34 Fundamentals and advances in knitting technology

4
General terms in weft knitting

Abstract: The general terms related to loop formation in weft

knitting have been explained in the chapter. Types of loop, loop
parts and loop notations are shown. The conditions of forming tuck
and float loops are also explained.

Key words: machine gauge, face loop, back loop, course; wale,
stitch density, loop length, stitch notation.

4.1 Machine pitch and gauge

Both these terms are related to the density of needles in each bed of the
machine. Machine pitch (needle pitch) is defined as the distance between
the centres of two neighbouring needles in one needle set measured on the
nominal machine diameter or width. Although both English and Metric
units can be used, generally metric unit, millimetre, is preferably used to
indicate the pitch of any knitting machine. Machine gauge is also defined
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in various units (systems) in various countries. Definition of gauge also

depends on the types of knitting machines. Most popularly, it is defined in
English system as the number of needles per inch. So the relationship
between these two parameters can be expressed as follows:
[Nominal machine circumference (diameter × 3.14)
Pitch in mm = or width × 25.4]
No. of needles in the machine
= (25.4 / Machine gauge in English system)
or Pitch in mm × Machine gauge in English system = 25.4
The selection of yarn (count and type) for knitting mainly depends on
the gauge of the machine.

4.2 Loop
Loop means a shape produced by a curve that bends round and crosses
itself. In knitting it is the basic unit of a knitted structure. It is produced

34
 General terms in weft knitting 35

by bending yarn with the help of some knitting elements, namely needle
and sinker. According to the knitting element, which is forcing the yarn to
bend, loops may be termed as needle loop and sinker loop. Needle loop is
a portion of the whole loop in the fabric formed initially by the needle
hook. It consists of a head and two side limbs or legs (Figure 4.1). The
sinker loop is the piece of yarn which joins one needle loop to the next,
i.e. it is obtained when the legs of two adjoining needle loops are joined
together. As the legs of the needle loop are formed by the support of the
sinker, the joining of the legs is called sinker loop. The base portion of
each leg is called foot. The other name of a loop is stitch.

4.3 Face loop and back (reverse) loop

A loop is called face loop or back (reverse) loop according to the direction
of passing of one loop through another one during inter-looping (Figures
4.2 and 4.3). If the new loop passes from the back to the front of the
previous loop (towards the viewer) made by the same needle during inter-
looping, the loop is called face loop (also known as knit stitch). Face loops
tend to show the side limbs of the needle loops as a series of inter-fitting
‘V’s. When the new loop passes to the back from the front of the previous
loop during inter-looping, the loop is called back loop (also known as purl
stitch). Further the back loops are also known as reverse loops. Whether
face loop or back loop, due to inter-looping or intermeshing each loop has
four intermeshing points – two at the head with the loop above (next) and
two at the base with the loop at the bottom (previous).
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4.1 Loop parts.

 36 Fundamentals and advances in knitting technology

4.2 Face loop.

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4.3 Back loop.

4.4 Single-faced structures and double-faced

structures
Single-faced structures are produced in both warp and weft knitting by
needles operating as a single set. All the needles in the bed/bar face the
same direction and draw the new loops downward through the old loops
in the same direction, so that the intermeshing points at the head are
identical with the intermeshing points at the base. As a result there will be
all face loops on one side or surface of the fabric and the other side will
have all back or reverse loops. The front (flat bed) or outer side (circular
bed) of the fabric with all face loops which face the knitter is called
‘technical face’ of the fabric, and the back (flat bed) or inner side (circular
bed) of the fabric with all back loops is called ‘technical back’ of the
fabric.
Double-faced structures are produced in both warp and weft knitting
when two sets of independently controlled needles are employed for loop
 General terms in weft knitting 37

formation. The hooks of the two sets of needles in two beds/bars face in
opposite direction and thus draw their new loops from the same yarn in
opposite direction. The fabric formed in the gap between the two sets of
needles will have face loops made by one set of needles on one side and
the face loops made by other set of needles on the opposite side. The
reverse sides of the face loops made by two sets of needles generally remain
hidden or become partly visible on both the surfaces. A double-faced
structure which has an identical number of each type of stitch produced
on each needle bed and therefore showing on each fabric surface usually
in the same sequence is called a balanced structure.

4.5 Single jersey and double jersey fabrics

The weft knitted fabrics made with one set of needles arranged in the
tricks (grooves) on one needle bed are called single jersey fabrics or plain
knitted fabrics; whereas the knitted fabrics produced with two sets of
needles arranged in the tricks of two different beds are called double jersey
fabric. These two types of fabrics differ widely in their structure as well
as their properties as detailed in the next chapter.

4.6 Courses, wales and stitch density

A course is a horizontal row of loops produced by all the adjacent needles
during the same knitting cycle. It is equivalent to a pick or weft yarn in a
woven fabric. It is expressed as courses per inch (c.p.i.) or courses per
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centimetre (c.p.cm.). Fabric is produced by making courses in consecutive

order. Number of loops in a course is equal to the number of needles in
operation.
A wale is a vertical column of loops made by the same needle in
successive knitting cycles. It is equivalent to warp end in a woven fabric.
It is expressed as wales per inch (w.p.i.) or wales per centimetre (w.p.cm.).
The total number of wales in a fabric is obtained from the total number of
needles in operation. The direction of course and wale in weft knitted
fabric is shown in Fig. 4.4.
Stitch density is the total number of loops in a unit area such as a square
inch or a square centimeter. It is obtained by multiplying the number of
courses and wales per inch or centimetre together.
Courses per inch, wales per inch and stitch density are the most important
parameters of a knitted fabric and are set before and calculated later very
accurately for determining the quality of the knitted fabric.
 38 Fundamentals and advances in knitting technology

Course

Wale
4.4 Course and Wale in knitted structure.

4.7 Loop length and course length

Length of yarn contained in a loop is called loop length or stitch length.
Course length is length of yarn required in the production of a course.
Course length is obtained by multiplying the stitch length with the number
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of needles involved in the production of the course. It can be measured

at a yarn feed during knitting or by unroving the yarn from the knitted
fabric.

4.8 Different situations in loop formation

As discussed in the previous chapter, normal loops are produced as a result
of clearing, catching, casting-off and knocking-over. Moreover, the loop
produced may be face loop or back loop. The normal loops – face or back
– ultimately produce four basic weft knitted structures (plain, rib, interlock
and purl). However to get diversity of structures, some modification is to
be done in the loop forming cycle. The modification is done based on the
possibility of clearing of old loop and catching of new yarn. The different
possibilities of loop formation are shown in Table 4.1.
These possibilities indicate that in addition to formation of normal loops,
loops such as drop stitch, tuck stitch and float stitch can be formed for
design diversification. Moreover during formation of tuck and float loops,
another new type of loop called held loop comes into reality.
 General terms in weft knitting 39

Table 4.1 Different possibilities of loop formation

S. No. Clearing Catching Situation / Remark

1. Yes Yes Normal loop formation
2. Yes No No knitting, fabric falls down
3. No Yes Tucking or tuck loop formation
4. No No Floating or float/miss loop formation

4.9 Stitch notation

The weft knitted structural units can be represented using the following
methods:
(a) Line diagram
(b) Symbolic notation on graph paper
(c) Schematic or diagrammatic notation

Line diagram representation is easily understood by the beginner but it

is comparatively difficult to produce particularly for complex designs.
Generally, symbolic notation on graph paper is widely used for the
representation of knitted structures. Any type of loop or knitted structure
can be represented on graph paper with the help of some symbol. There
are a large number of horizontal and vertical lines at equal distance which
divide the paper into a large number of squares. Each square is used to
represent one loop. The horizontal rows are used as courses whereas the
vertical columns are used to indicate the wales in the knitted structure.
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The presence or absence of some particular symbol in a square indicates

the various types of loops or stitches (Fig. 4.5(a)).

(a) A cross mark (x) inside a square represents face loop.

(b) A blank circle (o) inside a square represents back loop.
(c) A dot (·) inside a square represents tuck loop.
(d) A blank square represents float or miss loop.
In addition to graphical representation, the knitted structure can be
shown with the help of schematic diagram on point paper. The schematic
diagram in Fig. 4.5(b) describes the movement of the yarn across the cross-
section of the needle (point) during loop formation. The techniques of
representation of knitted loops as shown in Fig. 4.5 are internationally
accepted and widely used in different countries. However the symbols
used in German system (DIN 62050) [1] of graphical representation knitted
loops are different and are shown in Fig. 4.6.
 40 Fundamentals and advances in knitting technology

4.5 Graphical loop notation.

4.6 German notation of loop.

4.10 Held loop

When an old loop is not released in due time but retained in the hook
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for two or more knitting cycles, then the old loop is called held loop. A
held loop can only be retained by a needle for a limited number of knitting
cycles before it is cast-off and a new loop is drawn through, otherwise the
tension on the loop arms becomes excessive and yarn may break.

4.11 Tucking and tuck loop

If during rising, needle reaches to such a height that the old loop is not
cleared but needle hook can catch new yarn during downward movement,
then the old loop is not cast-off but retained in the hook as well as a new
loop is formed. This situation is called tucking and the new loop is called
tuck loop. The tuck loop is not intermeshed with the old (held) loop
(Figure 4.7). The tuck loop along with the held loop may cast-off after
one or more (generally up to 4) knitting cycles.
Since tuck loop tends to be wider than equivalent plain loop, it can be
used to increase the width of the fabric but during tucking the held loop is
stretched as a result when the same is cast-off and allowed to relax; it
shrinks more causing more shrinkage of the fabric in the length direction.
 General terms in weft knitting 41

4.7 Tuck loop formation.

It makes the fabric more compact and offers better dimensional stability
and shape retention. Sometimes it also improves the bulk of the fabric
(cardigan is an example), i.e. thickness of the fabric increases. Tuck stitch
structure is generally less extensible and porous in nature. The tuck stitch
can also be used for one or more of the followings:
● Patterning and fancy effects by using coloured yarns
● Making heavier fabric
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● Introducing special type of yarn (inflexible, thick, etc.)

● Reducing laddering tendency in single knit structures
● Marking the panels of garments for size or the cutting lines of
armhole, neck, etc.

4.12 Floating and float Loop (or missing and

miss loop)
If during rising, needle reaches to such a height that neither the old loop
is cleared nor the needle hook can catch new yarn during downward
movement, then the old loop is not cast-off but retained in the hook as
well as no new loop is formed. This situation is called floating. The yarn
passes under the needle and remains straight between the neighbouring
loops. The straight yarn connecting two nearest loops knitted from is called
float or miss loop (Figure 4.8). The missed yarn floats freely on the reverse
side of the held loop which is the technical back of the single jersey
structures but is the middle of the rib and interlock structures. The held
loop is extended in wale direction until a knitted loop is formed. Structures
 42 Fundamentals and advances in knitting technology

4.8 Float loop formation.

incorporating float stitches tend to exhibit faint horizontal lines, they are
narrower because the wales are drawn closer together. Float stitches also
reduce the width wise elasticity and improves the dimensional stability.
Continuous float for maximum six adjacent needles is generally practiced.
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Float stitch provides a convenient way of hiding coloured yarns at the

back of the fabric when they do not knit at the face. Combination of knitted
and short float produces a fabric that does not ravel from the edge and for
this reason they are used in welts of stockings. Fabrics made with float
stitches are as follows:
● Thinner and lighter than tuck stitched or normally knitted one
● Narrower and less extensible
● Flimsy or less rigid

4.13 Drop or press-off stitch

If a needle releases the old loop but does not catch new yarn during knitting
for loop formation, then knitting does not take place. As a result the needle
becomes empty and looses contact with the fabric. Generally it’s a fault
and fabric falls down. Such a situation is termed as dropping or pressing-
off. Sometimes this technique is used to achieve press-off on all needles
in a set between garment length sequences. A drop stitch or press-off stitch
is used very occasionally in flat bed knitting for design diversification.
 General terms in weft knitting 43

4.14 Timing of knitting in circular double jersey

machine
The relative position of the two beds (say dial and cylinder) in a double
jersey machine is changeable. This can be achieved by rotating the dial in
clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The relative position of the two
beds determines the relative position of the knitting cams in the beds.
According to the relative position of the knitting cams in the two beds, the
adjacent dial and cylinder needles may form loops simultaneously or with
a time gap. This possibility leads to two types of knitting timing – (a)
synchronized timing and (b) delayed timing.
Under synchronized timing, the neighbouring dial and cylinder needles
start forming loops simultaneously and reach the respective knitting points
or loop forming points at the same time. In this situation, yarn is pulled
out from the package simultaneously by both the needles, and knitting
takes place under comparatively lower yarn tension.
When neighbouring dial and cylinder needles reach the respective
knitting points with a time gap, generally the cylinder needle first makes
the loop and reaches the cylinder knitting point and the neighbouring dial
needle does the same job with a time gap or phase difference, the situation
is called delayed timing (the reverse situation, i.e. the advanced timing
generally does not occur mainly on account of mechanical designing of
the machine). The time gap of loop formation by the dial and cylinder
needles is expressed or measured by the number of needles or needle spaces
between the two knitting points (say one needle delay, two needles delay,
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etc.). As the dial needle forms loop later, it finds difficult to pull yarn
from the package and instead it pulls the yarn partly or fully from the
cylinder loop already formed. Knitting tension is higher in this situation.
Synchronized timing results larger loop length than delayed timing. As
amount of delay is adjustable, a wide range of loop length can be produced
under delayed timing and that too at variable knitting tension to suit the
requirement of the end products.

Reference
1. RAZ S (1993), Flat Knitting, Meisenbach GmbH, Bamberg.
 Bibliography

The author has consulted in general and taken help of the following books
for preparing the text and necessary diagrams in addition to the Journals
referred in different chapters to make his dream successful for the greater
interest of the student community in the field of textile technology and
many others who find interest to read this book.
An Introduction to Weft Knitting, J. A. Smirfitt, Merrow Publishing Co. Ltd.,
England
Circular Knitting, C. Iyer, B. Mammel and W. Sehach, Meisenbach Bamberg
Flat Knitting, Samuel Raz, Meisenbach GmbH, Bamberg
Handbook of Technical Textiles, A. R. Horrocks & S. C. Anand, Woodhead
Publishing Limited, Cambridge in association with The Textile Institute,
Abinton
Knitted Fabric Production, Prof. P. K. Banerjee, Department of Textile
Technology, I. I. T., Delhi
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Knitting – Reference Books of Textile Technologies (e-book), Carmine M. &

Paola Z., Fondazione, ACIMIT, Milano, Italy
Knitting : Fundamentals, Machines, Structures and Developments, N.
Anbumani, New Age International Publisher, New Delhi
Knitting Technology, David J. Spenser, Woodhead Publishing Limited,
Cambridge, Pergamon Press
Knitting Technology, Prof. D. B. Ajgaonkar, Universal Publishing Corporation,
Mumbai
Warp Knitting Production, Dr. S. Raz, Verlag Melliand Textilberichte GmbH,
Heidelberg
Warp Knitting Technology, D. F. Palling, Columbine Press (Publishers) Ltd.,
Buxton, U.K., 1970
Wellington Sears Handbook of Industrial Textiles, S. Adanur, Technomic
Publishing Co. Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, USA