 14.9 14.7 14.9 16.0

Peanut 6.1 6.9 6.4 6.8 7.8

Sunflower 10.1 11.0 10.9 10.0 8.9

Canola/Rapeseed 18.9 19.5 22.2 21.3 20.5

Sesame 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9

Corn Germ 3.0 3.0 3.1 3.0 3.0

Corn Gluten 13.8 14.0 14.6 14.2 14.5

Palm Kernel 2.7 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.5

Copra 1.9 1.3 1.7 2.0 1.8

Linseed 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.2

Fish 5.2 6.2 7.3 6.7 6.3

Total 180.2 188.3 196.0 202.0 211.2

 499

Source: Oil World Annual 2002

f = forecast
Totals may not add due to rounding

Crops harvested in the Northern Hemisphere during the latter part of the first year are
generally combined with those harvested in the Southern Hemisphere during the crop
year October to September 30.

The Mechanics of Marketing

Using the Futures Market

To understand how the futures market can be applied to each particular situation, it's
important to have a basic understanding of what the futures market is and how it works.

Put simply, the futures market allows for public price discovery. In other words, the
price someone is willing to pay for a quantity of canola at a given time, and the price
someone is willing to sell that same quantity of canola for. This price is arrived at in
public through an open bidding system. The bidding takes place daily during the week
on the floor of the Winnipeg Commodity Exchange (WCE) in Winnipeg, MB.

The WCE does not buy or sell canola nor does it influence or set the price. Rather, it
acts as a forum where buyers and sellers of canola, through their brokers, can meet to
exchange or "trade" set amounts (contracts) of canola for some future period known as
the delivery month.

While the basic concept of a futures market may be simply public or open price
discovery, its application at the farm level is not well understood by most growers. It is
important to take the time to understand how it works. However, before attempting to
use the futures market, talk to a variety of people who use futures as part of their
business practice. This would include not only brokers but growers experienced in using
the futures market.

Hedgers and speculators are the two types of participants in futures trading. A hedger is
someone who has an interest in selling or buying the actual commodity. A seller is
interested in pre-pricing canola that the seller will have for sale in the future in order to
avoid a price decline. A buyer is interested in pre-pricing canola that the buyer will need
at some time in the future to avoid a price increase. A speculator has no interest in the
actual canola. A speculator is interested solely in profiting from the price movement.

Speculators add liquidity to what otherwise could be a thin market. This means that,
without the activities of speculators buying and selling contracts, there may not be
enough actual buyers or sellers of canola on a given day to conduct trades for those who
want to hedge.

From time to time there is concern that speculators will control market prices. However,
this should not be the case as long as there is a workable delivery system. If speculators
bid the futures price of a commodity too high in relation to the actual market conditions,
those who have the commodity for sale would sell futures contracts at the inflated price
and actually deliver against the contract when the delivery month arrived. The
 500

speculator would then be forced to take delivery of the commodity and sell it at actual
market price, which would be under what the speculator had to pay for the futures
contract. The speculator could also try to sell the contract. But the speculator would
most likely not find a buyer at the inflated price and would take a loss.

If a speculator attempts to drive the price down too far in relation to the actual market
conditions, a canola user would buy the futures contract and request delivery in the
delivery month. To deliver, the speculator would have to buy canola in the cash market
for more than the speculator sold the contract. The speculator could also attempt to buy
back the contract to avoid delivery. However, it is unlikely the speculator would find a
seller at the depressed price, so the speculator would lose money.

In theory, the threat of delivery or the threat of demanding delivery prevents speculators
from controlling the market. The threat of delivery ensures that there is an orderly
relationship between the cash and futures market.

Hedging

A hedge is a method of decreasing the risk of holding a cash position (the actual
commodity) by taking an offsetting position in the commodity or futures market.

A hedge will protect the owner of canola against downward price movement. However,
it will not allow the owner to take advantage of upward price movement. Therefore,
before hedging, consider the likelihood of prices moving up or down during the life of
the futures contract. If, for example, the market has more potential to decline than go
up, the owner may decide to hedge. Hedging is like "locking in" a price.

A hedge is the sale of a futures contract, with the intention to sell canola into the cash
market prior to the delivery month and buy back a futures contract in the same amount
previously sold or under extreme conditions possibly pursue delivery.

To validate the trade, a portion of the value of the contract must be deposited with the
broker's brokerage house. Usually it amounts to 4% or less of the total contract value.
This is called margin. The brokerage house must post margin security with the
clearinghouse to cover the position of its clients.

To determine whether the futures price is acceptable, know costs of production, costs of
storing canola until delivered, costs of interest on stored canola, and the cost of the
interest on margin money.

A grower may decide to commit only part of the crop to one futures price. So the
grower may decide to hedge only a part of the crop at any one time. This would be
particularly important in the situation when hedging early in the season before the crop
is harvested, and the grower is not yet certain of the total quantity of canola produced.

The following (Table 6) is an example of a perfect hedge in a declining market. On July

1, a grower decides the price of canola meets the set parameters. The street price is
$310. The grower thinks that the price may drop. However, because the crop is not
harvested the grower can't sell the canola. The basis, the spread between the current
street price and the post-harvest futures, is $35. The grower locks in a price by selling a
 501

November contract for $345. By the time the grower has the canola harvested and ready
for delivery, on October 1 the market has declined by $10. The grower sells the canola
to the local elevator for $300/t and buys a November contract at $335. In terms of net
return, the decline in the cash market is offset by the gain in the futures, and the grower
has locked in a price of $310.

Table 6. Perfect Hedge in a Declining Market

Date Futures Transaction Cash Transaction Street Price Basis

July 1 Sell $345 $310 Expected basis $35

Oct. 1 Buy $335 Sell $300 $300 Actual $35

Gain $10 Down $10 Gain/loss on basis = $0

Net Return = Gain on futures + return from cash

$310 = $10 + $300

Assume in the second example (Table 7) that all the circumstances are the same except
the grower is wrong and instead of the price declining, it goes up. The grower still has
managed to lock in $310. The grower lost $10 on the futures market but the street price
rose $10.

Table 7. Perfect Hedge in a Rising Market

Date Futures Transaction Cash Transaction Street Price Basis

July 1 Sell $345 $310 Expected basis $35

Oct. 1 Buy $355 Sell $320 $320 Actual $35

Loss $10 Up $10 Gain/loss on basis = $0

Net Return = Loss on futures + return from cash

$310 = (-10) + $320

The key concept to understand about hedging is do not sell a contract that is larger than
the amount of canola owned (cash position). When delivering canola, the grower must
sell an amount equal to the future position held, and must immediately buy back the
contract. In other words, the cash and futures positions must always balance. They must
be equal and opposite. Do not be concerned with the amount of movement in the market
because when hedged, a loss in the futures means an increase in the cash and vice versa,
resulting in no net change in financial position.

Taking a position in the market that is out of balance is speculating. When speculating,
price movement will put the grower in a potential loss or gain position. As long as the
 502

grower has not closed out his/her position (not bought back his/her contract), the grower
has an obligation to deliver canola in the amount of the short contract during the
delivery month. Buying back the contract cancels the obligation to deliver. Another way
to view hedging is that it provides the grower with a floor price, but it does not let the
grower take advantage of a rise in the market.

At times growers will find that market prices are moving rapidly. This would be of
particular concern to a hedger trying to buy back a contract in a fast moving up-trending
market. In a fast up-trending market, growers can protect themselves by buying back
their futures contracts before they sell cash canola.

Once the futures contract is bought back, the grower can sell the canola. As a seller, the
grower can ride out the up trend or sell now accepting whatever gains have been made.
The third example (Table 8) shows what would happen if cash canola was sold on
October 1 but the futures contract wasn't bought back till October 5, by which time
prices had increased $40/t.

Table 8. Up-trending Market - Cash Grain is Sold before Futures Contract is

Bought Back

Cash Street
Date Futures Transaction Basis
Transaction Price

July
Sell $345 $310 Expected $35
1

Oct. Buy $360 Futures not Basis if futures liquidate at

Sell $325 $325
1 liquidated time of cash sale - $35

Oct.
Buy $400
5

Loss $55 Gain $10 Up $15 Gain/loss on basis = $0

Net Return = Loss on futures + return from cash

$270 = (-$55) + $325 of which $40/t was a speculative loss

Conversely, in a fast moving down-trending market, the grower need not be as

concerned because if the grower doesn't buy back the contracts he/she stands to gain
(Table 9). However, the speculative nature of such a decision should be clearly
understood.

Table 9. Down-trending Market - Cash Grain is Sold before Contract is Bought

Back
 503

Cash Street
Date Futures Transaction Basis
Transaction Price

July
Sell $345 $310 Expected $35
1

Oct. Buy $325 Futures not Basis if hedge

Sell $290 $290
1 liquidated liquidated - $35

Oct.
Buy $305
5

Decline
Loss $40 Gain $10 Gain/loss on basis = $0
$20

Net Return = Gain on futures + return from cash

$330 = $40 + $290 of which $20/t was a speculative gain

Further, a hedge is not an elimination of risk, it is a reduction of risk. What was

discussed in the previous examples was a perfect hedge. However, hedges are rarely
perfect because not only can there be price movement but also basis movement. Usually
changes in basis are smaller and more gradual than changes in prices. Also, basis level
changes tend to be more predictable. Factors affecting basis are local, such as:

 growers' price expectations

 local supplies vs. grain company needs
 elevator space availability
 crusher demand
 transportation

On the other hand, factors that affect price levels are usually foreign such as grain
embargoes, crop failure or other factors for which the grower has less access to
information. Once hedged, the grower has eliminated a large portion of the price level
risk but is still open to basis risk. Consider the following example (Table 10). On July 1
the street price was $315. November futures were $350. By October 1, the cash price
had dropped to $300. The basis had also widened from $35 to $40. The grower received
$5 less than anticipated (or $310) because the basis moved against him (widened).

Table 10. Effect of a Basis Change on a Hedge

Date Futures Transaction Cash Transaction Street Price Basis

July 1 Sell $350 $315 Expected $35

Oct. 1 $340 Sell $300 $300 Actual $40

Gain $10 Decline $15 Loss on basis = $5

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Table 10. Effect of a Basis Change on a Hedge

Date Futures Transaction Cash Transaction Street Price Basis

Net Return = Gain on futures + return from cash

$310 = $10 + $300

The Mechanics of Trading

Growers cannot directly enter into a trade on the WCE unless they are registered as a
Trade Participant. Alternatively, trading can be done through someone who has an
agreement with the WCE. This person is known as a broker. To work with a broker the
grower must open an account with a brokerage firm (Futures Commission Merchant).
Opening an account involves establishing financial credibility and depositing enough
money to cover a percentage of the value of the contracts (margin) to be traded. Each
brokerage house will have its own terms and conditions. It is important to understand
those conditions and the liability for any trade.

The broker who handles the trade acts as an agent and will hold the grower accountable
for the financial implications of trades made on the grower's behalf. The broker can
provide information or advice based on knowledge and experience. The broker does not
decide what or when to buy or sell. That is the grower's decision.

When placing a sell order, the broker sells a contract for a given quantity on the
grower's behalf on the floor of the WCE. Prior to the trade, the grower indicates the
price range in which to sell a contract. The market can move up or down during a
trading day depending on trading activity. Each day the price movement is limited to an
amount predetermined by the WCE. For canola, the maximum price move up or down
is $30/t. Limit moves only occur under very volatile markets.

In any event, the broker will attempt to sell the contract at or better than the price set by
the grower. If the market does not reach the price indicated, it means there are no buyers
willing to pay the price at which the grower wants to sell on that day. Selling a contract
(20 tonnes), is to go short and buying a contract is to go long. Lots are traded either by
the Job (one contract) or Board (five contracts), or a combination of these.

When a buyer is found the transaction is submitted to the clearinghouse. The

clearinghouse acts as an internal accounting system for the WCE, matching sales with
purchases, ensuring proper margins are maintained, and settling accounts.

The clearinghouse simplifies the trading transactions because when the grower decides
to buy back a contract, the broker does not have to find the original buyer of the
contract. For example, a grower sells five November contracts in July. In October, the
grower delivers 100 tonnes of canola to the cash market. The grower now wants to buy
back the five November contracts. The broker submits a bid to the trading floor to buy
five November contracts. The person who originally bought the grower's contract might
not wish to sell it. Another person agrees to sell the grower's broker five contracts. After
the trade is made, the clearinghouse acts as the intermediary, allowing the trade to be
impersonal but financially secure.
 505

In effect, the grower buys a contract from the clearinghouse, and the seller sells to the
clearinghouse. The house does not have to match individual buyers to sellers, but it
matches short positions with long positions to ensure the positions balance. This
facilitates trade because there is an independent third party, with no financial interest in
the trade, verifying that there is an equal number of long and short trades. The
clearinghouse enables the grower to liquidate a position without requiring the original
person with whom the grower traded to liquidate his/her position as well.

Margin Money

There are two types of margin for growers wishing to trade who are not registered with
the WCE: initial margin and maintenance margin. The initial margin is an initial deposit
that must be made with a broker when a position is taken in the futures market.
Maintenance margin is the minimum amount that must remain in the account after all
losses are deducted from the initial margin. The WCE sets the minimum initial and
maintenance margin level. Individual brokerage houses may require more than the
minimum initial margin. If the grower's account reaches the maintenance level, the
broker will make a margin call requesting the grower deposit more money in the
account.

This is an important concept which must be understood before entering into a hedge.
During the time the grower holds a short position, if the market goes up the grower will
be called to provide additional margin money. When the price moves upward, the
grower has a contract that has more value, and the grower is required to cover that
increased value. A margin call can be quite substantial, depending on the size of the
position held. The grower must be prepared to cover it or have a line of credit to cover it
or the broker will liquidate the position and likely be unwilling to trade on behalf of the
grower in the future.

Here's an example. Suppose the maintenance margin on a 100 tonne lot of canola is
$1,000 (or $10/t) and the initial margin is $1,350 or $13.50/t. The grower would have to
deposit $1,350 initially. The grower then sells a January futures for $345/t. If the price
for a January futures contract increases, the grower is in a paper loss position until the
grower buys back the contract, and the grower will be called to deposit more margin.

The following steps are involved:

 Deposit $1,350 with a broker.

 Sell a contract worth $34,500 (Board Lot).
 Price increases $5/t-total increase of $500. The grower now has a
contract that is worth $500 more than it was when sold. The grower must
cover that increase out of the margin deposit.
 Since the margin deposit will be drawn down from $1,350 to $850, which
is below the margin requirement, the grower will be requested to supply
$500 to bring the margin deposit up to the initial level of $1,350.

In very volatile markets, the price could move up and the grower could face repeated
margin calls. The grower must be able to meet these calls or may be forced to buy a
contract back at an inopportune time. An inopportune time would mean a time when the
grower wasn't prepared to sell cash canola. To protect the brokerage house, the broker is
 506

obligated to take the grower out of the market by buying a contract if the grower cannot
meet margin calls.

Margin calls could run into several thousands of dollars depending on the size of the
contract held and the amount of price movement over the life of the contract. During
busy times of the year it may be difficult to be available when margin calls might come.
A three-way arrangement can be set up between the grower, the brokerage house and
the grower's bank. This arrangement would allow the broker to contact the bank directly
when margin money is required, and draw on a line of credit. When establishing this
arrangement, it is important that the banker understands the concept of margin calls (the
grower is hedging, not speculating). Otherwise, if substantial draws are made on the
grower's line of credit and the banker mistakenly views this as speculation and becomes
concerned about security, the grower may be forced out of the market at an inopportune
time.

Before deciding to hedge the grower must not only consider the cost of carrying canola
to some point in the future (interest and storage), but must also consider the cost of
interest on any money that may be required to deposit for margin calls. Ensure the
futures price is high enough to cover these costs.

Choosing the Hedge Month (Carrying Costs and Spreads)

Part of the decision-making process in hedging is choosing the month to sell. The first
thing to consider is the anticipated delivery period for cash canola. Do not hedge in the
same month that canola will be delivered. For example, if selling canola in November,
do not sell November futures. Such a close hedge would not allow enough leeway, if for
some reason the grower couldn't close out a futures position (buy the contract back).
However, if delivering late in the crop year, do not hedge in a new crop month.
Available months for canola contracts are September, November, January, March, May
and July. Seek the broker's advice in selecting a hedge month.

It is also important to consider the spreads between contract months. As a seller, the
grower wants to sell a month that is relatively overpriced to the other months. In a
perfect market, the prices of futures months differ by the cost of holding canola (interest
and storage) from the nearby month to the future months. However, perfect markets
rarely occur. A restriction or oversupply could cause one month to be priced relative to
another by as much as the full carrying cost, or an inverse market could occur if there is
lack of supply in nearby months. (Buyers bid up the price in order to encourage sales in
the short term rather than in the future.)

In a situation of inverse markets, it is advisable to seek professional advice from those

experienced in the futures market. Experienced traders should be aware of situations in
the cash market, which are affecting the futures market causing the inversion. They can
provide opinions as to the overall strength and duration of the higher price levels, and
the advisability of selling all or a portion of the crop.

After deciding which futures month to sell, the grower is not locked into that month if
the grower cannot sell cash grain prior to the delivery month. The contract can be rolled
over into the next futures month. The grower would buy back the futures contract for
the nearby month and sell a contract for some future month. Roll the contract over as
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soon as its known delivery will not occur before the contract month held. If intending to
roll over into another futures month, discuss the plan with the broker so that he can
watch the market for the most advantageous spread at which to buy back the contract.

The most important factor in determining the spread between months is the quantities
for sale. If there are excessive supplies available, prices will tend to be depressed in the
nearby months to provide buyers and sellers with incentive to store surplus quantities. If
supplies are limited, there is less downward pressure on the nearby months and the
market will not be forced to full carry. Full carry means that successive futures months
differ in price by the full amount of interest and storage charges that it takes to hold
canola from one month to the next.

Any factor that affects the flow of canola to the market will affect the spread between
months. These include:

 Price - lower prices restrict the flow because growers become reluctant
sellers and consequently narrow the spread between the nearby
months.
 Transportation - if transportation is restricted, delivery from elevators to
domestic crushers or foreign buyers restricted and the spread may widen
until the restriction is removed.
 Interest rates - higher rates increase the cost of carrying canola from
month to month, widening the spread.
 Price levels - higher canola prices may increase the cost of carrying
(interest charges, etc.), widening the spread.

Points to remember when using the futures market:

 Understand the difference between hedging and speculation.

 Remember margin calls may occur and they must be covered.
 When weighing one decision over another, calculate the cost of interest
associated with either margin calls or carrying the canola into the future.
 Know the cost of production, otherwise a price target at which a margin
can be locked in can't be established (sometimes the decision is to
minimize a loss rather than locking in a profit).
 Establish a good relationship with the banker so that the banker
understands the marketing plan and the intent behind hedging.
 Talk to a number of brokerage houses before selecting a broker. Full and
honest communication with the broker is important.

Cash Markets

In the previous sections, it was explained how futures prices are determined, how
spreads are established, and how the cash price relates to the futures price. Here's a
quick review:

 Futures price is established in a public forum based on supply and

demand.
 508

 Spreads between futures months reflect what the market is willing to pay
to carry (storage and interest) canola from one futures month to the
next.
 The spot cash price differs from the nearby futures in the amount of the
cost of holding the canola in position until the futures month (plus
explainable costs of futures pricing point vs. cash pricing point). It may
also reflect short-term supply or demand conditions, which produce a
price either above or below the actual carrying cost.

A fundamental principle is that the cash and futures prices converge (come together to
the point of reflecting explainable costs) at the market location as the futures approaches
maturity.

The difference between the futures and cash price or street price is called the basis. In a
normal market the basis bears a predictable relationship to the futures.

Relationship of Cash to Futures

In the case of the cash market, the carrying charges at any point in time will gradually
diminish until they become zero during the contract delivery month. If conditions exist
which will affect the futures markets differently than they affect the current cash
markets, the basis may diverge from the traditional storage, interest, handling charge
and storage space opportunity cost pattern. Under such circumstances, and in situations
where information is sound and the product can be moved, arbitrage will occur.
Arbitrage is profit-motivated behaviour, which buys in a discounted market and sells in
an overpriced one. When there are no restrictions in the market, arbitrage serves to bring
cash and futures prices back "into line." Whenever the difference between the cash and
futures prices (basis) exceeds the cost of bringing the cash commodity forward to the
futures position, arbitrage should set in to restore equilibrium.

For example, assume the full cost of carrying canola to the November futures delivery
month is $30/t but the existing basis is $40. With the prospect of a $10/t profit, traders
would sell a futures contract and buy the cash commodity in preparation for delivering
on the futures contract. This results in a relative increase in supply of the futures
contract, and a relative increase in demand for cash canola. This will cause the futures
price to fall and the cash price to rise.

The basis between the street and futures price includes a number of items as shown in
Table 11.

Table 11. Example of Basis Calculation for Canola (Delivered to Saskatoon, SK)

Description Cost ($/t) Price ($/t)

Theoretical Futures Price 330

Primary Elevation* 7

Administrative Costs and Handling Risk* 3

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Table 11. Example of Basis Calculation for Canola (Delivered to Saskatoon, SK)

Description Cost ($/t) Price ($/t)

WCE and Brokerage Costs* 1

Carry Charges (assume 30 days of carry)* 3

Quality Adjustments 0

Location Premium/Discount 0

Opportunity Cost* 5

Risk* 0

Miscellaneous* 1

Theoretical Basis (20)

Theoretical Cash Bid 310

* Budgeted and actual costs will vary over time and among companies.

If a grain company is quoting a basis on canola to be delivered several months into the
future, the risk is its costs will be considerably different at the time of delivery. It is
understandable that the company will add a cost to its basis that reflects this risk. In
addition, the company may already have several months' supply of canola in store. If it
takes in another month's supply of canola it may not only have a real cost of carrying
the canola, but it may also be restricting its ability to handle other grains. As the
company makes more money from shipping stocks than storing them, it will tend to
penalize the slower moving grain by adding additional months of carrying charges.

It may seem difficult to understand why prices vary between companies, but it is simply
a question of supply/demand. One company may be shipping its canola faster than
another because it has lined up more sales. Another company may be buying canola to
crush for oil and meal rather than for seed for export. If one company has two months
smaller supply of canola in store, it could afford to pay more per tonne for the product.
Storage costs in an elevator are typically are about $2.40/t per month (without
considering the cost of the money tied up in owning canola).

Any conditions that affect the quantity of canola available for sale will affect the basis.
The local supply/demand situation is probably the most important factor affecting the
basis. If there are surplus stocks, companies can bid less (widen the basis) and still
acquire their supplies. On the other hand, if supplies are low some companies will find
themselves low on stocks and will raise their bid (narrow the basis) to acquire additional
stocks.
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"Unpriced" Marketing Strategies

Growers may want to leave their canola "unpriced" because an analysis of market
conditions may indicate prices are likely to be higher in the future than they are at
present. Another reason for using an unpriced strategy is the desire to hedge or contract
only a portion of the canola in case of lower than anticipated production or restricted
delivery opportunities.

Growers could decide to store their canola on-farm for sale at a later date. Theoretically,
the seasonality of canola production should result in the lowest prices shortly after
harvest when supplies are highest. The price increases from harvest time to the period
just before next year's harvest should reflect the storage and interest costs involved in
holding inventories.

When considering an unpriced canola marketing strategy, include carrying costs such as
interest and storage in the analysis. When interest rates increase, the cost of holding
canola becomes a more important factor.

In Table 12, the cost of holding canola at various interest rates and prices has been
calculated. If the grower could receive a street price of $400 for canola at harvest in
October, but decides to hold it until February, the grower would require a price of at
least $410 in February to be as well off as selling in October, when interest rates are
6%.

Table 12. Monthly Cost of Holding Canola ($/t/mo)

Interest Rate/mo $200 $250 $300 $400

4% (0.33%) $0.67 $0.83 $1.00 $1.33

6% (0.50%) 1.00 1.25 1.50 2.00

8% (0.67%) 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.67

10% (0.83%) 1.67 2.08 2.50 3.33

12% (1.00%) 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00

18% (1.17%) 2.33 2.92 3.50 4.67

The above costs do not include any charges for cost of storage facilities

When deciding whether to store canola on-farm or sell immediately, remember it adds
an additional risk-the potential for canola to deteriorate during storage.

An alternative to a single cash price is price averaging. Growers can adopt this approach
without resorting to the futures market or contracting. Growers can seek to secure the
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average market price over the course of a crop year by making sales at regular intervals,
weekly, monthly or quarterly, over the year or any period during the year.

When using price averaging the grower is not compelled to stay with his/her sales
spreading pattern. If it's believed prices are sufficiently high, or they are likely to go
down, the grower can sell out the balance of the crop at any time.

A Note on Price Quotations

When considering delivery options and comparing prices offered by the various
alternatives, compare apples to apples. Remember the relationship between futures, cash
and street prices. (Recap: futures price is an indicator of the approximate value of
canola in the par region some time in the future; Vancouver cash price is a price for
canola in export position now; street price is a price for canola quoted at a specific
location in the country.) Don't be misled by trying to directly equate the futures price
with the local country price.

This is particularly important when comparing prices quoted by canola crushers and
grain handling companies. Usually a grain company will broadcast daily prices (less the
applicable rail freight) for any one location. Canola crushers generally quote "Free On
Board" (FOB) the plant.

The canola crusher and grain company are generally concerned about two different
markets, one domestic and the other international. While the value of canola is
ultimately based on the value of oil and meal internationally, market circumstances for
the crusher and grain company will differ over the year, depending on the particular
requirements of each market at a given time. It is reasonable, therefore, to expect prices
quoted by grain companies and crushers to vary.

Options on Futures

Options on futures were introduced to the WCE in the fall of 1991. Options offer
growers a method of using the derivatives market for price protection without the risk of
margin calls. Options on futures are a marketing tool, which can be used to capture
pricing opportunities and reduce risk while maintaining the ability to take advantage of
market price changes.

Purchasing an option is sometimes described as being similar to purchasing an

insurance policy. The cost of the option is referred to as a premium and the premium
varies with the amount of price protection desired. As with an insurance policy, the
grower may not necessarily "collect" or exercise the option. If the option is not
exercised, it expires at the end of a specified period. Options on canola futures expire on
the third Friday of the month prior to the underlying futures month. On that day, the
right to exercise the option is lost.

The following definitions are excerpted from publications of the Winnipeg Commodity
Exchange. For more complete details regarding options on canola futures, contact:
Winnipeg Commodity Exchange Inc. (WCE), Suite 400, 360 Main St., Winnipeg,
Manitoba R3C 3Z4. Phone: (204) 925-5000.
 512

There are two types of options-put and call. Buyers of options are not obligated to take
any action if it is not profitable. The total risk in buying the option is the cost of the
premium.

Put options provide the buyer with the right to sell a futures contract at a specified
price. The buyer may wish to buy a put option if it's felt the market is likely to go down
and protect against a price decline. Others may buy a put option as a low-risk
speculation to take advantage of a market move lower.

Call options give the buyer the right to buy a futures contract at a specific price in a
defined time period. Canola crushers may buy a call option if they think there is a good
chance that the market will move higher and they want to protect themselves against
this upward shift in prices. Others may buy a call as a low-risk speculation to take
advantage of a higher market.

The buyer (holder) controls all option contracts. The buyer decides what to do with the
option as follows:

 Exercise - the buyer can exercise the option to produce a short (put) or
long (call) futures position at the strike price specified in the options
contract. Writers of options receive the premium from the buyer. In
return, they assume the risk of any adverse price movement. (Buyers of
options are reducing risk, while writers of options are accepting risk.) If an
option buyer chooses to exercise his right, the buyer receives a futures
position and a writer must take the opposite futures position at the
designated strike price. Exercising an option places the holder in the
futures market. Exercising an option is a move from a position with limited
risk (the options market) to a position with unlimited risk (the futures
market). Margin calls would now apply. To capture the intrinsic value of
the option, place an offsetting futures order to get out of this new futures
position. If an option still had some time value, it would normally be more
profitable to offset it in the options market and take advantage of the
remaining option premium.
 Offset - the options buyer can sell the option, offsetting the original
purchase. An options buyer may want to offset his position and capture
any value remaining in the premium. This allows the buyer to benefit from
an increase in the option premium without actually moving into the
futures market. (If the premium has shrunk, offsetting can reduce the cost
of owning the option by regaining some of the premium.) In effect, the
trading of options is trading the value of the premium. Therefore, as
futures prices change so will the value of the option's premium. Offsetting
an option allows the buyer to capture that change in value.
 Expiry - the buyer can allow the option to expire. If there is very little time
left before the option expires, and no economic benefit in exercising the
option, the option has little remaining value. In this case, the holder of
the option can simply allow the option to expire.

Trading Options

Option contracts are traded at WCE by open outcry of competitive bids and offers-in the
same manner as futures contracts.
 513

Options on canola futures are offered on the six delivery months of canola futures-
January, March, May, July, September and November. Strike prices are in $10/t
increments. Strike prices are made available in a range above and below the current
futures contract price for each month. As the futures contract price moves up or down
over time, additional strike prices are added as required, but are not removed once they
are made available. For example, if November canola is trading at $322/t, strike prices
for both call and put options might be as listed in Table 13.

Table 13. Examples of Strike Prices

Calls Puts

350 350

340 340

330 330

November Canola Futures at $322

320 320

310 310

300 300

290 290

For each futures contract trading, there are at least seven option strike prices (series)
quoted. Buyers and sellers will call out their bids and offers for each contract. Call
options and put options are completely separate and distinct contracts. If a grower
bought a November canola 320 put option, and later wished to liquidate it, the grower
would sell a November 320 put option.

Option Premiums

An option premium is made up of two components: intrinsic value + time value (also
called extrinsic value).

Intrinsic value is the positive difference between the option's strike price and the
current futures price (a premium cannot have a negative intrinsic value). For a call
option, the strike price must be below the current futures price for the option to have
any intrinsic value. For a put option, the strike price must be above the current futures
price for the option to have any intrinsic value.

Time value (or extrinsic value) is the amount a buyer pays to a writer in return for the
writer assuming the risk of an adverse futures price movement. Everything in the
premium of an option that is over and above the intrinsic value is considered time value.
 514

Time value has several components. It is determined largely by the following factors:

 Time remaining to expiration - options with a long time remaining to

expiration (for example, nine months) will normally be higher priced than
options with a shorter time remaining (for example, six weeks). The more
time remaining on an option, the greater the number of market
unknowns. Therefore, the possibility is greater that the futures price will
move in favour of the options buyer. Additionally, the interest cost of
putting up margin money from the point of view of the option writer is
also reflected in the time value of an option's premium. This time
component of the premium will decline over the life of the option. At
expiration, an option has no time value.
 Volatility of the underlying futures price - volatility is the degree to which
the market price fluctuates. Generally, options on futures with high
volatility have higher premiums than options on futures with lower
volatility. Higher volatility means higher risk to the writer. Since the canola
futures market has a strong seasonal influence, related to the growth
and harvest of the crop, the volatility reflects this seasonality. In the
spring, the number of unknowns over the growing season is large, and,
therefore, the potential volatility is significant. In the winter months,
unknowns still exist but are generally fewer and potential volatility is
lower. When the volatility of the underlying futures contracts is perceived
to be high, option premiums will be higher. When the volatility is low, the
option premium will also be lower.

Option Premiums and Future Prices

Assume it is spring and November canola is trading at $320/t. The options quotes in
Table 14 might be displayed.

Table 14. Option Premiums

Strike Price Puts Calls

290 1.90 31.90

300 3.90 23.90

310 6.60 16.60

320 11.20 11.20

330 17.30 7.30

340 24.50 4.50

350 32.60 2.60

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Table 14 shows theoretical option premiums for 14 separate option contracts (seven
puts and seven calls). Call premiums are higher for those options with strike prices
below the futures price because the buyer is purchasing the opportunity to buy futures at
a lower price than the current market (the option has intrinsic value). Put premiums are
higher for those options with strike prices above the current futures price. The buyer is
purchasing the opportunity to sell at a higher price than the current market.

An option is said to be "in-the-money" if exercising it would yield a profitable futures

position. An option is said to be "out of-the-money" if exercising the contract would
yield an unprofitable futures position.

Call options with strike prices lower than the current futures price are in-the-money. Put
options with strike prices higher than the current futures prices are also in-the-money.

Call options with strike prices above the current futures price are out-of-the-money, and
put options with strike prices below the current futures are also out-of-the-money. (An
option is out-of-the-money if exercising it would yield an unprofitable futures position.)

The term "at-the-money" refers to those options with strike prices equal or very close to
the current futures price.

Using Options on Canola Futures

When using futures contracts or option contracts as pricing vehicles, the delivery time
frame or purchase of the product normally determines which futures month is chosen. A
grower looking to price a currently seeded canola crop in the spring for fall delivery,
would likely use the November futures or options contract. An exporter who sold canola
in March to a Japanese buyer for delivery in the first week of May would likely use
May canola futures as the pricing contract because it is the closest futures month.

Once the month is selected, if options will be used an appropriate strike price must be
chosen. Since options can be viewed as a form of price insurance, the relevant question
is how much insurance does the buyer want to purchase?

Assume that November canola futures are trading at $330/t and a canola grower is
evaluating the three put options in Table 15.

Table 15. Put Options: Strike Price - Put Premium = Minimum Selling Price

Strike Price ($) Put Minimum Minimum Selling Price

320 Out-of-the-money 7.00 313.00

330 At-the-money 11.50 318.50

340 In-the-money 17.00 323.00

 516

An out-of-the-money put option has relatively low premiums, but locks in a selling
price below current market levels. However, if prices move higher, the net profit may be
higher than if an at-the-money option had been bought because the cost of the option is
lower. An in-the-money option will cost significantly more than an out-of-the-money
option, but it locks in a higher overall price if the market price falls. Which strike price
to choose depends on the market outlook, the current price level relative to historical
price levels, and the individual's assessment of what will serve his needs.

Option Strategies for Canola Growers

Buying put options to establish a minimum selling price (hedge)

Assume it is spring and seeding canola is just finished. November canola futures are
quoted at $326/t and normal basis level at harvest time is about $24/t under the
November futures contract. This futures price represents a potential cash price of $302/t.

If a good canola crop develops in Canada, prices will likely decline by harvest. On the
other hand, if weather conditions are dry and the market outlook uncertain, higher prices
will probably develop. Buying a put option can lock in a floor price and still allow the
grower to benefit from higher prices in the cash market (if the crop is not already sold).
If purchasing 10 November canola 330 put option contracts at $14/mt, the grower
would establish a minimum selling price on 200 tonnes of the canola crop as shown in
Table 16.

Table 16. Selling Price

Strike price $330

Option premium -$14

Expected basis -$24

Cash price (Floor price) $292

If by early September prices have fallen to $294/t for November canola futures, the
November canola 330 puts would be worth $37/t ($330 - $294 = $36 intrinsic value,
plus $1.00 time value) in this example. At the same time, the cash price would be $270/t
($294 - $24 = $270), assuming the basis was indeed $24/t. The plan may be to sell the
cash canola and offset the option position to arrive at the results in Table 17. on the
portion of the crop "protected" by options.

Table 17. Offset Option Position

Nov. Canola
Cash Market Options Market Basis Action
Futures Price

Buy Nov. 330 puts at $14

Spring $326 $24 Bought put
premium
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Table 17. Offset Option Position

Nov. Canola
Cash Market Options Market Basis Action
Futures Price

Sept. Sell Sell Nov. 330 puts at $37 Sold cash and
$294 $24
Cash at $270 premium gain = $23/t sold puts

Net selling price = $270 cash futures

less $14 premium
plus $37 profit on sold options
= $293/t

Note: transaction/brokerage fees not included in this example

(Note: This price is $1/t above the targeted minimum selling price because the options
were sold with $1/t of time value remaining in the premium.)

If November futures had risen to $368/t by harvest, the net selling price is shown in
Table 18.

Table 18. Net Selling Price

Nov. Canola
Cash Market Options Market Basis Action
Futures Price

Buy Nov. 330 puts at

Spring $326 $24 Bought put
$14 premium

Sept. Sell Cash Sell Nov. 330 puts left Sold cash and
$368 $24
at $344 to expire puts expire

Net selling price = $368 futures

less $24 basis (or $344 cash price)
less $14 premium
= $330/t

Note: transaction/brokerage fees not included in this example.

Another benefit of using put options to hedge a growing crop is the risk reduction. If the
crop is reduced by adverse growing conditions, the grower will not be forced to "buy
back" the hedge (potentially at a loss) as would be required with other marketing
alternatives. The option would simply be allowed to expire with no remaining value.

Buying call options as an alternative to storing the crop, or to replace lost crop
potential during the growing season (speculating).
 518

Rather than speculate on rising prices with stored canola, a grower may choose to sell
cash canola and buy call options. As the price of the futures contract increases, the
premium of the call option should also increase (especially if the option has intrinsic
value-when it is in-the-money). Since the grower is no longer holding the physical
canola, the grower may choose to buy a call option with the objective of taking
advantage of an increase in the premium.

For example, if an at-the-money 310 call is purchased (futures are also around 310) for
$10/t, and the futures price increases to $350/t, the call option premium should increase
to, $45/t ($40 intrinsic value plus $5 time value). The net profit would be ($45 - $10 =
$35/t)-the difference between the purchase price and the selling price of the option
premium.

Buying call options may offer greater price risk management than a long futures
position because the maximum loss with an option is always limited to the cost of the
original premium paid.

Table 19 is an example of comparing buying futures contracts with buying calls.

Assume it is November, the canola crop has just been sold and the market shows the
following prices.

Table 19. Buying Futures Contract vs. Buying Calls

March Canola Futures at $310.00/t

March canola call options:

Strike + premium = breakeven with futures at:

320 5.50 325.50

310 10.00 320.00

300 15.00 315.50

Note: transaction/brokerage fees not included in this example.

The choice of strike price will depend on premium values and market outlook. Assume
you choose to buy an at-the-money 310 call for $10. Table 20 compares the potential of
this options position to a long futures position, given various market prices that might
exist by February.

Table 20. Potential of Options Position vs. Long Future Position

March Futures in February Bought 310 Calls Bought Futures

350 $30 $40

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Table 20. Potential of Options Position vs. Long Future Position

March Futures in February Bought 310 Calls Bought Futures

340 $20 $30

330 $10 $20

320 0 $10

310 ($10) 0

300 ($10) ($10)

290 ($10) ($20)

280 ($10) ($30)

Note: transaction/brokerage fees not included in this example.

The call option allows a profit from increases in the premium's value if the futures
market rallies. It also limits loss to the $10/t original premium paid if the futures market
declines. If a futures contract was purchased at $310/t, this would also be profitable if
the futures market rallies. However, the loss would be unlimited if the futures price
declined. Initial margin money must also be deposited to hold a futures position, and
margin calls must be met as the market moves against the position held.

The same approach of buying call options to replace sold inventory can be applied to a
growing crop. If the western Canadian canola crop is deteriorating due to poor growing
conditions, a grower can buy call options to replace his/her lost crop potential.
Deteriorating crop conditions will usually lead to rising market prices, and buying the
call options allows the grower to participate in the rising market.

Delivery Options

Elevator and Crushing Companies

A variety of contracts are available to canola growers through either grain handling
companies or canola crushers. Before entering into a contract, read the contract to
understand its terms and obligations. The terms of the contract will vary by type of
contract and company offering the contract.

Production Contract

A production contract is an agreement that the grower will deliver canola produced on a
specific number of acres to the contracting company. Production contracts are most
often offered by crushing companies. Some elevator companies may offer production
contracts, particularly for specialty trait canola.
 520

Signing the contract commits the grower to delivering the production from a given
acreage, and the company to accept the crop. No agreement is made to the total volume
to be delivered or the price. The volume is committed after the crop has been harvested.
Prices can be established at any time using one of the following options:

 at time of delivery
 deferred delivery contract
 deferred pricing contract

It is important to carefully read the production contract. Some companies specify grades
to be delivered with other grades being accepted only at the company's option. The
contracts may also specify quantities. Understand what is being signed. Some
companies have a charge for releasing a grower from a signed production contract.
Check the costs and conditions associated with obtaining a release from a contract.

Deferred Delivery Contract

This type of contract is in effect a hedge, a perfect one at that, because it allows the
grower to lock in both a price and the basis. It is a contract where price is agreed to now
for a specific delivery period at some time in the future. The advantage to this hedge is
it does not require margin to be put up and it does not require the grower to maintain the
maintenance margin when the market goes against him/her. On the other hand, it limits
the choice of company to which the crop can be hauled. The quality of canola, which
can be delivered under the contract, is specified in the contract and the buy-out costs
may be significant

Basis Contract

This contract is much less common than the deferred delivery contract and may not be
offered at all times. The contract is mutually negotiated between the grower and the
company. An agreed basis level is established at the time the contract is signed. The
grower can price canola anytime within a specified period. The delivery price is then
calculated using the specified futures month price minus the agreed basis.

Using this procedure, though, the grower is still a speculator because prices may rise or
fall during the period between the signing of the contract and actual delivery. However,
the basis risk has been eliminated in the interim. The grower can lock in the price either
with the company or by taking a futures position.

Deferred Pricing Contract

The grower can deliver canola to either a crusher or elevator or put the canola into
storage and price it at a later date. Canola crushers use grain receipts, while elevator
companies use storage tickets, as the contractual arrangement indicating the quantity of
unpriced canola the grower has in store. The grower has 90 days from the time of
delivery to price the canola. The grower can benefit from any price increase or basis
narrowing, but also can lose from a price decline or basis widening. If the grower does
not price canola within 90 days, the company automatically does it for the grower, and
the grower must accept the market price on the 91st day.
 521

The advantage to deferred pricing is that it lets the grower deliver canola when it is
convenient or when space is available, without requiring that the grower accept the
current market price. The grade, weight, dockage and moisture content of the canola is
settled at time of delivery.

Many growers tend to leave pricing canola until near the end of the 90-day period. If
many growers price in the same time frame, it can cause a temporary price decline, such
as is traditionally the case around harvest. It has been observed that prices tend to trend
downward about 90 days after harvest deliveries.

Grain Pricing Order or Target Price Contract

Some companies allow the grower to place an order with an agent for a specified price.
If the market reaches that price, the quantity of canola committed is priced. This option
is available for either canola in-store in the elevator or canola still on the farm. In the
case of in-store canola, if the target price is not reached within 90 days the canola is
automatically priced on the 91st day. For canola held on the farm, the grower can have
an open pricing order. This means there is no time limit on the contract. When the target
price is reached, the canola is delivered.

The disadvantage of this type of contract is that it can isolate the grower from the
marketing decision. If the grower decides, once a target price is set, to no longer follow
the market, the following may occur:

 The grower might miss a peak in the market where the price nears the
target but then falls.
 The canola might be priced early in an up-trending market.
 The canola might not be priced because of a downtrending market.

The advantage, of course, is the grower can put the pricing order into effect at busy
times of the year when it is difficult to follow price moves.

Summary

The Elevator System

Grain handling companies and crushing companies offer similar services to canola
growers. The major difference is in the delivery of those services. Grain handling
companies have an established network through their elevators, and consequently are in
close proximity to growers. When marketing to the local elevator growers are dealing
with a familiar person who, together with the company, will look after all the details
associated with the handling, shipping and sale of the grower's canola. Generally grain
handling companies offer:

 deferred delivery contracts

 basis contracts
 deferred pricing contracts
 pricing at time of delivery
 target price contracts/grain pricing orders
 522

However, it is important to note that prices offered by grain companies in similar

regions can vary significantly depending on their needs. Variability can be as much as
$40/mt so it is important to shop around.

Crushing Companies

Crushing plants, in most cases, do not have as extensive a network in the country as do
grain companies. However, this need not make marketing to a crusher any more
difficult than to an elevator company. All crushers have a telephone system allowing
pre-pricing to be done over the telephone. Telephone calls between the grower and
company representative are recorded and serve as binding agreements between the two
parties. All crushers offer a trucking allowance toward trucking costs, and in most cases
will arrange transportation from the farm gate to the plant. Generally, crushing
companies offer:

 production contracts
 deferred delivery contracts
 deferred pricing contracts
 pricing at time of delivery
 basis contracts

Canola crushing plants require a constant supply of canola to keep their manufacturing
process running efficiently. If sufficient canola cannot be sourced directly from
growers, crushing companies will purchase the required quantities from elevator
companies.

Since every company is different, be sure to check the various contracts available and
their terms.

Producer Cars

Using a producer railway car for delivering canola lets the grower deliver to a
confirmed export sale. A producer car is a railway car shipped by the producer (grower)
of canola or other grains. Canola loaded through a producer car differs from elevator
handled canola in two ways. No elevation is charged against it and consequently there is
a narrower basis for canola marketed in this way. Secondly, grade and dockage is
assessed by an inspector of the Canadian Grain Commission at the port upon unload. If
a grower decides to ship a producer car, an application form must be completed and
submitted along with a $20 fee to the Canadian Grain Commission.

For additional information contact:

Producer Car Officer

Canadian Grain Commission
303 Main Street
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3C 3G8
Phone (204) 983-3368

Marketing Glossary
Actuals
 523

the physical commodities.

Arbitrage

simultaneous purchase and sale of the same quantity of the same

commodity in two different markets, either in the same country or in
different countries. Used to take advantage of what is believed to be a
temporary disparity in prices.

Asked

the price at which sellers will trade. This is usually accompanied by a bid-
the price which buyers are willing to pay. The bid price is often a better
indication of the true market level.

At-the-money option

call and put options are at-themoney when the price of the underlying
futures is the same as the strike price.

Basis

the difference between the quoted street or cash price of a particular

commodity and a specified futures contract price for the same
commodity.

Basis contract

a contract where the basis but not the actual price is established at time
of delivery. When the grower decides to sell grain, the price is
established by subtracting the agreed-upon basis from the hedge
month.

Basis risk

the risk associated with unexpected changes in the basis between the
time a hedge is placed and the time it is lifted.

Bear market

one where large supplies and/or poor demand cause a decline in price.

Bid

an offer to purchase a commodity at a specified price.

Board lot

at WCE 100 tonnes (equalling five units of trade or five futures contract).

Break
 524

a sharp price movement. A market may break upward or downward.

The term is reserved by some for price declines.

Break-even point

the future price (or prices) at which a particular strategy neither makes
nor loses money. A dynamic break-even point is one that changes as
time passes.

Bulge

a large price rise.

Bulls

those who believe that prices will rise in the future.

Bull market

one where small supplies and/or strong demand cause prices to rise.

Bull move

the term used by some chartists to indicate where daily highs, lows, and
closes are higher than previous indications.

Buy a contract

when a contract is purchased on a futures market, the buyer is obligated

to accept delivery of the amount of canola specified in the contract
during the designated delivery month for which the contract was
purchased. In hedging, a grower would buy a contract to "close out"
his/her position in the market. That is, a contract would be purchased to
offset the previous sale of a contract and remove any obligation the
grower has to the futures market.

Buy on close

an order to buy within the closing price range at the end of a day's
trading session.

Buy on opening

an order to buy within the opening price range at the beginning of a

day's trading session.

C and F

cost and freight paid to destination.

Call option
 525

a contract that gives the call option purchaser the right, but not the
obligation, to buy a futures contract at a specific price during a specific
time period. The call option seller is obligated to sell futures to the call
option purchaser if the call option purchaser exercises the option.

Carrying charges

the combined costs of interest, storage and insurance incurred in the

storage of grain.

Carrying charge market

a futures market in which the nearby months are selling at a discount

under the distant months.

Carryover stocks

the stocks of grain in all positions at the end of the crop year.

Cash

the actual physical product or commodity as distinguished from futures.

Also known as "cash commodity," "spot commodity" or "actuals."

Cash price

the price paid for immediate delivery at a port location.

Charting

the construction and use of charts or graphs in the technical analysis of

futures markets. Price movements, average price movements, volume
and open interest are usually graphed.

CIF

costs, insurance and freight to port of destination, paid or included in

price.

Class

all put and call options contracts on the same underlying future.

Clearinghouse

a separate agency or corporation working in conjunction with the

commodity exchange to match up buy and sell orders and through
which futures contracts are offset or fulfilled. The clearinghouse also
ensures that financial settlement is made through its facilities.

Closing price
 526

the price at the end of the futures trading session.

Commission house

a company that buys and sells actual commodities or futures contracts

for the accounts of customers.

Confirmation

a document sent by the brokerage firm to its client when a futures

transaction is conducted-either a purchase or a sale. It generally shows
the date of the trade, delivery month, price and quantity.

Covered option

the seller of the option owns the underlying commodity itself or has a
futures position.

Deferred delivery contract

a contract in which the grain is priced on the basis of the prevailing

market in advance of the actual delivery of the grain.

Deferred futures

the futures, relative to those currently traded, that expire during the most
distant months (also see Nearbys).

Deferred pricing contract

delivery of canola to an elevator or crushing plant and deferral of the

settlement price and payment until some later date.

Delivery month

the calendar month in which a futures contract matures and contract

settlement is required.

Delivery points

those points designated by futures exchanges at which commodities

may be delivered to satisfy a futures contract.

Discount

indicating one price is below another price.

Early exercise (assignment)

the exercise or assignment of an option contract before its expiration

date.
 527

Exercise price

same as the strike price for listed options.

Expiration

the time at which an option no longer entitles its owner to purchase or

sell a specific futures contract.

Expiry date or expiry day

the day when the owner of the option loses the right to exercise the
option.

Extrinsic value

same as time value.

Fill

to execute an order.

FOB

Free On Board, a sales expression which places the obligation of

arranging the freight on the buyer of the goods.

Forward contract

an agreement between seller and buyer where the seller agrees to

deliver a specific quantity and quality of commodity to the buyer at a
specific time and location. When the seller delivers, he/she will receive a
previously agreed upon price.

Forward price

an agreement between a buyer and seller that establishes price prior to

delivery.

Forward selling

forward contracting in which the price is fixed at the time the contract is
entered.

Full carrying charge

in a futures transaction, the cost (storage, interest, etc.) of taking actual

delivery in a given month, storing the commodity and redelivering
against the next delivery month.

Fundamentals
 528

those factors which affect the price of a commodity such as supply and
demand, weather, political actions, etc.

Futures

a term used to designate the standardized contracts covering the

purchase and sale of commodities for future delivery on a commodity
exchange.

Futures contract

a term used to designate the standardized contracts covering the

purchase and sale of commodities for future delivery on a commodity
exchange. Also known as "futures."

Futures price

an indicator of the approximate value of canola in a port position at

some time in the future.

Hedging

a transaction to minimize the risk of loss due to adverse price

fluctuations. Hedging involves the temporary substitution of a future
market transaction for a cash transaction. This is accomplished by
holding equal and opposite positions in the cash and futures markets.

In-the-money option

a call option is in-the-money when the price of the underlying futures

contract is above the strike price. A put option is in-the-money when the
price of the underlying futures contract is below the strike price.

Intrinsic value

the value of an option if it were to expire immediately with the

underlying future at its current price; the amount by which an option is in-
the-money.

Inverse market

a futures market in which nearby months are selling at a premium over

distant months. These price relationships are characteristic of situations in
which supplies are currently in shortage. Normally, because of carrying
charges (storage and interest), the highest prices are quoted for distant
months.

Job lot

at WCE - 20 t or one contract.

 529

Leverage

(1) The ability to control a large amount of money with a small amount of
funds. (2) In investments, it's the attainment of greater percentage profit
and risk potential. A call holder has leverage with respect to a futures
holder-the former can have greater percentage profits and losses than
the latter for the same movements in the underlying future.

Life of contract

the entire time a contract is available for trade.

Limit move

a limit move is the maximum price movement allowed under the

predetermined regulations of the WCE (canola currently $30/t).

Long

one whose net position shows an excess of open purchases and/or

inventories over sales (opposite to short).
Example: holding more cash canola than the amount sold in futures
contracts, or no futures contracts have been sold, is considered to be
long in cash canola.

Margin

a deposit made by a buyer or seller of a commodity futures contract to

cover potential losses of a futures position for the next trade day.

Margin call

a request to either deposit the original margin at the time of the

transaction or restore the guarantee to a required minimum level.

Market risk

the possibility of price decline for the owner of a commodity and the
possibility of price increase for a person who is required to purchase the
commodity.

Nearbys

the nearest active trading month of a futures market.

Net position

the difference between the long contracts or physical stocks owned and
the short contracts or physical stocks sold.

Offer
 530

indicates willingness to sell at a given price; opposite of bid.

Offset

the liquidation of a long or short futures (or option) position by an equal

and opposite futures (or option) transaction.

Opening price

the first official traded price for a specific trading day.

Opening range

at WCE the difference between the prices discovered from the first trade
of the day for a period of two minutes after.

Option

a right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell a designated futures

contract at a specific price during the life of the option.

Option writer or grantor

a person who sells an option contract, receives the premium and bears
the obligation to buy or sell the asset at the strike price.

Out-of-the-money option

a call option is out-of-themoney when the strike price is above the

current price of the underlying futures contract. A put option is out-of-
themoney when the strike price is below the current price of the
underlying futures contract.

Overbought

a market situation in which prices are believed to have increased too far
at too fast a pace.

Oversold

a market situation in which prices are believed to have declined too far
at too fast a pace.

Overvalued

a future trading at a higher price than it logically should. It is normally

associated with the results of option price predictions by mathematical
models. If an option is trading in the market for a higher price than the
market indicates, the option is said to be overvalued.

Position
 531

one takes a position in the futures market through the sale or purchase of
a contract. A position in the market is "closed out" when an equal and
opposite transaction is undertaken (for example, a grower closes out the
hedge by buying a contract for the same delivery month and in the
same quantity as the contract that was previously sold).

Position limit

the maximum number of speculative futures contracts one can hold

open under the rules of the exchange on which the contract is traded
(Currently 500 for canola during delivery month).

Premium

the price an option buyer pays to an option seller for the right to buy or
sell a futures contract at a specific price during the life of the option.

Pre-pricing

a grower establishes a price for canola prior to delivery. A grower can

accomplish this by hedging or by signing a deferred delivery contract.

Producer car contract for canola

this is a contract between a grower shipping canola by a producer car

and the grain company purchasing the canola for an export sale. The
contract identifies the number of cars to be shipped, the delivery period,
price basis, shipping point and terminal elevator for delivery. It identifies
the regulations which apply to shipping the car and payment for the
canola. The contract also serves as notice to the Canadian Grain
Commission to allocate the producer car(s).

Production contract

a contract established prior to harvest in which a grower agrees to

provide a specified crop from an agreed-upon acreage to a buyer and
the buyer agrees to accept delivery. Price for the crop is established at a
later date.

Put option

a contract that gives a put option buyer the right, but not the obligation,
to sell a futures contract at a specific price during a specified time
period. The put option writer is obligated to buy futures from the put
option buyer if the put option buyer exercises his/her option.

Quotations
 532

the prices of futures, options or cash contracts for any given commodity
or time. They are usually posted in daily newspapers, on TV or on
computer networks.

Rally

an upward movement of prices following a decline; opposite of a

reaction.

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest prices recorded during a
trading session, opening period, week, month, life of contract, or any
given period.

Resistance

a price zone above the current price level that has proven difficult for
the market to penetrate (also see support).

Sell a contract

when a contract is sold on a futures market, the seller is obligated to

deliver the amount of canola specified in the contract during the
delivery month for which the contract was sold. In hedging, a grower
would initially sell a contract or contracts for the amount of canola to be
hedged.

Settlement price

the price per tonne for an option or futures contract established for the
purpose of determining margins and limits on price movements for the
next trading session.

Short

one whose net position shows an excess of open sales over open
purchases and/or inventory (opposite to long) (for example, a grower
selling more futures contracts than he/she has cash canola has taken a
short position.

Speculator

anyone who is willing to invest money and assume the risk of a price
change in the hope of accurately predicting the direction prices will
move, and profit from the price move.

Spread or straddle
 533

the purchase of one futures delivery month against the sale of another
futures delivery month of the same commodity; the purchase of one
delivery month of one commodity against the sale of the same delivery
month of a different commodity; or the purchase of one commodity in
one market against the sale of that commodity in a different market.

The purpose of a spread transaction is to take advantage of distortions in

normal price relationships. There are several different types.

Strike price

the price at which an option contract may be exercised.

Stocks:use ratio

the carryover stocks divided by the annual usage or consumption. The

ratio is a measure of the relative tightness of the supply/demand
balance. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

Storage ticket

a receipt given to a grower by an elevator company, which specifies

the grade, weight, dockage and moisture content at the time of
delivery but does not establish the price of the canola. When the grower
is ready to sell, he/she agrees to the price offered at the time of sale and
the graded storage ticket is exchanged for a cash ticket.

Street price

the price received locally.

Support

a price zone below the current price level which has proven difficult for
the market to penetrate (also see resistance).

Technical analysis

the prediction of future price levels based on the study of previous price
and market behaviour.

Thin market

a low volume market in which a large trade unduly affects the market
price.

Tick

the price unit in which futures price movements (bid or asked) are
expressed ($0.10/t for canola at WCE).
 534

Time value

the amount by which an option's total premium exceeds its intrinsic

value. If an option has no intrinsic value, its premium is entirely time value.

Underlying futures contract

the futures contract that may be purchased or sold upon the exercise of
the option.

Volatility

a measure of the amount by which the underlying futures is expected to

fluctuate in a given period of time.

Window

a marketing alternative that establishes both price floor and price

ceiling. A short position would create a window by purchasing a put and
selling a call. A long position would create a window by purchasing a
call and selling a put.

Writing

the sale of an option in an opening transaction.

Acknowledgemenets
I would like to express my sincere appreciation and respect to all the many talented
people who contributed their time and expertise to the 2003 Edition of the Canola
Growers Manual.

The list of contributors includes federal, provincial, university and private scientists and
agrologists. The new manual represents a substantial advancement in canola agronomic
knowledge compared to the first edition published in 1985. For canola growers, the
2003 Edition is a state-of-the-art manual for canola production in Canada.

I would like to give special recognition to Murray Hartman, the Provincial Oilseed
Specialist with Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development at Lacombe, AB.
Murray's considerable investment of time and effort in the masterful revision and
writing of the "Soil Fertility and Canola Nutrition," "Crop Rotations and Seedbed
Preparation" and "Crop Establishment" are deeply appreciated. Further, I would like to
thank Dr. John Mills of Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Winnipeg, MB for his
excellent contribution to the "Canola Storage" chapter.

Scientists knowledgeable with the subject matter reviewed each chapter of the manual.
Their help, co-operation and comments are gratefully acknowledged, with special
appreciation to:
 535

 Dr. Sangamesh Angadi - Research Scientist - SPARC/AAFC, Swift Current,

SK
 Stu Brandt - Agronomy Scientist - AAFC, Scott, SK
 Gregg Dill - Irrigation Specialist - AAFRD, Lethbridge, AB
 Dr. Lloyd Dosdall - Entomologist - AAFRD/University of Alberta, Edmonton,
AB
 Dr. Keith Downey - Scientist Emeritus - AAFC, Saskatoon, SK
 Dr. Don Flaten - Soil Fertility Scientist - University of Manitoba, Winnipeg,
MB
 Dr. Cynthia Grant - Soil Fertility Research Scientist - AAFC, Brandon, MB
 Murray Green - Agricultural Engineer - AAFRD, Airdrie, AB
 Dr. Neil Harker - Weed Scientist - AAFC, Lacombe, AB
 Dr. Adrian Johnson - Western Canada Director, Potash and Phosphate
Institute of Canada, Saskatoon
 Jerome Lickacz - Agronomist - AAFRD, Edmonton
 Mark Olson - Extension Agronomist - AAFRD, Edmonton
 Lyndon Peters - Senior Economist - Winnipeg Commodity Exchange Inc.,
Winnipeg
 Dr. Kelly Turkington - Plant Pathologist - AAFC, Lacombe
 Dr. Noel White - Cereal Research Centre, AAFC, Winnipeg

I would also like to acknowledge the efforts by Canola Council of Canada staff in
reviewing content, wordsmithing, proofing, layout and production of the manual. They
helped give the manual its "polish" and professional appearance.

Finally it is my hope that this information will help contribute to the continued success
of the canola industry in Canada.

Phil Thomas BSc, MSc, PAg

Oilseed Crop Production Consultant

Box 2269
Lacombe, Alberta Canada
T0C 1S0
Phone: 403-885-4377
E-mail: pthomas@rttinc.com

DISCLAIMER: While every effort has been made to ensure that the information in this
publication is correct at the time of publication, neither the Canola Council of Canada,
its agents or employees, nor the authors of the publication, assume any responsibility or
liability whatsoever for any loss including but not restricted to, financial loss or
damage suffered as a result of the publication or use of these materials, or as a result of
any situation not covered in this publication. It is recommended that professional
services be sought in dealing with specific problems.

Material disponível em: http://www.canola-council.org/canola_growers_manual.aspx,

acessado em 14/03/2008 às 11:00 h.