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CE 403: Transportation
Engineering II
Dr Akhilesh K Maurya

Flow at Signalized Intersections

Intersection:
An Interruption is a location where three or more roads carrying traffic in different
directions cross. The space which is common to all these roads is referred to as the
intersection.
•Signalized intersection
•Unsignalized intersection

Flow at a signalized intersection is characterized by repeated stopping/starting of vehicles

stream. Each time the light turns yellow vehicle approaching the intersection knows that the
red sign is impending and they have to stop. Each time the light turns green, they realize
that they cab go and initiate movement procedures.

Type of Signals

• Pre-timed: predefined fixed interval of timing

• Partially actuated
• Fully actuated

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Flow at Signalized Intersections

Flow Characteristics:
Interruption to traffic flow at a signalize intersection is orderly and deterministic. In this
interruption pattern following process become important for analysis:
• Arrival process
• Departure process
• Delay and queue analysis

Arrival process:
Arrival process at intersection could be of three kind:
(i) Random arrivals
(ii) Grouped arrivals
(iii) Mixed arrivals

Random arrival:
Such arrival pattern is seen on isolated intersections (i.e. no intersection is present in the vicinity, 3-4 km).
In these case inter-arrival times (time headways) are often distributed more or less according to negative
exponential distribution
( λ t ) k e − λt
P( N t = k ) =
k!
P ( H 1 ≤ h ≤ H 2 ) = e − λH 1 − e λH 2
Grouped arrival:
Such arrival pattern is seen at intersections which are located close to (say < 2 km) another upstream
intersection.
Arrival process seems to be uniform and vehicles can be assumed to arrive at reasonably constant headways.
Vehicle released from upstream intersection reached in platoon.

Mixed arrival:
Such arrival pattern is seen at intersections which are located at intermediate distances (say from 2-4 km)
another upstream intersection.
It is not purely random not purely grouped. Because of large distance many of released vehicles may disperse
from platoon vehicles and come independently.

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Departure process:
If the headway were measured as vehicle entered the intersection an interesting pattern is
observed. The first headway would be defined as the time between the initiation of the
green signal and the first vehicle’s front bumper crossing the entry line. The second
headway would be defined as the time between the first vehicle front bumper crossing the
line and the next vehicle front bumper crossing the same line and so on. The pattern
typically observed is:
headway (between the
nth and (n-1)th vehicle)

t1
t2
t3 t4
h

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n, the position in the queue
From the above figure two features emerge: (i) the headway stabilizes to a value h referred
to as the saturation headway; (ii) the initial headway are larger than h.

Saturation headway represents the maximum number of vehicle that can crass the intersection
during the green time.
Initial headways are larger than the hs because of perception reaction time and the extra time
taken to accelerate to a reasonable speed (note that later vehicles more or less achieve this
speed when they cross the specified point as they start from a distance further upstream
from the specified point). In the sense some time is lost due to the fact that initial vehicle
takes longer time than hs . Sum of these excess times is referred as start-up lost time, ls

ls = ∑ ( hi − hs )
∀i

The quantity is of the order of 2s. A typical data set from studies is shown in the following:
headwa

Greenshields (1942)
4
y

Later studies (1975)

3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
n, the position in the
queue 6

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Nearly the end of the departure process some time is also lost. This happens because invariably some part
of the amber time remains unutilized because vehicles come to a rest when some part of the amber time is
still remaining. This loss of time is referred as movement loss time ( or clearance loss time), lm.

Clearance lost time (or movement lost time) is the time between the last vehicle from one
approach entering the intersection and the initiation of the green signal for conflicting
movements, assuming condition in which demand is present to utilize the non-red times in
both approaches.

This quantity is of the order of 1.2 to 2.8 s. Longer yellow + all red times led to longer
clearance lost times.

Saturation flow rate is defined as the flow rate from a lane in the intersection assuming that
each headway is equal to the saturation flow rate headway (hs) and green exists for the entire
time period.
Hence if “hs” is the saturation flow rate headway (or saturation headway) at an intersection in
seconds then s,the saturation flow rate is:

3600 s is in vphgpl
s=
hs
However, “s” is just a theoretical quantity and what is the of prime importance is the
capacity. 7

In order to understand how the capacity is related to s consider the following example:

Example: A given lane at a traffic signal has been observed to have the following
parameter: hs=2.0 sec./veh, start-up loss time =1.5 sec., and clearance loss time=1.5 sec.
The signal provides the lane with 27sec. of green, 3 sec. of yellow and 30 sec. of red during
each 60 sec. cycle of the signal. Determine the capacity for that approach?

3600
• In one hour there are = 60 cycles.
60
• Hence total lost time in an hour = 60 (1.5+1.5) = 180 sec.
• Time available for the movement per 60 sec. is 30 sec. Hence, in 3600 sec only 1800
sec. movement is allowed.
• Out of 1800 sec., 180 sec. is lost. Hence, time in which movement take place at 2.0
sec./veh is 1800-180=1620 sec.
• Hence, capacity of the lane is
1620
= 810vph.
2.0

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Delay at signalized intersections:

To study the delay at a signalized intersection let us first look at the arrival and departure
process at a signalized intersection:

Vehicles Cumulative
A(t)
arrivals, A(t)

Q(t) Cumulative departure, D(t)

W(i)
R: Effective red
G: Effective green
C: Cycle length
W(i): Waiting time of the ith vehicle
Q(t): Queue length at time t

R G R G R G R

Cycle I Cycle II Cycle III

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Now if we assume that A(t) has a constant slope of “v”; i.e. vehicles arrive at a constant rate
of v vehicles/unit time and the maximum rate at which they are discharged is “s” vehicles
per unit time and if the number of vehicles that arrive during a cycle are cleared during the
green period then one can easily determine the average delay an individual vehicle faces
thus:
The modified diagram of A(t) and D(t) in this case is:

Vehicles
A(t)
D(t)

R G R G R G
Time
C C C

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As per previous diagram, the delay in each cycle is the

Vehicles

same. The total delay in a cycle can be determined A(t)

thus:
*
i
D(t)
∑W
d
Total delay during cycle = i or in the continuous i*
i =0 approximation
i* v

∫ Wi di
s
Total delay during cycle = Wi
0 a b t Time
Or, total delay = Area of Δ abd (1) g

C
Now Wi= - (arrival time of ith vehicle – departure time of ith vehicle)
i
Arrival time of ith vehicle = [Note slope of A(t) is v]
v
i
Departure time of ith vehicle = (C − g ) + [note slope of D(t) line in the relevant portion is s]
s
∴ v−s
Wi = (C − g ) + i  (2)
 sv 
Now t is the time where A(t) and D(t) line meet; hence

vt = s{t − (C − g )} or s(C − g )
t= (3)
(s − v)
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Hence,
vt i (v − s ) 
Total delay = ∫ (C − g ) + sv di
0
[Note i* = vt ]

(C − g ) v − s 1 2 s 2 (C − g ) 2
= (C − g )vs + × ×v
s−v sv 2 (s − v) 2
vs 1 (C − g ) 2
= (C − g ) 2 − sv
s−v 2 s−v
(C − g ) 2
= {2sv − sv}
2( s − v)
vs (C − g ) 2
=
2( s − v )
Now, total number of vehicles that arrive in the cycle is “vC”.

sv(C − g ) 2 1
Average delay = Total delay/ Total number of vehicles = ×
2( s − v ) vC

2
Average delay = (C − g ) × s (4)
2( s − v ) C
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However, equation (4) is generally written as:

2
 g
C 2 1 − 
Average delay =  C  × s
 v C
21 −  s
 s
2
 g
C 1 − 
= 
C (5)
Average delay (UD)
 v
21 − 
 s

The average delay in equation (4) is generally termed as “uniform delay” (UD) as it is based
on the assumption of uniform arrival.
Note that in equation (4) v is the volume and s is the saturation flow rate.

Note that the equation (4) can be easily obtained by using 0.5 x base x height to calculation
of area of the Δabd and then dividing it by “vC” – the total number of vehicle that arrive
during the cycle length.
d
vs (C − g ) (see previous figure)
Note i * = vt =
s −v
i*
1 vs(C − g ) vs (C − g ) 2
a b
Hence, area = (C − g ) =
2 s−v 2( s − v )
(C-g)
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vs(C − g ) 2 1 (C − g ) 2 s
∴ Average delay =
2( s − v )
× = ×
vC 2( s − v ) C
(6)

Compare equation (6) with equation (4).

The problem with the equation (4) and (6) is that, never, in reality vehicles arrive uniformly.
There is always some stochastic variation which cause queues from one cycle to overflow
into the next. This results in much larger delays especially when chances of such spill over is
large. That is, when vC (or v ) is large
gs ( g / C )s

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gs
Let us study how one could estimate delay if over saturation (i.e. v > ) exists for a finite
period of time T. It must be understood here that the over saturation C is not due to
stochastic disturbances but due to a hike in demand for a certain period of time. So the
following analysis is completely deterministic.
Consider the following case:
Arrival flow

v
v2
v1

0 T τ Time

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In this case arrival /departure diagram would look like the following:

vehicles
A(t)
D(t)
Z

v2

y
v

v1

g T τ Time
0
C

During 0 to τ the signal is over saturated. Let us estimate the average delay during this time.
The total delay during this time will be the area shaded with dots + the area shaded with
lines.

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Now, total delay due to area shaded with lines cab easily obtained by assuming the dashed
line as an arrival pattern and using the uniform delay equations.
The slope of the dashed line can be obtained by looking at any one of the small triangles.
Say if slope is σ, then Cσ = sg
g
or σ= s
C
Then by substituting “σ” in place of “v” in Equation 5 one would obtain on an average how
much time a vehicle has to wait due to the part of the figure shaded with lines.

∴ Average delay (due to “uniform” component), ADuniform

C (1 − g / C )
2
=
  gs / C 
2 1 −  
  s 
C g 1
= 1 −  = (C − g ) (7)
2 C 2
which is half of the red light period
To compare the average delay in the over saturation case, one has to add the average delay
due to the over saturation component to the average delay due to the uniform component.

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Now average delay due to over saturation component, ADosc can be obtained (note in this
discussion “wait” refers to the “waiting due to the over saturation”).

Consider the vehicle that arrives at T. This vehicle has to wait for “Z” units of time (see the
previous figure).
The vehicle that arrives at time = 0 has to wait 0 units of time.
The waiting time of vehicles between 0 and T the “wait” increases linearly (since “wait” is
the difference between two straight lines – the A(t) line and dashed line.

Therefore average “waiting” time of vehicles arriving during 0

to T is 1 Z

“wait”
Z

time
2

T
Now look at the vehicles which arrive between T and τ.
The wait time decreases from “Z” (for the vehicle that arrived at T) to 0 (for the vehicle
arrive at τ).

Therefore average “waiting” time of vehicles arriving during

“wait”
Z
T and τ is 1 Z

time
2

T
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1
Hence, one can say that the average waiting time for all vehicle arriving during 0 to τ is Z
2
Now y
= Slope of the dashed line, σ Note σ =
g
s
Z C
y
∴ Z=
 gs 
 
C 
gs  gs 
But y = vT − T = Tv − 
C  C
 gs 
Tv − 
 C  v  gs
∴ Z=
 gs 
= T 

− 1
cap  where cap =
  C
C
T v 
∴ 1
ADosc = Z = 
2
− 1
2  cap 
(8)

Hence, average delay in the present case,

ADos = ADunifrom + ADosc

C (1 − g / C ) T  v 
ADos = +  − 1
2 2  cap 
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In reality, however more often than not arrival is not deterministic, it is stochastic as
discussed earlier. One it is assumed that arrival is stochastic the previously given relation for
average delay cannot be used.

Under the following assumptions, the delay for such stochastic arrivals have been obtained
by “Webster”.

Assumptions:

(i) The number of arrivals in a given time interval has Poisson distribution and that the
distribution does not change with time.
(ii) The departure headways are uniform.
g
(iii) v <  s ; i.e. the system is not saturated,
C 
(iv) The system has been running long enough to have settled into a steady state.

Under there assumptions “Webster” developed a delay equation which is given as equation
(7). This is the best known delay equation.

  g 2    v  
2

 C 1 −      
 1  5g 
 2+ 
  C   +   cap   − 0.65 cap   v 
3  C 

Average delay, d =   (9)

  v    v  
2
v   cap 
 21 − s    2v1 − 
      cap  
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The first term of “Webster” equation is derived Equation 4 and the second term can be
obtained analytically through steady state queuing analysis and is often referred “overflow
delay” or “random delay”. The third is a correction term obtained using simulation studies
and generally effect a 5 to 15% reduction in the estimates of d obtained by summing the
first two terms. Hence, as an approximation the third term is often omitted and the sum of
the first two term is multiplied by 0.90.

Also note that Webster equation for obtaining cycle length is based on optimizing d from
Equation 9.

There, however, exists a problem with the Webster and Webster – like models which
assumes steady state conditions. They invariably over estimated the delay when v is close to
gs / C . This over-estimation is due to the fact that it assumes steady state operation which
would imply that v is close to gs / C for sufficiently long period so that steady state is
reached. If, in reality, such a thing happens then the delay estimates from Webster like
equations would hold not be too bad. However, this high demand never exists for that long
period that steady state reached. Hence, the discrepancy between mathematically obtained
results and real world results.

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Example:
On an approach to a signalized intersection, the effective green time and the effective red
time are 30 s each. The arrival rate of vehicle on this approach is 360 vph between 0 -120 s,
1800 vph for 120 – 240 s, and 0 vph for 240 – 420 s. The saturation flow rate for this
approach is 1440 vphgpl. The approach under consideration has one lane. Assume that at
time = 0 s the light for the approach has just turn red.

Q1. Plot the arrival rate of the vehicle versus time.

Q2. Assuming the arrival and departure process to be continuous, plot the cumulative
number of arrival and departure versus time.

Plot of arrival rate of vehicle versus time Plot of cumulative number of arrivals and departure
of vehicle versus time.
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Q3. Determine the average delay to the vehicles arriving between 0 – 120 s, 120 – 240 s
and 0 – 240 s.

Cycle length, C= effective red time + effective green time = 30+30 = 60 s.

Arrival rate, v, in between 0 – 120 s is 360 vph (i.e intersection is operating under
unsaturated condition because s = 1440 vphgpl). Further, the arrival is deterministic and
uniform. So average delay can calculated using following equation
2 2
 g  30 
C 1 −  601 − 
= 
C
= 
Average delay (UD) between 0 – 120 s 60 
= 10 s
 v  360 
21 −  21 − 
 s  1440 
Average delay between 0 – 120 s can be directly obtained from figure given in next slide.
0.5 × 30 × 4
Average delay = Area of Triangle I or II/ No. of arrivals in a cycle = = 10s
6

Between 120 – 240 s the intersection is operating under oversaturated conditions. The
arrival is deterministic and uniform. Average delay can be calculated using following
equation
(C − g ) + T  v  60 − 30 120  1800 
− 1 =
ADos = +  − 1 = 105s
2 2  cap  2 2  720 

Note gs 30 ×1440 vph

cap = = = 720
C 60
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Average delay between 120 – 240 s can be also obtained from following figure:
Average delay= (Area of Triangle III + 5x Area of Triangle IV)/No. of arrivals from 120-240 s
0.5 ×180 × 60 + 5 × 0.5 ×12 × 30
= = 105s
60
Average delay to all vehicle between 0-240 s can be obtained dividing the total delay (faced
by all vehicle) by the number of vehicle.
n d + n2 d 2 12 ×10 + 60 ×105
Average delay = 1 1 = = 89.2 s
n1 + n2 12 + 60

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Q4. Determine the delay to the fourth and the sixtieth vehicles that arrive at the
intersection.
The arrival rate of vehicle from 0-120 s is 360 vph or 0.1 vps. Assuming that fourth vehicle
arrives before the expiry of 120 s, the time of arrival of the fourth vehicle is 4/0.1 = 40 s.
Departure rate of vehicles is 1440/3600=0.4 vps. The time of departure of the fourth
vehicle, assuming that fourth vehicle gets discharged during first green, is 30+4/0.4=40 s.
Therefore the delay to fourth vehicle is = departure time – arrival time = 40 – 40 = 0 s
The same observation can be made from above figure. The delay to the sixtieth vehicle
can also be read from figure as 144 s.

Q5. Determine the maximum delay

faced by a vehicle on this
approach.
See in figure, maximum delay is 180 s

Q6. Determine the maximum queue

length on this approach. At what
time does the queue length first
become equal to the maximum.

As can be seen from figure, the maximum queue length is 36 vehicles. At time = 240 s, the
queue length first becomes equal to 36 vehicle.
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Q7. Determine the percentage of time for which there exists a queue on this approach.
As can be seen from figure, there is no queue from 40 – 60 s and from 100 – 120 s. For the
rest of the time, there is a queue at the intersection. Hence, the % of time for which there is
no queue is (40/420)100 = 9.52 %.
Hence, the % of time when there exist a queue is 100 – 9.52 = 90.48 %.

Q8. Determine the average queue length between 120 and 420 s.

Average queue length = (Area of Triangle III + 5xArea of Triangle IV)/(total time from 120–420 s)

0.5 ×180 × 60 + 5 × 0.5 × 12 × 30

=
300
= 21 vehicles

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Data collection on average delay:

Average delay is equal to area divided Cumulative arrival

by total number of arrivals.
P
Cumulative arrivals /departures

Total area between cumulative

arrivals and departure plots

= ∑ d ( n) = ∫ q(t )dt Cumulative

n t qi. departure
I

∫ q(t )dt
t
Vtotal
Average delay =
Total number of arrivals

R G R G R G R
Cycle 1 Cycle 2 Cycle 3
m
0.9 × I × ∑ qi Time
i =1
Average delay =
Vtotal

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Data collection on saturation flow rate:

The saturation flow rate is reciprocal of the saturation headway.

Measure the time between 4th vehicle and last vehicle crosses the intersection.
Determine the number of vehicles in the queue.

TL ,i − T4,i L = last vehicle in the queue

saturation time headway =
L−4

Capacity analysis:
ci capacity of lane i
Gi
ci = si × Gi Green time for lane i
C si Saturation flow on lane i

Saturation flow depends on (i) no. of lanes in the lane group and width of lanes or
alternatively the width of lane group, (ii) gradient of the lane, (iii) percentage of turning
traffic, (iv) vehicle mix, (v) number of parking manoeuvers, and (vu) number of bus
stoppings.

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Level of service:

Level of service of different lanes at signalized intersection should be determined

through a measure which directly gives the level of discomfort of drivers using these
lanes at the intersection.
Level of service is measured as average delay to vehicles of different lanes.

HCM level of service

Level of service Control delay per vehicle, sec.
A <= 10.0
B 10.1 to 20.0
C 20.1 to 35.0
D 35.1 to 55.0
E 55.1 to 80.0
F >80.0

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Warrants for Signalization

Various warrant conditions are defined for signalization. Detailed standards exists. However,
in this class, we are only going to look at the warrant conditions without going into details.

Warrant 1: Minimum vehicle volume

If vehicular volumes are “high” for a “reasonable period” of the day is “most” of
the approaches then signalization is warranted.

Warrant 2: Interruption of continuous traffic

Even if volumes on certain approaches are low if the volume on other

approaches are “quite high” then also signalization is justified.

Warrant 3: Minimum pedestrian volume

If the volume on certain approaches one quite high and the pedestrian volumes
wanting to cross those approaches are also high then signalize.

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Warrant 4: Safety consideration or Accident experience

If at an intersection accident of the type which can be corrected through

signalization occur quite frequently then signalize.

Warrant 5: Combination of warrants

Some times none of warrants may be satisfied fully, however, if two or more of
warrants 1, 2, and 3 are satisfied to a reasonable extent then a signalization may
be warranted.

Although there other conditions which can also justify the use of signals like:
•A minor intersection between two intersections
•Flow pattern on an intersection is highly peaked with high volume observed only for 4 to 5
hours of a day.

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Terminology:
Cycle: one complete sequence of signal indications
Cycle Length: total time for signal to complete one cycle
Phase: part of cycle allocated to any combination of traffic movements receiving the right of way
Interval: period of time during which all the signal indications remain constant.
Change interval: the “yellow” and/or “all-red” intervals which occurs at the end of a phase to provide
for clearance of the intersection before conflicting movements are released.
Green Time: time within a given phase during which the green indication is shown
Lost time: time during which the intersection is not effectively used
Effective green time: time during which a given phase is affectively available for stable moving
platoons of vehicles in the permitted movements. It is equal to the green time plus the change
interval minus the lost for designated phase.

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Design of Signal Phases and Timing

In this section, three topics are discussed. Namely,

(i) Signal Phasing : the selection of what phases should be present during a cycle.
(ii) Cycle length : determination of cycle length.
(iii) Phase length : Green and Inter – green time allocation – what % of the cycle time
should be given to each of the phases as green and inter – green period.

Signal Phasing
Phasing is the sequence by which the various movements both vehicles and pedestrians are
being served at a signalized intersection. The objective of phasing is the minimization of the
potential hazards arising from the conflicts of vehicular and pedestrian movements, while
maintaining the efficiency of flow through the intersection.
Greater the number of phases, better separated are the conflicting flows.
However, increasing the number of phases hinders efficiency while improving safety.
Safety improves (with large number of phases) because conflicts are eliminated, however,
efficiency falls because delays increase due to:
(i) more lost times (in start-up and unused yellow times), and
(ii) minimum phase duration requirements.

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There exists no algorithm by which phasing may be selected. It is purely an art based on
certain guidelines.

A. Keep the phasing scheme as simple as possible (like start with simple two phase
system)
B. Increase the number of phases if pedestrian or turning volumes is high.
The following diagram illustrates three most basic phasing scheme: (i) Two phase
operations, (ii) Three phase operations, and (iii) Four phase operations.

Vehicular Pedestrian
Pedestrian traffic traffic
traffic

Vehicular
traffic

Phase A Phase B

TWO PHASE OPERATION

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However, say if pedestrian volume is large then:

Vehicular
traffic Pedestrian not
allowed

Pedestria
n not Vehicular All red
allowed traffic

Phase A Phase B Phase C

THREE PHASE OPERATION

Sometimes the right-turning volume from one road may be large and this may require a
separate phase.
Vehicular
traffic
Pedestrian traffic

Pedestria Dotted arrow

n traffic indicates
permitted
movements

Phase A Phase B
Phase C
THREE PHASE OPERATION
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If turning volume in either direction is heavy then a four phase operation may be warranted.

Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D

(Protected turn) (Permitted turn) (Protected turn) (Prohibited turn)

FOUR PHASE OPERATION

In all the above phasing schemes, note that if a right-turn is protected then no pedestrian
movement is allowed during the protected phase.

The four phase scheme shown above or the second of the two three – phase scheme
shown here works best if a turning lane exists.

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Cycle Length Determination

A cycle is a complete sequence of signal indications; cycle length is the duration in which the
whole set of phases at a signalized intersection takes place once.

The appropriate cycle length is generally obtained using Webster’s equation. This equation
yields results close to an optimal cycle length, however, we shall not go into the details of its
derivation. We shall simple state it here. The details will be stated while discussing the delay
equations at an intersection.
Least delay point
(optimum cycle
• Cycle length’s effect is not monotonous length)
Vol. on approach
• there exists a cycle length for which delay
Average delay per vehicle

V1 > V2 > V3
to vehicles is the least
• Sensitivity of cycle length near optimum V1
cycle length is very small
• On both side of optimum cycle length V2
sensitivity is different with respect to cycle V3
length

V1 or V2 or V3 are total vol. on a Time length

signalized intersection or vol. for a General nature of avg. delay per vehicle versus cycle length
particular movement? variations for different approach volumes derived from the
plots developed by Webster 38

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Optimum cycle length C as suggested by Webster is:

1.5L + 5
C= p
1 − ∑ (V / s) icr
i =1
C: Optimal cycle length, in seconds
L: Lost time during a cycle. Sum of the start-up lost time and the clearance lost times.
p: total number of phases in the cycle
(V / s ) : critical flow ratio for phase i
i
cr

V: volume of a particular movement

s: saturation flow for movement

p
L = ∑(lsi + lmi + lri )
ls: startup time loss

i=1
lm: movement time loss or
clearance lost time
lr: all red time loss

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Determination of critical movements ( or Determination of (V / )s ) icr

1670
725 765 Phase A

335
250

Saturation flows:
Th = 1800 vphgpl Phase B
Th, LT = 1700 vphgpl
Th, RT = 1650 vphgpl

To obtain the critical movements in each phase one proceeds in the following manner:
 335 250 
Phase A: max  ,  = max{0.20,0.15} = 0.20
1650 1700 
Hence the Th, RT movement from west is critical.

 725 1670 765 

Phase B: max  , ,  = max{0.44,0.46,0.45} = 0.46
1650 ( 2 × 1800) 1700 
Hence the Th movements are critical.

40

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If for the above problem, lost time per phase is given as 4 s then one could determine

two phase signal

1.5(2 × 4 ) + 5
C= = 50 s
1 − (0.20 + 0.46)

A point worth mentioning here is that empirical research show that cycle lengths within a
± 30% from the “optimal” length estimated using Webster’s formula perform close to the
optimal.

Generally cycle lengths are provided in multiples of 5 s. That is 40 or 50 or 55 etc. seconds.

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Phase length : Green Allocations / Amber Allocation

Step 1: For each phase compute the yellow / amber time requirement using dilemma
zone calculations. For the same phase generally the same amber duration is
provided. However, for different phases different amber times can be given.
Step 2: The (cycle time - ∑(amber time + all red) ) is allocated as green in proportion to
the critical flow ratios in every phase.
Step 3: Check whether the allocated green times meet the requirement from the
pedestrian standpoints. If it is does not meet the requirement then increase the
cycle time in steps of 5 s till the requirements are met.

The requirement is obtained as follows: (IRC recommends)

“7” is for PRT & initial movement of pedestrian
W Other term represents the time required to cross
Tp = 7 + the road
1 .2
where Tp is in seconds and W is width if the intersection in meters; assuming the
pedestrian walking speed is 1.2 m/s (or 4 ft/s).

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Let us look at the previous example again. Assume lane width is 3.66 m. Also assume that 3 s
of amber time is provided per phase.

Pha Cycle length – Allocation Green Ambe Tp* Tp Tp ok?

se (∑(Amber + all r - Amber
red)) time
A 50 – (2x3) = 44 44x (0.20/0.66) ≈ 13 3 7+(4x3.66)/1.2 =19 s 16 s not ok

B 50 – (2x3) = 44 44x (0.46/0.66) ≈ 31 3 7+(2x3.66)/1.2 =13 s 10 s ok

Increase C to 55 s
A 55 – (2x3) = 49 49x (0.20/0.66) ≈ 15 3 7+(4x3.66)/1.2 =19 s 16 s not ok

B 55 – (2x3) = 49 49x (0.46/0.66) ≈ 34 3 7+(2x3.66)/1.2 =13 s 10 s ok

Increase C to 60 s
A 60 – (2x3) = 54 49x (0.20/0.66) ≈ 16 3 7+(4x3.66)/1.2 =19 s 16 s ok

B 60 – (2x3) = 54 49x (0.46/0.66) ≈ 38 3 7+(2x3.66)/1.2 =13 s 10 s ok

*During Phase A pedestrians have to cross 4 lanes. Cycle Length = 60 s All red time = 0 s
Tp = 7+(4x3.66)/1.2 = 19 s
Green time Amber time
Phase A 16 3
During Phase B pedestrians have to cross 2 lanes.
Tp = 7+(2x3.66)/1.2 = 13 s Phase B 38 3

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Amber Time Determination (Dilemma Zone Analysis)

• Consider the scenario where a vehicle moving at speed limit decides to stop when the
light turns amber.
The distance required to come to stop, xs

v02
xs = v0δ b +
2d c
where, v0 is the speed limit (or design speed), δb in the reaction time for breaking, dc is
the comfortable deceleration rate.
Note that any vehicle whose distance from stop line is less than xs when the light turns
amber will not be able to stop.

• Consider the scenario where a vehicle moving at speed limit decides to cross the
intersection when the light turns amber.
The distance required to be crossed during an amber time of τ , is

The distance required to crossed = xg + W + L

where xg is the position of vehicle when light turns yellow, W is the width of
intersection and L length of vehicle.

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Time available for crossing would be τ .

In this time a vehicle can travel

ac (τ − δ a ) 2
= v0δ a + v0 (τ − δ a ) +
2
ac (τ − δ a ) 2
or = v0τ +
2

Since, v0 is the speed limit it is assumed the ac , the comfortable acceleration rate,
should not be operative as no body will accelerate. Hence, distance traveled is only v0τ

∴ v0τ ≥ xg + W + L

or xg ≤ v0τ − W − L

That is, xg can at most be equal to v0τ – W - L

Any vehicle farther than xg will not be able to cross the intersection during amber duration.

45

xg and xs give rise to the following scenario

Can not stop Can not stop

xs xs

xg xg
Can not go Can not go
Can go or can stop Can not go and can
(Option Zone) not stop (Dilemma
Zone)
(b)
(a)

Now clearly in situation (b) where xg < xs should be avoided. Note xg is the only term which
is function of τ.
Hence, at least xg = xs ; let this happen when τ = τ min
In this case, v02
v0τ min − W − L = v0δ b +
2d c
v0 W + L
τ min = δ b + +
2d c v0 46

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