Chapter 8

Convection: internal flow

An internal flow, such as flow in a pipe, is one for which the fluid is confined by a surface. Hence the boundary layer is unable to
develop without eventually being constrained. The internal flow configuration represents a convenient geometry for heating and
cooling fluids used in chemical processing, environmental control, and energy conversion technologies.

We begin by considering velocity (hydrodynamic) effects pertinent to internal flows, focusing on certain unique features of boundary
layer development. Thermal boundary layer effects are considered next, and an overall energy balance is applied to determine fluid
temperature variations in the flow direction. Finally, correlations for estimating the convection heat transfer coefficient are presented
for a variety of internal flow conditions.

Hydrodynamic considerations

When considering external flow, it is necessary to ask only whether this flow is laminar or turbulent. However, for an internal flow
we must also be concerned with the existence of entrance and fully developed regions.

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Flow conditions

Consider laminar flow in a circular tube of radius r0, where fluid enters the tube with a uniform velocity. Fig. 4.

When the fluid makes contact with the surface, viscous effects become important and a boundary layer develops with increasing x.
This development occurs at the expense of a shrinking inviscid flow region and concludes with boundary layer merger at the
centerline. Following this merger, viscous effects extend over the entire cross section and the velocity profile no longer changes with
increasing x. The flow in the said to be fully developed, and the distance from the entrance at which this condition is achieved is
termed the hydrodynamic entry length, xfd.h. As shown in Fig.4, the fully developed velocity profile is parabolic for laminar flow in a
circular tube. For turbulent, the profile is flatter due to turbulent mixing in the radial direction. The Reynolds number for flow in a
u m D
circular tube is defined as: Re D  , where um is the mean fluid velocity over the tube section and D is the tube diameter.

In a fully developed flow, the critical Reynolds number corresponding to the onset of turbulence is: Re D ,c  2300
Hydrodynamic entry length:
- Laminar flow x fd ,h / D  0.05 Re D

2
 - Turbulent flow x fd , h / D  10

The mean velocity

Because the velocity varies over the cross section and there is no well-defined free stream, it is necessary to work with a mean velocity
um when dealing with internal flow.

  u (r , x) dAc
For every differential area dAc: dm   
m  dm
  u ( r , x (1)
) dAc
A A

This velocity is defined such that, when multiplied by the fluid density ρ and the cross-sectional area of the tube Ac it provides the

rate mass flow through the tube: m  u m Ac

Overall rate of mass transfer through a tube with cross section Ac: m and m
 , where u is the mean (average)
  u m Ac um  m
velocity. Ac

Combining with (1): um   u ( r , x )dAc 2 ro


Ac
 u (r , x )rdr
Ac ro2 0

 Can determine average temperature at any axial location (along the x-direction), from knowledge of the velocity profile

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Velocity profile in a pipe

The form of the velocity profile may readily be determined for the laminar flow of an incompressible, constant property fluid in the
fully developed region of a circular tube (pipe).

An important feature of hydrodynamic conditions in the fully developed region is that both the radial velocity component υ and the
gradient of the axial velocity component (∂u/∂x) are everywhere zero. υ = 0 and (∂u/∂x) = 0.

The radial dependence of the axial velocity may be obtained by solving the appropriate form of the x-momentum equation:
1  dp  2   r 
2

u (r )    ro 1     ro2 dp
4   dx    ro   um  
 , the foregoing result may be used to determine the mean velocity of the flow: 8 dx ,
u (r )  r 
2

substituting this mean velocity into above equation, the velocity profile is then:  2 1    
.
um   ro  

Since um can be computed from knowledge of the mass flow rate, equation for mean velocity can be used to determine the pressure
gradient.

4
Thermal considerations

Now we will consider thermal effects. If fluid enters the tube of Fig 5 at a uniform temperature T (r,0) that is less than the surface
temperature, convection heat transfer occurs and a thermal boundary layer begins to develop.

Fig 5. Thermal boundary layer development in a heated circular tube.

Moreover, if the tube surface condition is fixed by imposing either a uniform temperature (Ts is constant) or a uniform heat flux
( q s is constant), a thermally fully developed conditions is eventually reached. The shape of the fully developed temperature profile T
(r, x) differs according to whether a uniform surface temperature or heat flux is maintained.

5
The mean temperature

Just as the absence of a free stream velocity requires use of a mean velocity to describe an internal flow, the absence of a fixed free
stream temperature necessitates using a mean temperature.

We can write Newton’s law of cooling inside a tube, by

considering a mean temperature, instead of T∞ q "x  h(TS  Tm )

The internal energy per unit mass for a differential area is: dE  dm cT (r , x)  ( udAc )cT (r , x)
Integrating over the entire cross section: E   dE   uc T (r , x)dAc (2)
A A

E
Overall rate of energy transfer : E  m c Tm and
Tm 
m c where Tm is the mean (average) velocity

Combining above equation with (2):  uc T ( r , x)dAc 2 ro


Ac
Tm   uT (r , x)rdr
m
 c um ro2 0

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Fully developed conditions
• For internal flows, the temperature, T(r), as well as the mean temperature, T m always vary in the x-direction, i.e. dT ( r )
 0,
dTm
0
dx dx

Although T(r) changes with x, the relative shape of the temperature profile remains the same: Flow is thermally fully
developed.

  Ts ( x)  T ( r , x) 
  0
x  Ts ( x)  Tm ( x)  fd ,t

• A fully developed thermally region is possible, if one of two possible surface conditions
exist :
– Uniform temperature (Ts=constant)
– Uniform heat flux (qx”=const)
( x fd ,t / D ) lam  0.05 Re D Pr

• Thermal Entry Length : ( x fd ,t / D ) turb  10

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It can be proven that for fully developed conditions, the local convection coefficient is a constant, independent of x:

hfd
h  f (x )

xfd,t x

Mean temperature variation along a tube

We are still left with the problem of knowing how the mean temperature Tm(x), varies as a function of distance, so
that we can use it in Newton’s law of cooling to estimate convection heat transfer.
 Consider an energy balance on a differential control volume inside the tube, Fig 6:
– Main contributions are due to internal energy changes [=
m
 c Tm
], convection heat transfer and flow work [=pυ],
needed to move fluid.

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 dqconv  q sPdx P=surface perimeter

Tm Tm + dTm
dqconv  m d (cTm  p )
(pV) pV +d(pV)

dx
0 x L Fig 6. Control volume for internal flow in a tube.
Inlet,i Outlet,o
The rate of convection heat transfer to the fluid is equal to the rate
at which the fluid thermal energy increases, plus the net rate at
which is work is done in moving the fluid through the control
volume

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 Considering perfect gas, or incompressible dqconv  m c p dTm (3)
liquid:
By integrating: qconv  m c p (Tm ,o  Tm ,i ) (4)

qconv is related to mean temperatures at inlet and outlet.

Combining equations Newton’s law of cooling and (3): dTm qs" P P

  h(Ts  Tm ) (5)
dx m c p m c p
where P=surface perimeter =πD for circular tube, width for flat plate

Integration of this equation will result in an expression for the variation of Tm as a function of x.

This is an extremely useful result, from which the axial variation of Tm may be determined. If Ts> Tm, heat is transferred to the fluid
and Tm increases with x; if Ts< Tm, opposite is true.

The solution to the equation (5) for Tm(x) depends on the surface thermal condition. Recall that the special cases of interest are
constant surface heat flux and constant surface temperature.

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Case 1: constant heat flux
For constant surface heat flux we note that it is a simple matter to determine the total heat transfer rate qconv. Since q s is independent
qconv  q s" A  q s" ( P  L )
of x, it follows that , where P=surface perimeter =πD for circular tube, =width for flat plate.

This expression could be used with equation (4) to determine the fluid temperature change, Tm,o – Tm,i.

For constant q”s it also follows that the right-hand side of equation (5) is a constant independent of x. Integrating from x = 0, it follows
"
qs P
Tm ( x )  Tm , i  x
m
 c p
that

Accordingly, the mean temperature varies linearly with x along the tube, Fig 6.

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Case 2: constant surface temperature, t s = constant

Results for the total heat transfer rate and the axial distribution of the mean temperature are entirely different for the constant
surface temperature condition.
dTm d (T ) P
  hT
From equation (5) with Ts – Tm = ∆T: dx dx m cp

Ts  Tm ( x )  Px 
 exp  h
Integrating from x to any downstream location: Ts  Tm ,i  m  c 
 p 

Ts  Tm ,o To  PL 
  exp  h
For the entire length of the tube:Ts  Tm ,i Ti  m  c 
 p 

To  Ti
Total heat transfer rate: qconv  h As Tlm where Tlm 
ln(To / Ti )

As is the tube surface area, As=P.L=πDL

∆Tlm is the log mean temperature difference.

Fig 7 Axial temperature variations for heat transfer in a tube, constant surface temperature.

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Case 3: uniform external temperature

Replace Ts by T∞ andby (the overall heat transfer coefficient, which includes contributions due to convection at the tube inner
and outer surfaces, and due to conduction across the tube wall)

To T  Tm,o  U As 
  exp  
Ti T  Tm,i  m c 
 p 
q  U As Tlm

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 Summary
We discussed fully developed flow conditions for cases involving internal flows, and we defined mean velocities and temperatures
We wrote Newton’s law of cooling using the mean temperature, instead of T∞
q "  h(TS  Tm )

Based on an overall energy balance, we obtained an alternative expression to calculate convection heat transfer as a function of
mean temperatures at inlet and outlet.

We obtained relations to express the variation ofqTm with length, for cases involving constant heat flux and constant wall
conv  mc p (Tm ,o  Tm ,i )
temperature

qs" P Ts  Tmlaw To  PL 

We used these definitions, to obtain
Tm ( x)  Tm ,i  appropriate
x versions of Newton’s ,o
of cooling,
 expfor
 internal
h  flows, for cases involving
m c p Ts  Tm ,i Ti  m c 
constant wall temperature and constant surrounding fluid temperature  p 
where
We can combine above three equations with the to obtain values of the heat transfer coefficient.

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 Thermal analysis and convection correlations
To use many of foregoing results, the convection coefficients must be known. Correlations exist for various problems involving
internal flow, including laminar and turbulent flow in circular and non-circular tubes.

 For laminar flow we can derive h dependence theoretically.

 For turbulent flow we use empirical correlations.

Laminar flow in circular tubes

1. fully developed region

We start from the energy equation; written for fully developed, flow in one direction and substitute known velocity profile for flow in
T T    T  u (r )   r 2 
u    r     
Tubes x r r r  r  where υ = 0 and u  2 1   r 
m   o  

11 q s"
For constant heat flux, the solution of the differential equation is: Tm ( x )  Ts ( x )   48 k
q s"  const

"
 h  48
Combining with Newton’s law of cooling: q x (TSthat
it follows Tm
h  )  k / D
11
hD
 For cases involving uniform heat flux: Nu D  k  4.36 q s"  const
the Nusselt number is a constant, independent of
ReD, Pr, and axial location.
Nu D  3.66 Ts  const
 For cases involving constant surface temperature:

2. entry region: velocity & temperature are functions of x

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 T T    T 
The solution to the energy equation u x   r  r r  r r , for the entry region is more difficult to obtain, since velocity and
 
temperature now depends on x as well as r.

However, two different entry length solutions have been obtained.

The simplest solution is for the thermal entry length problem, and it is bases on assuming that thermal conditions develop in the
presence of a fully developed velocity profile.

In contrast, the combined (thermal & velocity) entry length problem corresponds to the case for which the temperature and velocity
profiles develop simultaneously.

Solutions have been obtained for both entry length conditions.

For constant surface temperature condition:

0.0668( D / L) Re D Pr
 Thermal entry length case Nu  3.66  1  0.04[( D / L) Re Pr]2 / 3
D
D

0.14
Ts  const
1/ 3
 Re D Pr     0.48  Pr  16,700
 Combined entry length case Nu  1.86 L / D    where
 s
D
 
0.0044   9.75
s

T m ,i  T m , o
All properties, except μs evaluated at average value of mean temperature Tm 
2

Turbulent flow in circular tubes

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  For a smooth surface and fully turbulent conditions the Dittus-Boelter equation may be used for small to moderate
0.7  Pr  160
temperature
Re D  10,000
differences Ts – Tm: Nu D  0.023 Re 4/5
D Pr for L / D  10
n
where n = 0.4 for heating (Ts > Tm), and 0.3 for cooling (Ts < Tm).

0.7  Pr  16,700
0.14
   Re D  10,000
Nu D  0.027 Re 4/5
Pr 1/ 3
 
 For large property variations, Sieder and Tate equation: D
 s  for L / D  10

All properties, except μs evaluated at average value of mean temperature.

( f / 8) Re D Pr
 The effects of wall roughness may be considered by using the Petukhov correlation: Nu D  1.07  12.7( f / 8)1/ 2 (Pr 2 / 3  1)
0.5  Pr  2000
for
10 4  Re D  5  10 6

( f / 8)(Re D  1000) Pr 0.5  Pr  2000

 For smaller Reynolds numbers, Gnielinski correlation: Nu D  for 3000  Re D  5  106
1  12.7( f / 8)1/ 2 (Pr 2 / 3  1)
Friction factors may be obtained from Moody diagram etc.

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