86-1

Objectives

• Identify types of systems and controls used

in computer numerical control
• List steps required to produce a part by
computer numerical control
• Discuss advantages and disadvantages of
computer numerical control
 86-2

Numerical Control
• Method of accurately controlling operation
of a machine tool by series of coded
instructions that the machine control unit
(MCU) can understand
– Instructions converted into electrical pulses of
current which machine motors and controls
follow
• Computer numerical control (CNC)
machines minimize human error
 86-3

Theory of CNC
• Enable industry to consistently produce
parts to accuracies undreamed of a few years
ago
• Same part can be reproduced to same degree
of accuracy any number of times with
amazing speed
– Computer properly programmed
– Machine properly set up
 86-4

Role of a Computer in CNC

• Found many uses in overall manufacturing
process
• Fill three major roles in CNC:
1. Almost all machine control units include or
incorporate computer in operation
2. Most of part programming for CNC machine
tools done with off-line computer assistance
3. Increasing number of machine tools controlled
or supervised by computers that may be in
separate control room (direct numerical
control-DNC)
 86-5

Two Types of Computers

• Analog
– Used primarily in scientific research and
problem solving
– Replaced in most cases by digital computers
• Digital
– Accepts input of digital information in
numerical form, processes it and develops
output data
 86-6

Three Categories of Computers

and Computer Systems
• Mainframe
– Can be used to do more than one job at a time
– Large with huge capacity of storage
– Company's main computer
• Minicomputer
– Smaller in size and capacity
– Dedicated type so performs specific tasks
• Microcomputer
– One chip contains arithmetic-logic and control-
logic functions of the central processing unit
 86-7

Computer Functions
• To receive coded instructions (input data) in
numerical form
• Process information
• Produce output data that causes machine
tool to function
• Most common method to input data is
directly through computer
 86-8

CNC Performance
• Great advances since NC introduced in mid
1950s
• Early machines capable only of point-to-
point positioning and very costly
• Cost has continually lowered
– Within financial reach of small manufacturing
shops and educational institutions
 86-9

CNC Offers Industry Many Advantages

CNC Offers

Accuracy
Repeatability
.0001-.0002 in.

Reliability Productivity
 86-10

Advantages of CNC
1. Greater operator safety
2. Greater operator efficiency
3. Reduction of scrap
4. Reduced lead time for production
5. Fewer chances for human error
6. Maximum part accuracy and interchange
 86-11

7. Complex machining operations

8. Lower tooling costs
9. Increased productivity
10. Minimal spare parts inventory
11. Greater machine tool safety
12. Fewer worker hours for inspection
13. Greater machine utilization
14. Reduced space requirements
 86-12

Cartesian Coordinates
• Allows any specific point on job to be
described in mathematical terms in relation to
any other point along three perpendicular axes
• Machine tool construction based on three axes
of motion (X, Y, Z) plus axis of rotation
– Example: Vertical milling machine
• X axis is horizontal movement (right or left) of table
• Y axis is table cross movement (to/away from column)
• Z axis is vertical movement of knee or spindle
 86-13

Three-Dimensional
Coordinate Planes
• X and Y planes are horizontal and represent
horizontal machine table motions
• Z plane represents vertical tool motion
• Plus and minus signs indicate direction of
movement from zero point along axis
• Four quadrants formed when X-Y axes cross
are numbered in counterclockwise direction
 86-14

Coordinate System
+Y
Quadrant II Quadrant I
(-X, +Y) (+X, +Y)

-X X Axis +X

Quadrant III Origin, or

Quadrant I
(-X, -Y) Zero Point
(+X, -Y)
Two intersecting lines
-Y
that form right angles
 86-15

Three-Dimensional Coordinate Planes

+Z
+Y
-X

+X

-Y
-Z
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display.
 86-16

Guidelines to Follow When Using the

System of Rectangular Coordinates
1. Use reference points on part itself
2. Use Cartesian coordinates – specifying X, Y, and
Z planes – to define all part surfaces
3. Establish reference planes along part surfaces
that are parallel to machine axes
4. Establish allowable tolerances at design stage
5. Describe part so that cutter path may be easily
determined and programmed
6. Dimension part so it is easy to determine shape
without calculations or guessing
 86-17

Machine Axes

• Every CNC machine tool has sliding and

rotary controllable axes
• Letters (addresses) used to identify each
direction of table or spindle movement
– Combined with number to form word
establishes distance axis moves
 86-18

Electronics Industries
Association (EIA) Standard
• Longest horizontal axis movement is X axis,
Y axis assigned to perpendicular to both X
and Z axes
• Secondary axes parallel to X, Y, Z axes
• A, B, and C refer to rotary motion axes
around primary axes
 86-19

• I, J, and K words used for rotary axes when

circular interpolation used for programming
circles or partial arcs
• R word represents radius of circle
• U and W words for incremental movement
parallel to X and Z primary axes
– Chucking and turning centers
 86-20

Machines Using CNC

• Used on all types of machine tools, from
simplest to most complex
– Two common: chucking center (lathe) and
machining center (milling machine)
1. Chucking centers
– Developed in mid-1960s
– Operates on two axes
▪ X axis control cross motion of turret head
▪ Z axis control lengthwise travel of turret head
 86-21

2. Engine lathe (two axes)

• X axis controls cross motion of cutting tool
• Z axis controls carriage travel toward/away
from headstock

+X
X axis controls table movement
left or right

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
 86-22

3. Machining centers
• Developed in 1960s
• Allow more operations to be done on part in
one setup instead of moving from machine to
machine
• Two main types of machining centers
• Horizontal
• Vertical spindle (three axis)
• X axis controls table movement left or right
• Y axis controls table movement toward or sway
from column
• Z axis controls vertical movement of spindle or
knee
 86-23

4. Milling machine (three axis)

• Performs operations such as milling, drilling,
gear cutting,
contouring

X axis controls table

movement left or right

Y axis control table Z axis controls

movement toward or vertical movement
away from column of knee or spindle

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
 86-24

Programming Systems
• Two types of programming modes
– Incremental system
– Absolute system
• Most controls on machine tools capable of
handling both by altering code between G90
(absolute) and G91 (incremental) commands
 86-25

Incremental System
• Program dimensions or positions given from
current point
• Disadvantage
– If error made in any location, error
automatically carried over to all following
locations
• G91 command tells computer and MCU to
be in incremental mode
 86-26

Command codes tell machine to move table,

spindle, and knee on vertical milling machine

• “plus X” (+X) causes cutting tool to be located to right of the

last point
• “minus X” (-X) causes cutting tool to be located to left of the
last point
• “plus Y” (+Y) causes cutting tool to be located toward column
• “minus Y” (-Y) causes cutting tool to be located away from
column
• “plus Z” (+Z) causes cutting tool or spindle to move up or
away from workpiece
• “minus Z” (-Z) moves cutting tool down or into workpiece
 86-27

Absolute System
• All dimensions or positions given from one
reference point on job or machine
• All dimensions given from zero or reference
point
• Errors not carried to any other location
• G90 command indicates to computer and
MCU that program is to be in absolute mode
 86-28

Absolute System Commands

• “plus X” (+X)
– causes cutting tool to be located to right of zero point
• “minus X” (-X)
– causes cutting tool to be located to left of zero point
• “plus Y ” (+Y)
– causes cutting tool to be located toward column (above zero)
• “minus Y” (-Y)
– causes cutting tool to be located away from column (below zero)
• “plus Z ” (+Z)
– causes cutting tool to move above program Z0 (top surface of part)
• “minus Z” (-Z)
– causes cutting tool to move below the program Z0
 86-29

CNC Positioning Systems

• Two distinct categories
– Point-to-point
– Continuous-path
• Both can be handled by most control units
• Knowledge of both programming methods
necessary to understand what application
each has in CNC
 86-30

Point-to-Point Positioning
• Consists of any number of programmed
points joined together by straight lines
• Used to accurately locate spindle, or
workpiece mounted on machine table to
perform operations
• Process of positioning from one coordinate
(X-Y) position or location to another,
perform the operation, clear tool from work,
and move to next location
 86-31

Rapid Travel
• Point-to-point machining moves from one
point to another as fast as possible (rapids)
while cutting tool above work surface
• Used to quickly position cutting tool
between location points
– Rate between 200 and 800 in./min
• Both axes (X and Y) move simultaneously
– Movement along 45º angle line until one axis
reached, then straight line movement to other
 86-32

Continuous-Path (Contouring)
• Involves work produced on lathe or milling
machine where cutting tool usually in
contact with workpiece as it travels from
one programmed point to next
• Ability to control motions on two or more
machine axes simultaneously
• Information in CNC program must
accurately position cutting tool and follow
predefined accurate path
 86-33

Control Systems
• Two main types of control systems
– Open loop
– Closed loop
• Most machine tools manufactured contain
closed loop system
– Very accurate and result in better quality work
• Open loop systems can still be found on
older NC machines
 86-34

Open Loop System

• Input data fed into machine control unit
• Decoded information sorted until CNC
machining cycle started by operator
• Program commands converted into electric
pulses
– Sent to MCU to energize servo control units
which direct servomotors to perform certain
functions
– Amount servomotor moves lead screw depends
on number of electric pulses
 86-35

Closed Loop System

• Similar to open loop system with exception that
feedback unit added to electric circuit
– Feedback unit used for absolute position control and/or
velocity feedback
• Linear encoder consist of scale mounted to
stationary part of machine
– Uses slide mounted to moving part of machine
• Control unit tells servomotor to adjust until both
signal from control unit and signal from servo unit
equal (one pulse causes .0001 in. movement)
 86-36

Input Media
• Early media was 1-in. wide, 8-track punched tape
• Other types
– Magnetic tape, punched cards, magnetic disks, and
manual data input (MDI)
• Computer keyboard formatted to American
Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) standard to input directly to machine
control unit
– Microcomputer along with communications software
becoming preferred input method
 86-37

Types of Computer Control

• Two types of control units
– CNC control
• Evolved from DNC applications in early 1970s
• Generally used to control individual machines
– DNC control
• Used where six or more CNC machines involved in
complete manufacturing program
 86-38

Four Main Parts of Computer

Numerical Control System
1. General-purpose computer, which gathers and
stores programmed information
2. Control unit which communicates and directs
flow on information between computer and
machine control unit
3. Machine logic, receives information and passes it
on to machine control unit
4. Machine control unit which contains servo units,
speed and feed controls, and machine operations
 86-39

Computer Numerical Control

• Built around powerful minicomputer
– Contains large memory capacity
– Many features to assist in programming
• Microcomputers are now incorporated into
controls
• Program stored in computer memory
• Main advantage is ability to operate in live mode
– Enables program changes at machine so programs can
be tried, corrected, and revised correctly
 86-40

Advantages of CNC
Programming
• More flexible because changes can be made to
program
• Can diagnose programs on graphic display screen
• Can be integrated with DNC systems in complex
manufacturing systems by using communications
loop
• Increases productivity
• Makes corrections on first part possible
• Practical to produce short-run lots (even profitable)
 86-41

Direct Numerical Control System

• Number of CNC equipped machines
controlled from mainframe computer
• Can handle scheduling of work and
download complete program into machine's
memory when new parts required
• Equipped with own minicomputer or
microcomputer
– Can operate each machine individually
 86-42

Advantages of DNC
• Single computer can control many machine
tools at same time
• Time saved in eliminating program errors or
revising program
• Programming faster, simpler, and more
flexible
• Operating costs lower than with NC
 86-43

• Computer can record any production,

machining, or time data required
• Main control unit can be kept in clean
processing room, away from dirty shop
conditions
• When three or more machines DNC-
controlled, initial cost lower than for
conventional NC
 86-44

Programming Format
• Most common type is word address format
– Large number of different codes to transfer
program information to machine servos, relays,
and micro-switches to carry out machine
movements
• Codes then put together in logical sequence
called block of information
– One step of operation
 86-45

Word Address Format

• Format used on CNC system determined by
machine tool builder
– Based on control unit of machine
• Uses words
– Address character (letter) such as S, X, Y, T, F,
or M
– Alphabetical character followed by numerical
data used to identify specific function or give
distance, feed rate or speed value
 86-46

Codes
• Most common CNC programming codes
– G-codes: preparatory commands
– M-codes: miscellaneous functions
• F, S, D, H, P, and T
– Used to represent functions: feed, speed, cutter
diameter offset, tool length compensation,
subroutine call, tool number, etc.
• A (angle) and R (radius) used to locate
points on arcs and circles
 86-47

G-Codes
• Refer to some action occurring on X, Y,
and/or Z axis of machine tool
• Grouped into categories with group number
• G00 used to rapidly position cutting tool
from one point to another point
• G01, G02, and G03
– Move axes at controlled feed rate
– G01 used for linear interpolation
– G02 (clockwise) and G03 (counterclockwise)
used for circular interpolation
 86-48

G-Codes
• Some classified as modal or nonmodal
– Modal codes stay in effect in program until
changed by another code from same group
– Nonmodal codes stay in effect for one operation
only and must be programmed again whenever
required
• Many of the common G-codes that conform
to EIA standards shown on next slide and in
text in Fig. 86-28
 86-49

Commonly Used EIA Preparatory Codes

Group G-code Function EIA—274-D
01 G00 Rapid positioning Standard
01 G01 Linear interpolation
01 G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW)
01 G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)
00 G04 Dwell
00 G10 Offset value setting
Portion of Figure 86-28
02 G17 XY plane selection from textbook
02 G18 ZX plane selection
02 G19 YZ plane selection
06 G20 Inch input (in.)
 86-50

M-Codes
• Used to turn either on or off different
functions that control certain machine tool
operations (not grouped by categories)
• M03 turns machine spindle clockwise
• M04 turns spindle counterclockwise
• M05 turns off spindle
• All three of the codes above are modal
• Common M-codes in text in Fig. 86-29
 86-51

Most Common EIA M-codes

M-Code Function
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start (forward CW)
M04 Spindle start (reverse CCW)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
Portion of Figure 86-29
M07 Mist coolant on from textbook
M08 Flood coolant on
M09 Coolant off
 86-52

Block of Information
• Should contain only enough information to
carry out one step of a machining operation
• Example:
– Tool moves from one point to another, then to
third point which is two moves (two blocks)
• Cannot give first point and third point as one move
so cannot combine blocks
 86-53

Interpolation
• Generation of data points between given
coordinate position of axes
• Interpolator (device within MCU)
– Causes drives to move simultaneously from
start of command to completion
• Always performed under programmed feed
rates
 86-54

Types of Interpolation
• Linear interpolation for straight-line
machining between two points
• Circular interpolation for circles and arcs
• Helical interpolation for threads and helical
forms
• Parabolic and cubic interpolation used by
industries that manufacture parts having
complex shapes
 86-55

Linear Interpolation
• Consists of any programmed points joined
together by straight lines
• Include horizontal, vertical, or angular lines
where points may be close together or far
apart
 86-56

Circular Interpolation
• Make process of programming arc and
circles easy
• Basic information required to program circle
– Position of circle center
– Start and end points of arc being cut
– Direction of cut
– Feed rate for tool
 86-57

The circle center position, radius, start point, end

point, and direction of cut are required for circular
interpolation.

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Permission required for reproduction or display.
 86-58

Methods Used to
Write Block for Arc
• One method uses I and J command to
identify coordinates of center of arc
• Simpler method uses R (radius of arc)
command, which MCU uses to calculate
arc center
 86-59

Program Planning
• Information gathered, analyzed and
calculated before writing program
• Consider capabilities of machine
– Capacity
– Tooling requirements
– Programming format
– etc.
 86-60

Questions Programmer Needs to Ask for

Successfully Programming a Part
1. What are proper cutting speeds and feeds
for type of material being machined?
2. How will part be held? Will clamps
interfere with movement of axes?
3. Are required tools and holders available?
4. Will special coolant be required, or are
present type and concentration correct?
 86-61

5. What is the table feed direction?

6. How fast can tool be moved to location:
rapid traverse or at feed rate?
7. What will tool do when it reaches its
location – for example, drill hole or mill
pocket?
8. Where will the part zero point, or origin,
be located, on part of the machine?
 86-62

Tool List
• List of all tools required for machining
process
– Complete with correct speeds and feeds for
each tool based
• Tool material type
• Type of material being cut
• Depth of cut
• Some CNC systems require presetting tool
length for purpose of offsets
– Special gage needed
 86-63

Manuscript

• Programmer records on prepared form all

instructions that machine tool must have to
complete job
– Contains all machine tool movements, cutting
tools, speeds, feeds and any other information
– Uniform format and clear as possible
 86-64

Manuscript Information
1. Part sketch
2. Zero (or reference) point
3. Work-holding device (include setups)
4. Sequence of operations
5. Axes dimensions
6. Tool list and identification
7. Speeds and feeds
8. Operator instructions