Mobile Networking Assignment

Course Instructor: Madam Asima Nisar

Harem Masroor Syed D/o. Syed Masroor Alam

BSCS VII-A Roll # 32
Q:1) What are the salient features of GSM technology? Mention any TWO (2) unique benefits
of GSM service?

Ans: The GSM group proposed the following criteria for the new mobile wireless system:
• good speech quality
• low cost for terminals and service
• international roaming
• handheld terminals
• support for introduction new services
• spectral efficiency
• compatibility with Integrated Digital Services Network (ISDN)

One of the unique benefits of GSM service is its capability for international roaming
because of the roaming agreements established between the various GSM operators
worldwide.

One of the advantages of GSM is that it offers a subscriber identity module (SIM), also known as
a smart card. The smart card contains a computer chip and some non-volatile memory and is
inserted into a slot in the base of the mobile handset.
The memory on the smart card holds information about the subscriber that enables a wireless
network to provide subscriber services. The information includes:
• The subscriber’s identity number
• The telephone numbers.
• The original network to which the subscriber is subscribed
A smart card can be moved from one handset to another. A handset reads the information off
the smart card and transmits it to the network

Q:2) What are GSM network elements?

Ans: GSM Network Elements

A GSM network consists of the following network components:
• Mobile station (MS)
• Base transceiver station (BTS)
• Base station controller (BSC)
• Base station subsystem (BSS)
• Mobile switching center (MSC)
• Authentication center (AuC)
• Home location register (HLR)
• Visitor location register (VLR)
Mobile Station
The mobile station (MS) is the starting point of a mobile wireless network.
The MS can contain the following components:
• Mobile terminal (MT)—GSM cellular handset
• Terminal equipment (TE)—PC or personal digital assistant (PDA)
The MS can be two interconnected physical devices (MT and TE) with a
point-to-point interface or a single device with both functions integrated.

Base Transceiver Station

When a subscriber uses the MS to make a call in the network, the MS
transmits the call request to the base transceiver station (BTS). The BTS
includes all the radio equipment (i.e., antennas, signal processing devices,
and amplifiers) necessary for radio transmission within a geographical area
called a cell. The BTS is responsible for establishing the link to the MS and
for modulating and demodulating radio signals between the MS and the
BTS.
Base Station Controller
The base station controller (BSC) is the controlling component of the radio
network, and it manages the BTSs. The BSC reserves radio frequencies for
communications and handles the handoff between BTSs when an MS roams
from one cell to another. The BSC is responsible for paging the MS for
incoming calls.

Base Station Subsystem

A GSM network is comprised of many base station subsystems (BSSs), each
controlled by a BSC. The BSS performs the necessary functions for
monitoring radio connections to the MS, coding and decoding voice, and
rate adaptation to and from the wireless network. A BSS can contain several
BTSs.

Mobile Switching Center

The mobile switching center (MSC) is a digital ISDN switch that sets up
connections to other MSCs and to the BSCs. The MSCs form the wired (fixed)
backbone of a GSM network and can switch calls to the public switched
telecommunications network (PSTN). An MSC can connect to a large number
of BSCs.
Equipment Identity Register
The equipment identity register (EIR) is a database that stores the
international mobile equipment identities (IMEIs) of all the mobile stations
in the network. The IMEI is an equipment identifier assigned by the
manufacturer of the mobile station. The EIR provides security features such
as blocking calls from handsets that have been stolen.

Home Location Register

The home location register (HLR) is the central database for all users to
register to the GSM network. It stores static information about the
subscribers such as the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI),
subscribed services, and a key for authenticating the subscriber. The HLR
also stores dynamic subscriber information (i.e., the current location of the
mobile subscriber).

Authentication Center
Associated with the HLR is the authentication center (AuC); this database
contains the algorithms for authenticating subscribers and the necessary
keys for encryption to safeguard the user input for authentication.

Visitor Location Register

The visitor location register (VLR) is a distributed database that temporarily
stores information about the mobile stations that are active in the
geographic area for which the VLR is responsible. A VLR is associated
with each MSC in the network. When a new subscriber roams into a location
area, the VLR is responsible for copying subscriber information from the HLR
to its local database. This relationship between the VLR and HLR avoids
frequent HLR database updates and long distance signaling of the user
information, allowing faster access to subscriber information.
The HLR, VLR, and AuC comprise the management databases that support
roaming (including international roaming) in the GSM network. These
databases authenticate calls while GSM subscribers roam between the
private network and the public land mobile network (PLMN). The types of
information they store include subscriber identities, current location area,
and subscription levels.
Q:3) What is NSS? Why is it known as the HEART of GSM system? Draw a complete labeled
diagram of GSM network?

Ans: Network and Switching Subsystem

The network and switching subsystem (NSS) is the heart of the GSM system.
It connects the wireless network to the standard wired network. It is
responsible for the handoff of calls from one BSS to another and performs
services such as charging, accounting, and roaming.
Figure 2-1 shows a GSM network and the network elements it contains.

Figure 2-1GSM Network Elements

Q:4) What are TWO (2) modes of GSM data services? Which one is more efficient?

Ans: GSM Data Services

GSM networks handle both voice and data traffic requirements of the
mobile communication by providing two modes of operation:
• Circuit switched (high-speed circuit switched data)
• Packet switched (GPRS)
Circuit switching provides the customer with a dedicated channel all the way
to the destination. The customer has exclusive use of the circuit for the
duration of the call, and is charged for the duration of the call.
 With packet switching, the operator assigns one or more dedicated channels
specifically for shared use. These channels are up and running 24 hours a
day, and when you need to transfer data, you access a channel and transmit
your data. Packet switching is more efficient than circuit switching.
The standard data rate of a GSM channel is 22.8 kbps.

Q:5) What are the salient features of GPRS? Mention THREE (3) major benefits of GPRS?

Ans: General Packet Radio Service

The general packet radio system (GPRS) provides packet radio access for mobile Global System
for Mobile Communications (GSM) and time-division multiple access (TDMA) users. In addition
to providing new services for today's mobile user, GPRS is important as a migration step toward
third-generation (3G) networks.

GPRS is the first step toward an end-to-end wireless infrastructure and has the following goals:
• Open architecture
• Consistent IP services
• Same infrastructure for different air interfaces
• Integrated telephony and Internet infrastructure
• Leverage industry investment in IP
• Service innovation independent of infrastructe

Benefits of GPRS
The GPRS provides the following benefits:
• Overlays on the existing GSM network to provide high-speed data service
• Always on, reducing the time spent setting up and taking down
connections
• Designed to support bursty applications such as e-mail, traffic telematics,
telemetry, broadcast services, and web browsing that do not require
detected connection.
By implementing Cisco GPRS products and related solutions, mobile service
providers can optimize their networks to deploy high quality mobile voice
 and data services. They can also benefit from new operating efficiencies,
peer-to-peer IP-based architecture for scalability, and IP standard interfaces
to billing and customer support.

Q:6) Write in detail about GPRS applications?

GPRS Applications
GPRS enables a variety of new and unique services to the mobile wireless
subscriber. These mobile services have unique characteristics that provide
enhanced value to customers. These characteristics include the following:
• Mobility—The ability to maintain constant voice and data
communications while on the move
• Immediacy—Allows subscribers to obtain connectivity when needed,
regardless of location and without a lengthy login session
• Localization—Allows subscribers to obtain information relevant to their
current location
The combination of these characteristics provides a wide spectrum of
possible applications that can be offered to mobile subscribers. The core
network components offered by Cisco enable seamless access to these
applications, whether they reside in the service provider's network or the
public Internet.
In general, applications can be separated into two high-level categories:
corporate and consumer. These include:
• Communications—E-mail; fax; unified messaging; intranet/Internet
access
• Value-added services—Information services; games
• E-commerce—Retail; ticket purchasing; banking; financial trading
• Location-based applications—Navigation; traffic conditions; airline/rail
schedules; location finder
• Vertical applications—Freight delivery; fleet management; sales-force
automation

• Advertising
Communications
Communications applications include those in which it appears to users that
they are using the mobile communications network as a pipeline to access
messages or information. This differs from those applications in which users
believe that they are accessing a service provided or forwarded by the
network operator.

Intranet Access
The first stage of enabling users to maintain contact with their offices is
through access to e-mail, fax, and voice mail using unified messaging
systems. Increasingly, files and data on corporate networks are becoming
accessible through corporate intranets. These intranets can be protected
through firewalls by enabling secure tunnels or virtual private networks
(VPNs).

Internet Access
As a critical mass of users is approached, more and more applications aimed
at general consumers are being placed on the Internet. The Internet is
becoming an effective tool for accessing corporate data and manipulating
product and service information. More recently, companies are using the
Internet as an environment for conducting business through e-commerce.
Email and Fax
E-mail on mobile networks may take one of two forms. E-mail can be sent to
a mobile user directly or the user can have an e-mail account maintained by
the network operator or their Internet service provider (ISP). In the latter
case, a notification is forwarded to the mobile terminal and includes the first
few lines of the e-mail, details of the sender, the date and time, and the
subject. Fax attachments can also accompany e-mails.

Unified Messaging
Unified messaging provides a single mailbox for all messages, including voice
mail, faxes, e-mail, short message service (SMS), and pager messages.
Unified messaging systems allow for a variety of access methods to recover
messages of different types. Some use text-to-voice systems to read e-mail
or send faxes over a normal phone line. Most allow the user to query the
contents of the various mailboxes through data access such as the Internet.
Others can be configured to alert the user on the device of their choice
when messages are received.
Value Added Services
Value-added services refer to the content provided by network operators to
increase the value of services to their subscribers. Two terms that are
frequently used to describe delivery of data applications are push and pull,
as defined below.
• Push describes the transmission of data at a predetermined time or under
predetermined conditions. It also refers to the unsolicited supply of
advertising (for example, delivery of news as it occurs or stock values
when they fall below a preset value).
• Pull describes the request for data in real time by the user (for example,
checking stock quotes or daily news headlines).
To be valuable to subscribers, this content must possess several
characteristics:
• Personalized information that is tailored to the user (for example, a stock
ticker that focusses on key quotes and news or an e-commerce application
that knows a user's profile)
• Localized content that is based on a user's current location and includes
maps, hotel finders, or restaurant reviews
• Menu screens that are intuitive and easy to navigate
• Security for e-commerce sites for the exchange of financial or other
personal information Several value-added services are outlined in the
following sections.

E-commerce
E-commerce is defined as business conducted on the Internet or data
service. This includes applications in which a contract is established for the
purchase of goods and services and online banking applications. These
applications require user authentication and secure transmission of
sensitive data over the data connection.

Banking
The banking industry is interested in promoting electronic banking because
electronic transactions are less costly to conduct than personal transactions
in a bank. Specific banking functions that can be accomplished over a
wireless connection include balance checking, money transfers between
accounts, bill payment, and overdraft alert.
Financial Trading
The immediacy of transactions over the Internet and the requirement for
up-to-the-minute information has made the purchasing of stocks online a
popular application. By coupling push services with the ability to make
secure transactions from the mobile terminal, a service that is unique to the
mobile environment can be provided.

Location-Based Services and Telematics

Location-based services provide the ability to link push or pull information
services with a user's location. Examples include hotel and restaurant
finders, roadside assistance, and city-specific news and information. This
technology also has vertical applications. These allow, for example, tracking
vehicles in a fleet or managing the operations of a large workforce.

Vertical Applications
In the mobile environment, vertical applications apply to systems using
mobile architectures to support the specific tasks within a company.
Examples of vertical applications include:
• Sales support—Configuring stock and product information for sales staff,
integrating appointment details, and placing orders remotely
• Dispatching—Communicating job details such as location and scheduling
and permitting information queries to support the job
• Fleet management—Controlling a fleet of delivery or service staff and
vehicle, monitoring their locations, and scheduling their work
• Parcel delivery—Tracking the locations of packages for customers and
monitoring the performance of the delivery system

Advertising
Advertising services are offered as a push information service. Advertising
may be offered to customers to subsidize the cost of voice or other
information services. Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a
user entering a mall can receive advertisements specific to the stores in that
mall.
Q:7) What is UMTS? Mention some of its services?

Ans: Universal Mobile Telecommunication System

The Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) is a third
generation (3G) mobile communications system that provides a range of
broadband services to the world of wireless and mobile communications.
The UMTS delivers low-cost, mobile communications at data rates of up to 2
Mbps. It preserves the global roaming capability of second-generation
GSM/GPRS networks and provides new enhanced capabilities. The UMTS is
designed to deliver pictures, graphics, video communications, and other
multimedia information, as well as voice and data, to mobile wireless
subscribers.
The UMTS takes a phased approach toward an all-IP network by extending
second generation (2G) GSM/GPRS networks and using Wide-band Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) technology. Handover capability between
the UMTS and GSM is supported. The GPRS is the convergence point
between the 2G technologies and the packet-switched domain of the 3G
UMTS.

UMTS Services
The UMTS provides support for both voice and data services. The following
data rates are targets for
UMTS:
• 144 kbps—Satellite and rural outdoor
• 384 kbps—Urban outdoor
• 2048 kbp—Indoor and low range outdoor
Data services provide different quality-of-service (QoS) parameters for data
transfer. UMTS network services accommodate QoS classes for four types of
traffic:
• Conversational class—Voice, video telephony, video gaming
• Streaming class—Multimedia, video on demand, webcast
• Interactive class—Web browsing, network gaming, database access
• Background class—E-mail, short message service (SMS), file downloading
The UMTS supports the following service categories and applications:
 • Internet access—Messaging, video/music download, voice/video over IP,
mobile commerce (e.g., banking, trading), travel and information services
• Intranet/extranet access—Enterprise application such as e-
mail/messaging, travel assistance, mobile sales, technical services,
corporate database access, fleet/warehouse management, conferencing
and video telephony
• Customized information/entertainment—Information
(photo/video/music download), travel assistance, distance education,
mobile messaging, gaming, voice portal services
• Multimedia messaging—SMS extensions for images, video, and music;
unified messaging; document transfer
• Location-based services—Yellow pages, mobile commerce, navigational
service, trading

Q:8) GSM stands for? What are its salient features till 2nd. Generation? User Identification
(MSISDN) is composed of? Which security techniques are used for GSM security?

Ans: GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication.

The 2nd Generation of Mobile communication system
– Analog to Digital
– SMS(Short Message Services)
– Multi Party Calling, Call holding, Call waiting
– Call line identity
– Cell broadcast
User Identification in the Network
– MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
– CC : Country Code
– NDC : National Destination Code
– SN : Subscriber Number
GSM Security
– Air-interface: Encryption algorithms : A5/1, A5/2, and A5/3 stream ciphers
– General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) uses GEA/1 and GEA/2 ciphers
Q:9) LTE stands for? How LTE can be defined by ITU-R set of standards for both: Mobile use
and Stationary use? What are the main motives to launch LTE? Also, mention salient features
of LTE?

Ans: LTE Stand for Long-term Evolution.

ITU-R standards:
The ITU-R set standards for 4G connectivity in 2008, as follows:
• For mobile use, including smartphones and tablets, connection speeds
need to have a peak of at least 100 Mbps
• For more stationary uses such as mobile hotspots, at least 1 Gbps.

LTE Motivation:
Proposed in Release 8, with main motives are:
• Need to ensure the continuity of competitiveness of the 3G system for
the future
• User demand for higher data rates and QoS
• All IP network & Packet Switch optimised system
• Continued demand for cost reduction
• Low complexity

LTE in Pakistan
In Pakistan, since 2014, three telcos are providing 4G services to their subscribers. A
detailed report released by Open Signal on 4G LTE speeds and coverage around the world,
revealed that Pakistan has an average LTE speed of just 13.56 Mbps; which is slightly above the
average for South Korea and Singapore have set themselves apart by providing the best
coverage (97% & 83%) and the best speed, respectively. Singapore provides its citizens the
fastest average LTE speed of 50 Mbps. While, in the World average speed is 16.9mbps

LTE Features:

1. Carrier Aggregation:
Carrier aggregation allows the combination of multiple channels of spectrum -
permitting them to operate as one band instead of discrete elements. This enables
greater efficiency for data sessions transmitting over the wireless Network as well as
greater peak speeds.
2. 256 QAM:
256 QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) enables customer devices and
the Network to exchange information in larger amounts, delivering more bits of
data in each transmission.

3. LAA:
With LAA (Licensed Assisted Access), we can run our 4G LTE Network on our own
licensed spectrum as well as in shared spectrum space to provide more capacity and
greater speeds.

4. Massive MIMO.
Multiple input, multiple output) is a technology that uses multiple transmitters
and receivers to transfer more data at the same time. Also known as large scale antenna
systems, using Massive MIMO improves spectral and energy efficiency, increases
Network capacity, and provides higher and more consistent speeds.

5. Speed
Combining them to reach gigabit speeds Used in combination, these
advancements launch us into new worlds of capabilities in wireless.
Q:10) Draw the architecture of WiMAX 802.16 technology only in pictorial manner w.r.t.
following aspects:

N.B.: (No description in words is required)

A. Architecture of WiMAX 802.16 technology.

a. Fixed WiMAX

b. Mobile WiMAX
 c. WiMAX - integrated with Optical networks

Q:11) What are the types of Wireless Networks w.r.t. Spatial Distribution? Discuss
about Satellite Internet and its use?

Ans: There are four types of wireless networks -- wireless local area networks, wireless
metropolitan area networks, wireless personal area networks and wireless wide area networks
-- each with its own function.

1. Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology provides internet access within a building or a limited outdoor
area. First used within offices and homes, WLAN technology is now also used in stores and
restaurants. The use of home Networks has greatly increased as the COVID-19 pandemic has
forced office workers, students, teachers and others to work and study from home.
2. Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan area networks have been installed in cities worldwide to provide access
for people outside an office or home network. These networks cover a wider area than office or
home networks, but the principles are the same. APs are located on the sides of buildings or on
telephone poles throughout the coverage area. APs are connected to the internet via a wired
network and broadcast a wireless signal throughout the area. Users connect to their desired
destination by connecting to the nearest AP, which forwards the connection through its
internet connection.
3. Wireless PAN
Wireless personal area networks cover a very limited area -- typically a maximum of 100 meters
for most applications -- using protocols like Bluetooth and Zigbee. Bluetooth enables hands-
free phone calls, connects a phone to earpieces or transmits signals between smart devices.
Zigbee connects stations along an IoT network. Infrared technology is limited to line of sight,
such as connecting TV remotes to televisions.
4. Wireless WAN
Wireless WANs use cellular technology to provide access outside the range of a wireless LAN
or metropolitan network. These networks enable users to make phone calls to others
connecting either through a wireless WAN or a wired telephone system. Users can also connect
to the internet to access websites or server-based applications.

Spatial Distribution
A spatial distribution is the arrangement of a phenomenon across the Earth's surface
and a graphical display of such an arrangement is an important tool in geographical and
environmental statistics.

Satellite internet and its use:

Satellite internet is a type of connection that uses a satellite to get an internet signal from your
internet service provider (ISP) to you. Here’s how it works: your provider sends a fiber internet
signal to a satellite in space. The internet signal then comes to you and is captured by your
satellite dish

Satellite internet myths and facts

Myth 1: Satellite internet is too slow

Satellite internet now has speeds up to 100 Mbps if you go with Viasat, and speeds of 25 Mbps
if you go with HughesNet. That’s pretty fast if you consider most cable and DSL internet plans
offer similar speeds.
Satellite internet used to be extremely slow, with download speeds of approximately 750 Kbps.
But advancements in technology and new satellites have increased speeds. HughesNet also
hopes to boost its speeds up to 100 Mbps in the near future. Thank goodness.

Myth 2: It takes a long time to receive a signal

You likely won’t notice any difference in how quickly you can do things online with satellite
versus how quickly you could do them with cable or DSL. Unless you’re gaming, satellite’s
high latency likely won’t affect you.
Latency is the time it takes for data to be sent and received. In the case of satellite internet, it’s
the time it takes for information to go from your device to your satellite dish, to your provider’s
orbiting satellite, to a separate satellite dish at your ISP, and back again.
As you can see, that’s a lot of steps. And latency has long been a strike against satellite internet.
Latency is higher with satellite internet than it is for cable, DSL, and fiber internet. Cable, DSL,
and fiber internet have latency in the 20–50 millisecond (ms) range, while satellite internet
ranges can be close to 600 ms.
Because satellites are positioned 22,000 miles above the earth, satellite internet data just has a
long way to travel. It’s also why we basically never recommend satellite internet over other
types like cable. But if you live in the country or an area without better internet options,
satellite might be your best (and sometimes only) choice.
The most obvious effect of latency is on gaming. Gaming that requires ultra-quick responses,
like first-person shooters (FPS), just doesn’t work very well with satellite internet. If you choose
satellite internet, you might have to say goodbye to League of Legends.
But other online activities, like web browsing, emailing, and photo sharing, won’t be affected by
latency much at all.

Myth 3: Satellite internet doesn’t work when it’s cloudy, rainy, or stormy
While it’s true that severe thunderstorms, heavy snow, or blizzards can interrupt satellite
transmission temporarily, the problem isn’t as significant as some might lead you to think.
Storm-related interruptions are commonly called “rain fade,” and the signal is restored as soon
as the storm passes. You can also remove heavy accumulations of snow from around the
satellite dish to restore communications.
In contrast, a heavy thunderstorm with fallen trees or other extreme weather with similar
effects could disable cable or DSL for days. Again, most satellite internet customers live in rural
areas without access to DSL or cable, so even with rain fade, satellite internet is preferable to
alternative, slower means of internet service (like dial-up internet).

Myth 4: Satellite internet is too expensive

Compared to DSL, cable, and fiber internet, satellite is relatively expensive. But its monthly
costs have decreased over the years, making it a somewhat more affordable option. (Especially
if you have no other internet providers to choose from.)
 Q:12) Write a note on Broadband Wireless Access in terms of IEEE 802.16
communications? What is 802.16d and 802.16e ..??

Ans: Fixed and Mobile WiMAX Generic Scenarios

As a BWA technology, WiMAX is capable to deliver high data rates for stationary
and mobile terminals, by capitalizing on IEEE 802.16 standards. A very interesting and
promising scenario for fixed WiMAX is to provide broadband connectivity in rural and
urban areas. Figure 4 illustrates the fixed WiMAX scenarios we describe next.

The standard for WiMAX technology is a standard for Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks
(WMANs) that has been developed by working group number 16 of IEEE 802, specializing in
point-to-multipoint broadband wireless access. Initially 802.16a was developed and launched,
but now it has been further refined. 802.16d or 802.16-2004 was released as a refined version
of the 802.16a standard aimed at fixed applications. Another version of the standard, 802.16e
or 802.16-2005 was also released and aimed at the roaming and mobile markets.

802.16d and 802.16e

The two flavours of WiMAX broadband technology are used for different applications and
although they are based on the same standard, the implementation of each has been optimised
to suit its particular application.

• 802.16d - DSL replacement

The 802.16d version is often referred to as 802.16-2004 and it is closer to what may be
termed the original version of WiMAX defined under 802.16a. It is aimed at fixed applications
and providing a wireless equivalent of DSL broadband data - often called WiMAX broadband.
 In fact the WiMAX Forum describes the technology as "a standards-based technology enabling
the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL."
802.16d is able to provide data rates of up to 75 Mbps and as a
result it is ideal for fixed, DSL replacement applications as
WiMAX broadband. It may also be used for backhaul where the
final data may be distributed further to individual users. Cell
radii are typically up to 75 km.

• 802.16e - Nomadic / Mobile

While 802.16 / WiMAX was originally envisaged as being a
fixed only technology, with the need for people on the move
requiring high speed data at a cost less than that provided by
cellular services and opportunity for a mobile version was seen and 802.16e was developed.
This standard is also widely known as 802.16-2005. It currently provides the ability for users
to connect to a WiMAX cell from a variety of locations, and there are future enhancements to
provide cell handover.
802.16e is able to provide data rates up to 15 Mbps and the cell radius distances are typically
between 2 and 4 km.

Q:13) Li-Fi stands for? Briefly discuss about Li-Fi technology?

Differentiate among features of Li-Fi vs. Wi-Fi..??

Ans: LiFi stands for Light Fidelity and is a form of data

transmission using light (Visible Light Communication or VLC).

Li-Fi Technology:

• In VLC, one emerging technology is Li-Fi.

• Li-Fi technology was originated in 2011 by Professor Harald Haas of the University of Edinburgh,
who demonstrated at TED talk that a flickering light from a single LED, he could transmit more
data than a cellular tower.
- Technology has been trialed by airlines for in-flight connectivity.
• Gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs, the speed of the systems is paramount and test LiFi waves so far
have been mostly ‘only’ 150 Mbps (megabits per second) at least twice that of the everyday
802.11n WiFi in many homes and offices.
• More recently already able to reach 3.5 Gbps (gigabits per second) across red, green and blue
visible light frequencies in parallel - this means that over 10 Gbps is possible.
• It uses visible light communication (instead of radio frequency waves), which has 10,000 times
wider bandwidth than RF.
Network Architecture:
Differentiate among features of LiFi and WiFi:
Features LiFi
LiFi transmits data using light
Operation
with the help of LED bulbs.
Technology Present IrDA compliant devices.
Used in airlines, undersea
explorations, operation
Applications theaters in the hospitals, office
and home premises for data
transfer and internet browsing.
Interference is less, can pass
through salty sea water,
Merits/Demerits works in dense region
Low power requirement
Restricted to particular area.
In LiFi, light is blocked by the
Privacy walls and hence will provide
more secure data transfer.
Data Transfers Speed About 1 Gbps and above.
Coverage Distance About 10 meters.
Lamp driver, LED bulb(lamp) and
System Components photo detector will make up
complete LiFi system.
WiFi
WiFi transmits data using radio
waves with the help of WiFi
router.
WLAN 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad
standard compliant devices.
Used for internet browsing with
the help of wifi kiosks or wifi
hotspots.
Interference is more, can not
pass through sea water, works in
less dense region
High power requirement
Expand into a large area.
In WiFi, RF signal cannot be
blocked by the walls and hence
need to employ techniques to
achieve secure data transfer.
WLAN-11n offers 150Mbps,
About 1-2 Gbps can be achieved
using WiGig/Giga-IR.
About 32 meters (WLAN
802.11b/11g), vary based on
transmit power and antenna
type.
requires routers to be installed,
subscriber
devices(laptops,PDAs,desktops)
are referred as stations.
Q:14) Write a short note on Antenna by highlighting its different aspects with diagrams?

Ans: Introduction:
• An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors.
o Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space.
o Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space.
• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and
reception.

Radiation Patterns:
• Radiation pattern.
o Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna.
o Depicted as two-dimensional cross section.
• Beam width (or half-power beam width).
o Measure of directivity of antenna.
• Reception pattern.
o Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern.

Type of Antennas:
• Isotropic antenna (idealized.

o Radiates power equally in all directions.

• Dipole antennas.

o Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna).

o Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna).

• Parabolic Reflective Antenna.

Antenna Gain:
• Antenna gain.
o Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any
direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).
• Effective area.
o Related to physical size and shape of antenna.
 Propagation Modes:
• Ground-wave propagation.
• Sky-wave propagation.
• Line-of-sight propagation.

Ground Wave Propagation:

• Follows contour of the earth.

• Can propagate considerable distances.
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz.
• Example.
o AM radio.

Sky Wave Propagation:

• Signal reflected from ionized layer of
atmosphere back down to earth.
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back
and forth between ionosphere and earth’s
surface.
• Reflection effect caused by refraction.
• Examples:
o Amateur radio.
o CB radio.

Line-of-Sight Propagation:
• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight.
o Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not reflected by ionosphere.
o Ground communication – antennas within effective line of site due to refraction.
• Refraction – bending of microwaves by the atmosphere.
o Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium.
o When wave changes medium, speed changes.
o Wave bends at the boundary between mediums.
Q:15) Write a short note on:

Radar system (Working, Tracking an Aircraft, Types, Role in Air Traffic monitoring)

Ans: Radar System:

RADAR stands for Radio Detection and Ranging System. It is basically an electromagnetic system used
to detect the location and distance of an object from the point where the RADAR is placed. It works by
radiating energy into space and monitoring the echo or reflected signal from the objects. It operates in
the UHF and microwave range.

A radar is an electromagnetic sensor, used to notice, track, locate, and identify different objects which
are at certain distances. The working of radar is, it transmits electromagnetic energy in the direction of
targets to observe the echoes and returns from them. Here the targets are nothing but ships, aircraft,
astronomical bodies, automotive vehicles, spacecraft, rain, birds, insects, etc. Instead of noticing the
target’s location and velocity, it also obtains their shape and size sometimes.

The main objective of radar as compared with infrared and optical sensing devices is to discover faraway
targets under difficult climate conditions & determines their distance, range, through precision. Radar
has its own transmitter which is known as a source of illumination for placing targets. Generally, it works
in the microwave area of the electromagnetic spectrum that is calculated in hertz when frequencies
extend from 400 MHz to 40 GHz. The essential components which are used in the radar

Radar undergoes quick development during the years 1930-the 40s to reach the requirements of the
military. It is still broadly used through the armed forces, wherever several technological advances have
created. Simultaneously, radar is also utilized in civilian applications particularly in controlling air traffic,
observation of weather, navigation of ship, environment, sensing from remote areas, observation of
planetary, measurement of speed in industrial applications, space surveillance, law enforcement, etc.

Working:
The radar working is very simple because it transmits electromagnetic power as well as examines the
energy returned back to the target. If the returned signals are received again at the position of their
source, then an obstacle is in the transmission way. This is the working principle of radar.

Tracking an Aircraft:
Air Traffic Control: Standard international practice is to monitor airspace using two radar systems:
primary and secondary.

Primary Radar: Based on the earliest form of radar developed in the 1930s, detects and measures the
approximate position of aircraft using reflected radio signals. It does this whether or not the subject
wants to be tracked.

Secondary Radar: This relies on targets being equipped with a transponder, also
requests additional information from the aircraft - such as its identity and
altitude.

All commercial aircraft are equipped with transponders (an abbreviation of

"transmitter responder"), which automatically transmit a unique four-digit code
when they receive a radio signal sent by radar.

The code gives the plane's identity and radar stations go on to establish speed
and direction by monitoring successive transmissions. This flight data is then
relayed to air traffic controllers.

However, once an aircraft is more than 240km (150 miles) out to sea, radar coverage fades and air crew
keep in touch with air traffic control and other aircraft using high-frequency radio.

Types:
Monostatic radar: Both transmitter and receiver in the same location.

Bistatic radar: The transmitter and receiver are placed in different locations.

Multistatic radar: There are one transmitter and several receivers placed in
different locations.

1. Primary Radar:
• This relies on the reflection of a portion of the incident energy
by the target.
• The target does not willingly co-operate with the radar installation.
• This is the type of radar used to detect and track hostile aircraft.

2. Secondary Radar:
• The radar installation and the target help each other.
• The signal received at the radar installation is not a reflection of the incident energy .
• An example of secondary radar is the identification equipment carried by all friendly
ships and aircraft.
3. Military Radar Types:
(a) Air Defense Radars:
 I. Air defense radars can detect air targets and determine
their position, course, and speed in a relatively large area.
II. The maximum range of air defense radar can exceed 500
Kms, and the bearing coverage is a complete 360 degree
circle.

Functions of Air Defense Radars are:

I. To serve as Early Warning systems because they can detect approaching enemy
aircraft at great distances.
II. To Police the National Airspace.
III. To Guide combat Air Patrol Aircraft to a position suitable to
intercept an enemy aircraft.
IV. To defend against aircraft.

(b) Battlefield Radars:

Battlefield radar was divided into three types:
I. Surveillance: to alert combat troops of hostile and unknown aircraft, cruise
missiles and unmanned aerial vehicles.
II. Navigation: for fixing a vessel´s position with sufficient accuracy to allow safe
passage.
III. Weapon control: by providing information used to guide weapons to a hostile
target.

(c) Air Traffic Control Radars:

Air traffic control radar was divided into five types:
I. Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR).
II. Precision Approach Radar (PAR).
III. Surface Movement Radar (SMR).
IV. Weather radar.
V. En-route radar.

4. Civilian Applications of Radar:

I. Weather Radar.
II. Speed device.
III. Radar Control.
IV. Non-Destructive Material Test.
V. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR).
Role in Air Traffic Monitoring:
The primary radar's main function is to determine the location, the bearing and range to the aircraft.
Air traffic controllers continuously monitor the positions of all the aircraft on the radar screen, and give
directions to the pilots by radio to maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic in the airspace.

Q:16) Write short notes on the following burning but self-explanatory topics:

Ans: ZigBee:
Need:
• Low Power Consumption:
o 6 months to 5 years battery life for most applications.
• Low Cost:
o At least half the cost of Bluetooth solutions.
• High Density of Nodes per Network:
o 250 nodes per network, multiple co-located networks.
• Data Rate Requirements:
o Few bits to 250kbps sufficient.
• Simple Protocol, Global Implementation:
o 2.4Ghz.
• Standard in a Fragmented Market:
o Many proprietary solutions, interoperability issues.
o Pent up demand due to lack of standard.

Applications:

ZigBee Building Automation (Efficient commercial spaces).

ZigBee Remote Control (Advanced remote controls).

ZigBee Smart Energy (Home energy savings).

ZigBee Health Care (Health and fitness monitoring).

ZigBee Home Automation (Smart homes).

ZigBee Input Device (Easy-to-use touchpads, mice, keyboards, wands).

ZigBee Retail Services (Smarter shopping).

ZigBee Telecom Services (Value-added services).

ZigBee 3D Sync (Ultimate 3d viewing experience).

Device Examples:
HID devices;
Video gaming equipment;
Multi-player PC & video games;
Playing a PC DVD game in front of a TV monitor;
Remote controls for audio and video equipment;
Glass breakage monitoring (sensors);
Wireless Keypads;
Child Monitor;
Smoke and flame detectors;
Fire Pull stations;
Personal transponders;
Lighting and remote control of appliances in the home;
Fireplaces;
Pool/Spa equipment;
Garage door openers;

Success Factors:
Low cost.
Data type support.
 Ease of installation.
Reliable data transfer.
Short range operation.
Reasonable battery
life.
Unlicensed band.
Unrestricted
geographical use.
Global
implementation.
Governmental
regulations.

Target Market:

Green home :
A Green Home is a type of house that is designed to be environmentally friendly and sustainable,
focusing on the efficient use of energy, water, and building materials. In general, a green home is a
type of house that is built or remodeled in order to conserve “energy or water; improve indoor air
quality; use sustainable, recycled or used materials; and produce less waste in the process.”
Needs:
Green homes are built with energy saving features, heating and cooling loads are lowered by using high
efficiency equipment, higher levels of insulation, reduced air leakage, high performance windows,
energy efficient lighting, passive solar, thermal mass, daylighting, integration of renewable energy

Components of a Green Home

When one talks about a green home, the first thing which comes into mind is the usage of eco-friendly
material in the construction of the house. Though a lot of people know that there exists something called
eco-friendly material, most people have no idea what it really is. Green buildings are constructed in a way
that the material used in building these homes are not only sustainable materials, but they use things
which are also energy-efficient. This means that devices, gadgets, and electronic appliances are installed
in the home which save energy and minimizes the use of anything which degrades the environment or
depletes natural resources. This reciprocally helps to maximize the natural resources found in the
environment

GREEN BUILDING ESSENTIALS

Green building is the practice of creating structures and using processes that are environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughtout a building’s life-cycle from siting to design, construction,
operation, maintenance, renovation, and deconstruction. This practice expands and

complements the classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort. Green
building is also known as a sustainable or high performance building

BENEFITS:
Environmental Benefits
◼ Enhance and protect biodiversity and ecosystems

◼ Improve air and water quality

◼ Reduce waste streams

◼ Conserve and restore natural resources

Economic Benefits
◼ Reduce operating costs

◼ Create, expand, and shape markets for green product

and services

◼ Improve occupant productivity

◼ Optimize life-cycle economic performance

Social Benefits
◼ Enhance occupant comfort and health

◼ Heighten aesthetic qualities

◼ Minimize strain on local infrastructure

◼ Improve overall quality of life

Wireless Network:
SCOPE:
 Wireless networks allow to eliminate messy cables.

 Though wireless technology continues to develop, it is now easier to get networks up and running
cheaper and faster than ever before

PREAMBLE:
While the term wireless network may technically be used to refer to any type of network that is
wireless, the term is most commonly used to refer to a telecommunications network whose
interconnections between nodes is implemented without the use of wires, such as a computer network
(which is a type of telecommunications network). Wireless telecommunications networks are generally
implemented with some type of information transmission system that uses electromagnetic waves, such
as radio waves, for the carrier and this implementation usually takes place at the physical level or "layer"
of the network.

Types of Wireless Networks:

 Wireless LAN uses radio instead of wires to transmit data back and forth between computers.
 Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is used for cellular phones, is the most common
standard and is used for a majority of cellular providers.

 Personal Communications Service (PCS) PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in
North America.

 D-AMPS Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, is an upgraded version of AMPS. The newer GSM
networks are replacing the older system.

 Wi-Fi networks broadcast radio waves that can be picked up by Wi-Fi receivers that are attached to
different computers which enable connection to the internet.

 Fixed Wireless Data is used to connect two or more buildings together in order to extend or share
the network bandwidth without physically wiring the buildings together.

Uses of Wireless Networks:

 Information is sent overseas or behind enemy lines easily and quickly with reliability.

 Cellular phones.

 Emergency services such as the police department.

 Inexpensive and rapid way to be connected to the Internet in Developing Countries.

WEP: Wired Equivalent Privacy & WPA: Wi-Fi Protected Access:

A wireless network is more vulnerable because anyone can try to break into a network broadcasting a
signal. Many networks offer WEP - Wired Equivalent Privacy - security systems which have been found
to be vulnerable to intrusion. Though WEP does block some intruders, the security problems have
caused some businesses to stick with wired networks until security can be improved. Another type of
security for wireless networks is WPA - Wi-Fi Protected Access. WPA provides more security to wireless
networks than a WEP security set up. The use of firewalls will help with security breaches which can help
to fix security problems in some wireless networks that are more vulnerable.

Internet Connections: DSL vs. fiber vs. cable vs. satellite: A quick
comparison:

Internet Type Affordability Speed Reliability

 DSL Moderate Moderate Moderate

FIBER Moderate to Low Very High High

CABLE Moderate High High

SATELLITE Low Low Low