CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMS

Objectives

• To understand the defination of systems.

• To identify the classification of systems.

2.0 Introduction

A system is generally defined as combination of several components having one or more input
signals (excitation) being process until produces one or more output signals (response) to
perform a desired task.

Input Signal Output Signal

Process
x (t) y (t)

Figure 2.0: Block diagram of a system

2.1 Classification of Systems

Basically, systems can be classified into 5 categories. Each type of category has different
characteristics. 5 types of systems that are commonly classified are:
• With Memory or Without Memory
• Causal or Non-Causal
• Time-Variant or Time-Invariant
• Linear or Non-Linear
• Continuous Time or Discrete Time
2.1.1 With Memory (Dynamic) or Without Memory (Instantaneous/Static/
Memoryless)

A system is said to be without memory if the present value of the output depends only on the
present value of the input, if the present output depends on the past or the future input then the
system is said to be with memory. All differential equations also are with memory system.

The procedures for testing whether the system is with memory or without memory is
summarized as in the following steps:

1. Let t be any value (choose one value).

2. Substitute all t in input value with the value chosen for the present output.
3. Determine each of the input value whether equal, more or less than the present output
value chosen before.
4. Justify whether the system is with memory or without memory based on the
characteristics stated above.

Let say present value of the output is 5, therefore:

 
Figure 2.1.1: Determination of past and future input value based on present output value
Note:
Table 1: Differentiation between With Memory and Without Memory System

With Memory Without Memory

• Present output depends on past or • Present output depends only on present

future input. input.
• All differential equations.

Example 1

Justify whether the following systems are with memory or without memory:
a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

b) y (t ) = 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )

c) y" (t ) + 2 y' (t ) − 3 y (t ) = 12 x (t )

Solutions
a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6
Let t = 2 , substitute into equation:
y (2 ) = 7 x (2 ) + 6
Since present output depends only on present input, therefore system is without
memory.

b) y (t ) = 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
Let t = 2 , substitute into equation:
y (2 ) = 8 x (2 ) + 7 x (7 )
Since present output depends on present and future input, therefore system is with
memory.

c) y" (t ) + 2 y' (t ) − 3 y (t ) = 12 x (t )
All differential equations are with memory system.
2.1.2 Causal (nonanticipatory / physically realizable) or Non-Causal

A system is said to be causal if the present output does not depend on the future input, the
output can depends on the past or the present input. In other words, the output at any time t0
depends only on values of the input for t < t0. If the output depends on the future input then the
system is non-causal.

The procedures for testing whether the system is causal or non-causal is summarized as in the
following steps (same as with memory or without memory methods):

1. Let t be any value (choose one value).

2. Substitute all t in input value with the value chosen for the present output.
3. Determine each of the input value whether equal, more or less than the present output
value chosen before.
4. Justify whether the system is causal or non-causal based on the characteristics stated
above.

Note:
Table 2: Differentiation between With Memory and Without Memory System

Causal Non-Causal

• Present output does not depend on • Present output depends on future input.
future input.

Example 2

Justify whether the following systems are causal or non-causal:

a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

b) y (t ) = 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
Solutions

a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6
Let t = 2 , substitute into equation:
y (2 ) = 7 x (2 ) + 6
Since present output does not depend on future input, therefore system is causal.

b) y (t ) = 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
Let t = 2 , substitute into equation:
y (2 ) = 8 x (2 ) + 7 x (7 )
Since present output depends on future input, therefore system is non-causal.

2.1.3 Time-Variant or Time-Invariant

A system is said to be time-variant if input-output relationship varies with time, which is the
same input produces different output at different time (keeping other factors constant). If the
output-input relationship does not vary with time, that is the same input produces, the same
output at different time (keeping other factors constant) then the system is time-invariant. In
other words, a time shift in the input signal causes an identical time shift in the output signal.

The procedures for testing whether the system is time-variant or time-invariant is summarized
as in the following steps:

1. Let y 1 ( t ) be the output corresponding to the input x1 ( t ) .

2. Consider a 2nd input, x 2 ( t ) , obtained by shifting x1 ( t ) .

x 2 ( t ) = x1 ( t − t 0 )

Find the output y 2 ( t ) corresponding to the input x 2 ( t ) .

3. From step 1, find y 1 ( t − t 0 ) , and compare with y 2 ( t ) .

4. If y 2 ( t ) = y 1 ( t − t 0 ) , then the system is time-invariant. Otherwise, it is time-variant

system.
Note:
Table 3: Differentiation between Time-Variant and Time-Invariant System

Time-Variant Time-Invariant

• Input and output relationship varies with • Input and output relationship does not
time. vary with time.
y 2 ( t ) ≠ y1 ( t − t 0 )
y 2 ( t ) = y1 ( t − t 0 )

Example 3

Determine whether the following systems are time-variant or time-invariant:

a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

b) y (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
dy (t )
c) = 5 e10 t x (t ) − 3
dt

Solutions

a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

x1 (t ) → y 1 (t ) = 7 x1 (t ) + 6     ………(1) 

x 2 (t ) → y 2 (t ) = 7 x 2 (t ) + 6   ………(2) 

Substitute x 2 (t ) = x1 (t − t 0 ) into equation (2): 

y 2 (t ) = 7 x1 (t − t 0 ) + 6  

From equation (1), substitue all t = t − t 0 : 

y 1 (t − t 0 ) = 7 x1 (t − t 0 ) + 6  

Since y 2 ( t ) = y 1 ( t − t 0 ) , therefore system is time-invariant.

b) y (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
x1 (t ) → y 1 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x1 (t ) + 7 x1 (t + 5 )     ………(1) 

x 2 (t ) → y 2 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x 2 (t ) + 7 x 2 (t + 5 )  ………(2) 

Substitute x 2 (t ) = x1 (t − t 0 ) into equation (2): 

 y 2 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x1 (t − t 0 ) + 7 x1 (t − t 0 )  

From equation (1), substitue all t = t − t 0 : 

y 1 (t − t 0 ) = 3 sin (t − t 0 ) + 8 x1 (t − t 0 ) + 7 x1 (t − t 0 + 5 )  

Since y 2 ( t ) ≠ y 1 ( t − t 0 ) , therefore system is time-variant.

 
dy (t )
c) = 5 e10 t x (t ) − 3
dt
dy 1 (t )
x1 (t ) → = 5 e10 t x1 (t ) − 3     ………(1) 
dt
dy 2 (t )
x 2 (t ) → = 5 e10 t x 2 (t ) − 3   ………(2) 
dt
Substitute x 2 (t ) = x1 (t − t 0 ) into equation (2): 
dy 2 (t )
= 5 e10 t x1 (t − t 0 ) − 3  
dt
From equation (1), substitue all t = t − t 0 : 
dy 1 (t − t 0 )
= 5 e10 (t −t0 ) x1 (t − t 0 ) − 3  
dt
dy 2 (t ) dy 1 (t − t 0 )
Since ≠ , therefore system is time-variant.
dt dt

2.1.4 Linear or Non-Linear

A system is said to be linear if Superposition (Additivity properties and Homogeneity properties)

can be applied:
Superposition = Additivity Properties + Homogeneity Properties

Superposition simply implies that the response resulting from several input signals can be
computed as the sum of the responses resulting from each input signal acting alone. A system
is said to be non-linear if Superposition cannot be applied.
The procedures for testing whether the system is linear or non-linear is summarized as in the
following steps:

1. Let y 1 ( t ) be the output corresponding to the input x1 ( t ) and y 2 ( t ) be the output

corresponding to the input x 2 ( t ) .

2. Consider Additivity Properties: The response to x1 ( t ) + x 2 ( t ) is y 1 ( t ) + y 2 ( t ) .

3. Consider Homogeneity Properties: The response to αx1 ( t ) is αy 1 ( t ) , where α is any

arbitrary constant.
4. The two properties defining a linear system can be combined into a single statement as:
α x1 ( t ) + β x 2 ( t ) → α y 1 ( t ) + β y 2 ( t )

where α and β are arbitrary constant.

Note:
Table 4: Differentiation between Linear and Non-Linear System

Linear Non-Linear

• Superposition can be applied. • Superposition cannot be applied.

Additivity = Homogeneity Additivity ≠ Homogeneity

Example 4
Determine whether the following systems are linear or non-linear:
a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

b) y (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
dy (t )
c) = 5 e10 t x (t )
dt
d) y (t ) = 8 x (t )

Solutions

a) y (t ) = 7 x (t ) + 6

x1 (t ) → y 1 (t ) = 7 x1 (t ) + 6     ………(1) 

x 2 (t ) → y 2 (t ) = 7 x 2 (t ) + 6   ………(2)
 αx1 (t ) → αy 1 (t ) = 7 αx1 (t ) + 6     ………(3) 

βx 2 (t ) → βy 2 (t ) = 7 βx 2 (t ) + 6   ………(4) 

 
Additivity:
Sum equation (3) and (4): 
αy 1 ( t ) + βy 2 ( t ) = 7 αx1 (t ) + 6 + 7 βx 2 (t ) + 6

= 7 [αx1 (t ) + βx 2 (t )] + 12

 
Homogeneity:  
From original equation, let x (t ) = αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t ) .

y (t ) = 7 [αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t )] + 6  

Since Additivity ≠ Homogeneity, therefore system is non-linear.

b) y (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x (t ) + 7 x (t + 5 )
x1 (t ) → y 1 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x1 (t ) + 7 x1 (t + 5 )     ………(1) 

x 2 (t ) → y 2 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 x 2 (t ) + 7 x 2 (t + 5 )   ………(2)

αx1 (t ) → αy 1 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 αx1 (t ) + 7 αx1 (t + 5 )     ………(3) 

βx 2 (t ) → βy 2 (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 βx 2 (t ) + 7 βx 2 (t + 5 )   ………(4) 

 
Additivity:
Sum equation (3) and (4): 
αy 1 ( t ) + βy 2 ( t ) = 3 sin t + 8 αx1 (t ) + 7 αx1 (t + 5 ) + 3 sin t + 8 βx 2 (t ) + 7 βx 2 (t + 5 )

= 6 sin t + 8 [αx1 (t ) + βx 2 (t )] + 7 [αx1 (t + 5 ) + βx 2 (t + 5 )]

 
Homogeneity:  
From original equation, let x (t ) = αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t ) .

y (t ) = 3 sin t + 8 [αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t )] + 7 [αx1 ( t + 5 ) + βx 2 ( t + 5 )]  

Since Additivity ≠ Homogeneity, therefore system is non-linear.

 dy (t )
c) = 5 e10 t x (t )
dt
dy 1 (t )
x1 (t ) → = 5 e10 t x1 (t )     ………(1) 
dt
dy 2 (t )
x 2 (t ) → = 5 e10 t x 2 (t )   ………(2)
dt
dy 1 (t )
αx1 (t ) → α = 5 e10 t αx1 (t )     ………(3) 
dt
dy 2 (t )
βx 2 (t ) → β = 5 e10 t βx 2 (t )   ………(4) 
dt
 
Additivity:
Sum equation (3) and (4): 
αy 1 ( t ) + βy 2 ( t ) = 5 e10 t αx1 (t ) + 5 e10 t βx 2 (t )

= 5 e10 t [αx1 (t ) + βx 2 (t )]
 
Homogeneity:  
From original equation, let x (t ) = αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t ) .

dy (t )
= 5 e10 t [αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t )]  
dt

Since Additivity = Homogeneity, therefore system is linear.

d) y (t ) = 8 x (t )
x1 (t ) → y 1 (t ) = 8 x1 (t )     ………(1) 

x 2 (t ) → y 2 (t ) = 8 x 2 (t )   ………(2)

αx1 (t ) → αy 1 (t ) = 8 αx1 (t )     ………(3) 

βx 2 (t ) → βy 2 (t ) = 8 βx 2 (t )   ………(4) 

 
Additivity:
Sum equation (3) and (4): 
αy 1 ( t ) + βy 2 ( t ) = 8 αx1 (t ) + 8 βx 2 (t )

= 8 [αx1 (t ) + βx 2 (t )]
  
Homogeneity:  
From original equation, let x (t ) = αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t ) .

y (t ) = 8 [αx1 ( t ) + βx 2 ( t )]  

Since Additivity = Homogeneity, therefore system is linear.

2.1.5 Continuous Time or Discrete Time

A system is said to be continuous time if the signals processed by a system are continuous
time signals. If the signals processed by a system are discrete, then the system is said to be
discrete time system.

Note:
Table 5: Differentiation between Continuous Time and Discrete Time System

Continuous Time Discrete Time

• Processes continuous time signals • Processes discrete time signals (signals

(signals occur at all time). occur at specific of time).

Exercise 1

Consider the following systems where x( t ) is the input and y ( t ) is the output. Determine
whether each of the system is with memory or without memory, causal or non-causal, time-
variant or time-invariant and linear or non-linear. Justify your answers.

a) y ( t ) = 3 x( t )
b) y ( t ) = tx( t + 1 ) + 2

dy ( t )
c) = e10 t x( t )
dt
d) y ( t ) = 4 x( t + 5 )

e) y" (t ) + 2 y' (t ) − 3 y (t ) = 12 x (t )
f) y ( t ) = 5 tx( t + 1 ) + 10 t
Summary

1. Generally there are 5 categories of systems with their own characteristics that are:
i) With Memory or Without Memory
ii) Causal or Non-Causal
iii) Time-Variant or Time-Invariant
iv) Linear or Non-Linear
v) Continuous Time or Discrete Time

References

1. B.P. Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 2006.

2. Monson H. Hayes, Digital Signal Processing, Schaum’s Outline Series, McGRAW-HILL,

1999.