Int. Z mech. Scl., Vol. 19, pp 661-671. Pergamon Press 1977.

Printed in Great Britain

FORCES DEVELOPED DURING THE RICOCHET OF

PROJECTILES OF SPHERICAL AND OTHER SHAPES
G. H. DANESHI and W. JOHNSON
University Engineering Department, Cambridge CB2 IPZ, England
(Received 16 June 1977)

Summary--The oblique impact of spherical, dumb-bell shaped and hemispherical-end cylin-

drical projectiles against a modelling clay (Piasticine) has been studied and experimental
displacement-time curves plotted for both ricocheting and penetrating projectiles. It is shown
that the forces of resistance are proportional to the square of the instantaneous velocity. For
ricocheting projectiles at each impact angle 00 investigated, the coefficient of proportionality,
k, was found to be independent of the initial velocity. For penetrating projectiles and for
00 < 30* (test range), k is independent of both 00 and initial speed v0.

NOTATION
A cross-sectional area of projectile
d diameter of projectile
/ instantaneous retardation of projectile
Ix horizontal component of retardation
k,k',k",k x constants
l intersphere distance of a dumb-bell shaped p~,,:
l' length of a hemispherical end projectile
t time
I)0, I), Vx entry, instantaneous and horizontal component ~,' , i, ,'~
X, y longitudinal and vertical position of projectile i. ;,, , ,. ,ran system of coordinates established
at the point of impact
p, pl density of projectile and impacted medium respectively
00 impact angle

INTRODUCTION
The resistance forces generated in a semi-infinite medium by t h e ' f a s t moving oblique
entry of a projectile causes it to follow an unsymmetrical path. Varying axial (drag)
and lateral (lift) forces are developed and the projectile not only decelerates, but also
follows a curved path through the medium. When the angle of a p p r o a c h is small, the
forces of lift m a y b e c o m e so large as to cause the projectile to ricochet and leave the
impacted medium.
The theoretical analysis of the forces of resistance and the motion of the projectile
is complicated and s e e m s not to have been fully treated. The large n u m b e r of
variables involved m a k e s the task of solution exceedingly difficult. The earliest k n o w n
penetration equations are for normal entry and are due to Robins, ~ Euler 2 and
Poncelet 3 and are special cases of a more general relationship of the f o r m of:

dv k"
-f = -d'~= kv2 + k ' v + (1)

where [ and v denote the instantaneous retardation and velocity of the projectile and
k, k' and k" are constants. T h e s e relationships usually ignore the physics of the motion
and are generally empirical. Shiffman and Spencer, 4 Trilling 5 and Pierson 6 have
studied the problem f r o m the h y d r o d y n a m i c s point of view and although their
analyses contain m a n y simplifying assumptions they are still complicated and cannot
be generalized for all practical cases.
The validity of a Poncelet type relationship as e x p r e s s e d in equation (I), has been
examined by Allen, Mayfield and Morrison. 7 Projectiles were fired vertically into sand
and curves of position versus time have been plotted; their results showed the
existence of a critical velocity, in the case of sand at 100 m / s e c a b o v e which the
MS Vol. 19 No. 1I----C 661
662 G . H . DANESHI and W. JOHNSON

e q u a t i o n f = k v 2 s e e m e d to c o r r e l a t e the r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e a n d t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s p e e d
s a t i s f a c t o r i l y . A f a i r l y u p - t o - d a t e a c c o u n t o f t h e s u b j e c t is g i v e n in Ref. 8.
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e f o r c e s on a p r o j e c t i l e r i c o c h e t i n g f r o m w a t e r h a s n o t
r e c e i v e d m u c h a t t e n t i o n . B i r k h o f f et al. 9 a s s u m e d t h e w e t t e d s u r f a c e to lie in f r o n t o f
t h e p r o j e c t i l e a n d b e l o w the w a t e r s u r f a c e a n d a s s u m e d t h e local p r e s s u r e p =
p ( v c o s ~)2/2, w h e r e v d e n o t e s t h e c u r r e n t v e l o c i t y o f t h e p r o j e c t i l e s a n d / 3 the a n g l e
b e t w e e n the n o r m a l to t h e s u r f a c e e l e m e n t a n d t h e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ; t h e y u s e d this
r e l a t i o n s h i p to c a l c u l a t e t h e c r i t i c a l a n g l e o f r i c o c h e t . A d i s c u s s i o n o f the m e c h a n i c s
o f r i c o c h e t h a s also b e e n g i v e n b y R i c h a r d s o n ; 1° see a l s o R e f s . 11-15. L i t t l e e x p e r i -
m e n t a l d a t a a b o u t t h e f o r c e s o f r i c o c h e t s e e m s to h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d t h u s far.
In t h e p r e s e n t w o r k t h e r e s i s t a n c e f o r c e s d e v e l o p e d b y a m o d e l l i n g c l a y ( P l a s t i -
cine) to the o b l i q u e i m p a c t o f r i c o c h e t i n g a n d p e n e t r a t i n g p r o j e c t i l e s is d e t e r m i n e d
and plough development with time and force-velocity relationships are measured and
discussed.

EXPERIMENTAL
Spherical, dumb-bell shaped and hemispherical end cylindrical projectiles were fired into Plasticene (at a
temperature of between 19°C and 21°C) from a specially adapted cartridge gun. The design and the
dimensions of the projectiles are given in Fig. I and in Table ! respectively.
A spirit level angle selector and a pair of breaking wires 5 cm apart for activating an electronic clock,
were used to measure the impact angle and the entry speed. Tests were carried out in a dark room. Six
spark flash condenser units were discharged at pre-determined moments to illuminate the target area and to
help record a photograph on a 35 mm film strip wound around a rotating drum spinning at 5900 rpm. The
drum speed was measured to an accuracy of -+5 rpm in each test. In some cases with the aid of an open
shutter camera all the images were recorded on a single photographic plate.
The timing of each illumination was pre-set by a specially designed control unit and was checked by

Sotld steel sphere

\
\\

"\ i~, -- t - ---F /~-

\ i

L~dmg
' ere~ "\~mimum
sph
tube

l, 1

/
/ Hemispherical
Tt-OSmm /rlVariable mass
-

/ end / tail piece

FIG. ]. Arrangement for a dumb-bell shaped and hemispherical-end cylindrical projectile.

TABLE 1.

Projectile sphere d.s.1 d.s.2 d.s.3 d.s.4 d.s.5 o.s.1 o.s.2 o.s.3
dimensions d-12.7 d-12.7 d-12.7 d-12 •7 a = 1 2 . 7 d=12.7 d=12.7 d=12.7 d=12.7
mm £-12.7 g~25.4 £-38.1 JL,.,50.8 ~.=63.5 .t ' - 3 8 . ~I ~ ' - 6 3 . 5 £'-88.9

mass x i0 a 8.33 16.36 18.92 21.3 23.8 26.25 23.6 23.71 23.73
kg

velocity
range 60-400 50-250 40-240 40-230 40-220 40-210 50-220 50°220 50-220
m/sec
 Forces developed during the ricochet of projectiles of spherical and other shapes 663

using an electronic clock and measuring the distance between the images on the film strip (see Fig. 2). The
timing measurement accuracies are thought to be to better than 5 ~sec. Further details of the equipment and
the experimental procedure are given in Refs. 12 and 13.

RESULTS
The study of the resistance of the impacted medium to the motion of the projectile involved estimating
the projectile position at various time intervals. A typical photograph of the plough development with time
of a 12.7 mm spherical projectile fired at 00 = 50 and v0 = 350 m/see is shown in Fig. 2. Where the projectile
is hidden by the scattered material, the position of the projectile head in the longitudinal direction is
assumed to be d12 mm behind the leading face of the plume. The spacings between the images represent the
time interval between successive flashes, each mm corresponding to 20tzsec.
Curves of the longitudinal position of the centre of gravity of the spherical, d.s.¢ and o.s.$ projectiles
with time, in clay, at 00 = 5* and 00 = 10° are shown in Figs. 3-6. The curves of velocity and retardation
variation with time, of a 12.7 mm dia. sphere, an l = 38.1 mm d.s. and an I' = 38.1 mm o.s. projectile were
determined by differentiating the x(t) and v(t) curves respectively (see Figs. 4-6).

25 I I~+/i 25,
I r I 1 i i ~ 1.71~_
[/
~"- '-"1
x/j -8 --@- " /'
20 - 20
ea

v./ /-~o s
~5 -- . +f-- / -
E
"o
x
x
/;;:! Oo.° /, ~x / - Oo-iO*
IO - //~ Prolec~e Vom. sec-I x IO -- ~ / Projectile V0m.sec-I-
7~ J'e Sphericol 21l /F"/ ~ Spherical 216
V/- I . ~s. 1-25.4 238 ,~'~ , ds. 1=127 mrn 213
/i-----{~ ds. 1-38.1 237 ~1:___ , , 1=;>54 244
;'a," l~' d.s. 1=50.8 217 Jr----- ~ " 1=:38.1 328
/l~. [x d.s.I.-63.5 199 / v " 1-50.3 2ll
- ,I/- f~.o.~ r=381 213 5 - / x " 1=635 2i0 -
/, ----|© o~ r=635 2o-t [ l ~ a~ r= 38 I 213
/~" [ ¢ os 1%889 200
/~ - ~ t'¢ " 1'=635
I~ " r=ee9
216
zoo

I I I ] J I I I I
o 05 i 15 02 04 06 08 I 12 14 16
t XlO3 sec, t XlO3 sec
(a) (b)

FIG. 3. Longitudinal position, x versus time, t for the spherical, d.s. and o.s. projectiles at
00 = 5° and 00 = 10° and at between Vo= 200 and 244 m/sec. Exit is denoted by _e.

Plough development
Experimental results, as shown in Figs. 3-6 reveal three fairly distinct zones in each ploughing
operation.
(i) An entry phase in which the material piles-up in front of the projectile, when retardation rates are
comparatively small and velocity changes small.
The distance which the projectile travels during the entry phase depends on the projectile mass,
geometry, impact angle and initial speed. For example, for a d = 12.7 mm sphere at 00 = 10° the distance
travelled increases from approximately d at v0 = 100 m/see to approximately 4d at v0 = 350 m/sec. At 0o = 5°
this distance as measured changes from 2d at v0 = 130 m/see to 6d at vo = 350 m/see. For equal impact
angles and entry speeds the length of the entry phase for the d.s. and the o.s. projectiles tested appears to
be larger than that of the spherical projectiles. In most of the cases the entry phase occupies between ~-and
¼of the total crater length.
(ii) A plough phase in which the material pile-up is completed and retardation rates are at their greatest,
as are the rates of velocity decrease. For all the projectiles tested the plough phase ends soon after the
midpoint (which is also near to the point of maxhnum depth) of the final crater length.
(iii) An exit phase in which the projectile is ascending, when retardations have been reduced consider-
ably and the speed is almost constant and equal to the exit speed. The travelled distance in the exit phase is
just less than one half of the total crater length. The exit point of a 12.7 mm spherical projectile ricocheting
off clay at various impact speeds is marked in Figs. 3(a) and 4(a').

td.s.: the abbreviation adopted for dumb-bell shaped projectiles.

So.s= the abbreviation adopted for hemispherical-ended cylindrical projectiles.
664 G . H . DANESHI and W. JOHNSON

4o0 I I I
30 I I 6o ~ I ' I

300

D
20 40
- B

.? 200

X
x
x T 20
I00 w
C
:/o Oo : 5°

I i ol I I t 0
00 .5 I 5 0 2 4 6 0 2 4

t XIOs sec. t XIO s sec. t XIO 3 sec.

(o) (b) (c)

too t I I I 80 I 1
_.~ //E'
~ol- ./ ~ , .+c-t \
×B' 500 60
E t5 o TG .

=10" tO0
%\, 20

Oor' II 2
l I:~ o0 ? 4 .6 8
o .6

t XlO s sec. t XIO s sec. t XIO s sec.

(a') (b') (c')

FIO. 4. (a, b and c) Longitudinal position, x, velocity, vx and retardation, fx for a 12.7 mm dia.
sphere at 00 = 5° and Vo= 144, 157, 210 and 350m/sec; (a', b' and c') Longitudinal position x,
velocity, vx and retardation, fx for a 12.7 mm sphere at 0o = I0° and Vo= 105, 120, 135.5,216,
249 and 357 m/sec. Exit is denoted by _e.

Velocities, retardations and resistance forces

Variations with time of the velocity and retardation of spherical, d.s. and o.s. projectiles ricocheting off
Plasticine are shown in Figs. 4-6. By eliminating t between these curves the variation of the retardation and
hence the resistance force with speed is obtained in each case (see Figs. 7 and 8). These curves are
composed of three sections, each corresponding to one of the phases previously discussed. In the first
phase, retardations build-up quickly and reach their maximum values; in this period the speed is almost
constant. In the second phase, both the speed and the medium resistance are reduced. An examination of
the results as shown in Figs. 7 and 8 indicates that the fx = k~v~ relationship, i.e. that the longitudinal
resistance force is proportional to the square of the instantaneous longitudinal velocity is satisfactory. In the
third phase, resistance forces reduce quickly and the projectile leaves the impacted medium at an almost
constant speed.
At both e0 = 5° and 00 = 10° and for all the spherical, d.s. and o.s. projectiles tested, the c o e t c i e n t kx
.appeared to be independent of the impact speed (see Figs. 7 and 8).
Tests in Plasticine show that at equal speed the resistance forces of the impacted medium to the motion
of an i = 38.1 mm d.s. projectile are almost equal to that of an !' = 38.1 mm o.s. proj&tile and both are
almost twice that for a sphere, d = 12,7 mm. Since the resistance forces are proportional to Au 2, it follows
that the attack area for these d.s. and o.s. projectiles are almost twice that of the spherical projectile.
FIG. 2. Plough development after specific intervals of time for a 12.7 mm dia. sphere at 00 = 5 °
and v0 = 350 m/sec.

Secondary Primary
crater crater

FIG. 9. Photograph showing the primary and the secondary crater due to the impact of an
I = 38.1 mm, d.s. projectile in Plasticine; 00 = 10°, v0 = 228 m/s.

665
 L 0-5 m .'l FtG.,
FIG. 11. S h o w i n g t h e s e q u e n c e o f t h e r e f l e c t i o n o f a n 1 = 38.1 m m d.s. p r o j e c t i l e off P l a s t i c i n e ;
00 = 5 ° a n d v 0 = 70 m / s e c .

666
 Forces developed during the ricochet of projectiles of spherical and other shapes 667

25O
20 I ,c I
z° l I I
200 ~ - -
? 15
15 -- + / / B c
T.
N-

X
I0--

+ /
/;J 0/A
E
>~ I00 -- --

50-- - -

/x o / o

0 ] I 1 o~ I [
15 4 8 0 4 8
t XlO3 sec t XlO 3 sec t XlO 3 sec
(a) (b) (c)

8o = 10° ! 50 '
o/I I I I/
0 .2 4 .6 8 0 2 4 6 8
t XIO5 s e c . . t xlO 3 sec. t XlO3sec.
(a') (b') (c')
FIO. 5. (a, b and c) Longitudinal position, x, velocity, vx and retardation, f~ for an l = 38.1 =
38.1 mm d.s. projectile at 00 = 5o and v0 = 70, 155 and 237 m/sec; (a', b' and c') Longitudinal
position, x, velocity, vx and retardation, fx for an l = 38.1 mm d.s. projectile at 0o = 10° and
v0 = 107, 152 and 228 m/sec.

Tracks of the d.s. and the o.s. projectile paths in Plasticine show two distinct craters, one due to the
contact of the leading face and the other, to the contact and impact of the tail-end of the projectile (see Fig.
9). With the exception of the l = 12.7 mm d.s. projectiles, impact of the tail-end was observed in most of the
d.s. and o.s. projectiles tested. For I = 12.7 mm d.s. projectiles, the resistance forces of the impacted
medium were larger than that of a d = 12.7 mm sphere, but smaller than that of the other d.s. projectiles.
If y = O(x) denotes the path of the projectile in the impacted medium then,

dex d2y d20 [ d x ' ~ 2 . dO d2x

fx='~ and fY=-~=-~'~x ~-d'i]-"-~x-~"

Experimental results show that fx = kv~2 so that,

668 G.H. DANESHI and W. JOHNSON

20
I f 200 , '
~o i i

/c
+
15 150~ --
?.
15

E
+ X 7
%_ _ /x/
X I0 E I00 -- io
+

/ / o -A I
//o
50 -- 5

' -/oxJ ° .0:5.

oy 15
o
0
1 1
4
I 0
0 4 8

X I0 3 sec. t XlO3 sec t X I0 s sec

(o) (b) (c)

:50
I I
25

20
I

X
/
X C'
I
oo:S°so I 1 I I C'

/ 2O

/
×

+B'

"_o
X
lO
I
/ A'
:¢
E I00
0

~_x io
I

5 5O
80= IO*

0
0
I
I
I
2
0
0 2 .4 6 8 2 4 6

t XlO ~ se¢. t X l O s sec, t XlO ~ sec

(a') (b') (c')

FIG. 6. (a, b and c)) Longitudinal position, x, velocity, vx and retardation, jf~ for an l = 38.1 mm
o.s. projectile at 00 = 5 ° and v 0 = 76, 163 and 199; (a', b' and c') Longitudinal position, x,
velocity, vx and retardation, [~ for an l ' = 38.1 mm o.s. projectile at 0o = 10 ° and v0 = 70, 135,
213 mlsec.
or

z d 2 ~n

v 2 or f=~(x,y)v :.

This result substantiates the theoretical assumptions of Birkhoff et al. 9 and Hutchings '4 and s h o w s that in
the range of the velocities tested any viscosity effects in Plasticine are negligible.

Vertical and oblique penetration of the d.s. and o.s. projectiles in Plasticine
By photographing the tail-end of the projectile on the high speed drum camera, the penetration of the
d.s. and the o.s. projectiles into Plasticine may be studied. Tests were carried out at O0 = 30 °, 45 °, 60 ° and
90 °. A typical penetration-time curve for an o.s. projectile at 00 = 90 ° and v = 114 mlsec is shown in Fig. 10.
The data from these tests suggests that,
1. Penetration into clay or Plasticine at the tested impact angles proceeds along an almost linear
trajectory. Entry rotations prior to submergence were very small and could not be detected.
2. At 00 = 30 °, 45, 60 and 90 ° the resistance forces from Plasticine on the d.s. and the o.s. projectiles
were almost equal to one another and nearly independent of 00 .
 F o r c e s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g the r i c o c h e t of p r o j e c t i l e s o f s p h e r i c a l a n d o t h e r s h a p e s 669

10 10 ''''l I
, i '
:o3sv7
_ "/?/
./
2 -

://: .5
'i
00=5' 0 o :io"

.2 I l I J I l 2 J i I~ J i I
5O 100 200 500 50 100 200 500

-1 -1
Vx msec. Vx m.sec
(cl) (hi
FIG. 7. D e r i v e d l o n g i t u d i n a l r e t a r d a t i o n f ~ - v e l o c i t y , vx c u r v e for a 12.7 m m dia. s p h e r e d u r i n g
the a c t of p l o u g h i n g ; (a) 00 = 5 ° a n d v 0 = 144, 157, 210 a n d 250 m / s e e ; (b) 00 = 10° a n d v 0 = 105,
120, 1 3 5 . 5 , 2 1 6 , 249 a n d 357 m / s e e .

~o I .... I i ' ~o I .... I I '

s - -- s - I -

i
z 2-- - 2 - i -

i (7 f/..
f

.5 -- -- ,5 --

0<>:s" eo:lO"

~o ,oo 200 ~oo <o ,oo 200 ~oo

-I
ix m.sec.-1 Vx m.sec.
la) (b)
FIG. 8. D e r i v e d l o n g i t u d i n a l r e t a r d a t i o n , f , - v e l o c i t y , vx c u r v e s for a n I = 38.1 m m d.s. a n d a n
/'=38.1ram o.s. p r o j e c t i l e d u r i n g the a c t of p l o u g h i n g ; (a) 0 0 = 5 ° ; . - . , . - - . , . - - . d.s.
p r o j e c t i l e at v 0 = 152, a n d 228 m / s e e a n d - - a n d - - - - o.s. p r o j e c t i l e a t v o = 135 a n d 213 m / s e e .
(b) 00 = 10°, d.s. p r o j e c t i l e at v 0 = 107, 152 a n d 228 m / s e e a n d - - , - - ~ and
- - - - o.s. p r o j e c t i l e at v o = 70, 135 a n d 213 m / s e c .
670 G.H. DANESHi and W . JOHNSON

2°I .... I '" ' ' I"~'I ' ' ' •

| _L_ --
E lll 1////, r
/- ....

t~ ~ " eo= 90" -

I-

.sl-,,,,l , , , I .... l , , ,
• 05 1 5 10 50

t X103 soc.
FIG. 10. Penetration, h-time, t curve for an t = 88.9 m m o.s. projectile at vo = 114 m/see and
0o = 90°; @-@ e x p e r i m e n t a l , - - - extrapolated.

3. For equal impact speeds, the longitudinal component of the maximum resistance force on a 12.7 m m
ricocheting sphere at 00 = 10° was almost equal to the maximum resistance force on a d . s . or on an o . s .
projectile of the same diameter at 00 = 30, 45, 6 0 o r 9 0 ~.
4. The resistance of Plasticin¢ to the penetration of the d.s. and the o.s. projectiles follows a law of the
form f = kv 2.

ReJiections at low speeds

When the impact speed is below approximately 40 m/see at 00 = 10° or below approximately 80 mlsec at
0o = 5 °,the projectiles do not plough into the Plasticine but reflect off it. The impacted area is deformed
plastically but without losing any material in the form of chips or debris. A typical photograph demonstrat-
ing the sequences of reflection of an l = 38.1 m m d . s . projectile off Plasticine at 0 o = 5° and v 0 = 72 m/see is
shown in Fig. 11. A similar result for 00 = 10 ° and v0 = 32 mlsec is given in Ref. 15.

CONCLUSIONS
The most important conclusions from this work are:
1. The resistance offered by the impacted medium to the motion of the ricocheting
projectile principally occurs when the projectile is decending; Resistance forces at
exit are considerably smaller.
2. After building-up to a maximum value, the forces of resistance change in
proportion to the square of velocity, i.e. f = kv 2. The proportionality factor k appears
to be independent of the entry speed.
3. The induced backward rotation of the d.s. and the o.s. projectiles is usually
followed by an impact of the tail-end of the projectiles and the formation of a second
crater.
4. The resistance of Plasticine to the vertical and the oblique penetration of the
projectile is also proportional to the square of velocity. In the test range, 0o > 30°, the
proportionality factor, k, was found to be independent of the impact speed and the
entry angle.
5. During the oblique impact of the d.s. and the o.s. projectiles in Plasticine, the
projectile rotations at entry are very small and disappear soon after the projectile has
submerged.

Acknowledgements--The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Defence, U.K., for supporting this work
and wish to thank Mr. H. J. James for his interest in it. They also wish to thank Mr. C. Hooper for his help
in the design of the photographic equipment. We are grateful to Mr. A. Taylor for his help with the
experimental work and to Miss L. Willis for the typing of the paper. We also wish to thank Dr. S. R. Reid
for reading and commenting on this manuscript.

REFERENCES
1. E. ROBINS, New principles of Gunnery, London, 1742. Richmond Publishing Co., Ltd., Richmond
Surrey, England (Reprinted 1972).
2. L. EULER, Neue Grunds~tze der Artillerie, Berlin, p. 450. Reprinted as Euler's Opera Omnia, Druck und
Verlag von B. G. Teubner, Berfin (1922).
3. J. V. PONCELL~, Introduction ~ ia M~chanklue lndustrieUe, p. 522. 2nd edn, Brussells (1839).
4. N. SHI~tAN and D. C. SPENCER, AMP Rep. 42.2R (1943).
5. J. TRILLING, J. Appl. Phys. 21, 161-170 (1950).
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Ricochet off Water. A.M.P. Memo. 42.4M (1944).
10. E. G. PdCHARDSON,Proc, Phys. Soc. 61, No. 4, 352-367 (1948).
ll. W. JOHNSONand S. R. REID, J. Mech. engng Sci. 17, No. 2, 71-81 (1975).
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! 3. G.H. DANESH!and W. JOHNSON, The Ricochet of dumb-bell shaped projectiles. Int. J. mech. Sci. (in press).
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