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Area Between Curves
Area Between Curves
Phaneendra
Module 1 - Question Bank Department of Mathematics
• Exponential function e x
• Polynomial function a 0 x m + a 1 x m−1 + · · · + a m−1 x + a m
• Trigonometric sin x and cos x
(
x, x≥0
• Modulus function f ( x) =
− x, x<0
Definition 1.2 (Differentiability). Let f : D → R, where D ⊂ R, and c ∈ D . Then f is
said to be differentiable at c, if
f ( x) − f ( c )
l = lim (1.2)
x→ c x−c
• f 0 ( c) is undefined or
• f 0 ( c) = 0 is zero
To find absolute extrema of a continuous function f on a finite closed interval [a, b]:
(a) Find all critical points of f in the open interval (a, b), and then evaluate f at
them
(b) Evaluate f at the end points a and b
(c) The largest of the computed values is the absolute maximum, while the smallest
is the absolute minimum for f on [a, b]
Example 2.1. Consider f ( x) = x2 for all x ∈ [−2, 1]. Then f is differentiable at every
real x, and hence on [−2, 1]. So the critical points are obtained from the condition
f 0 ( x) = 0, where f 0 ( x) = 2 x. Thus x = 0 is the only critical point.
Point f ( x) = x2 Nature of f ( x)
Critical Point x = 0 0 The Smallest
Left End Point x = −2 4 The Largest
Right End Point x = 1 1 –
The function has the absolute maximum value of 4 at x = −2, and an absolute mini-
mum value of 0 at x = 0.
Example 2.2. Consider f ( x) = (2 x/3) − 5 for all x ∈ [−2, 3]. Then f is differentiable
at every real x, and hence on [−2, 3]. So the critical points are obtained from the
condition f 0 ( x) = 0. But f 0 ( x) = 2/3 6= 0. Thus the critical points do not exist for f .
However, the functional values at the end points are f (−2) = −19/3 and f (3) = −3.
Therefore, f has the absolute maximum value of −3 at x = 3 and an absolute minimum
value of −19/3 at x = −2.
p
Example 2.3. Consider f ( x) = 5 − x2 for all x ∈ [−2, 1]. Then f 0 ( x) = − p1 (−2 x) =
p 2 5− x2
−p x
2
· Therefore, f ( x) = 0 at x = 0, and f ( x) = ∓∞ at x = ± 5 ∉ [−2, 1]. Thus f is
0 0
5− x
differentiable on [−2, 3], and 0 is the only critical point of f .
Point f ( x) Nature of f ( x)
p
Critical Point x = 0 5 The Largest
Left End Point x = −2 1 The Smallest
Right End Point x = 1 2 -
p
Therefore, f has the absolute maximum value of 5 at x = 0 and an absolute minimum
value of 1 at x = −2.
Example 2.4. Consider f ( x) = xa (1 − x)b , where a and b are positive real numbers.
To find the maximum value of f in [0, 1],
a a aa b b
a
¢b
1 − a+a b
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡
f a+ b = a+ b = ( a+ b ) a+ b
> 0.
Therefore, f has the absolute maximum value of aa b b /(a + b)a+b at x = 0 and an ab-
solute minimum value of 0 at the end points x = 0, 1.
Exercise 2.1. Find the absolute maxima and absolute minima of the following func-
tions on the given intervals:
2x
( a) f ( x) = 3 − 5, −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
( b) f ( x) = x2 − 1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
( c) f ( x) = − x12 , 21 ≤ x ≤ 2
p
( d ) f ( x) = 3 x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 8
p
( e) f ( x) = 5 − x2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 1
Answers.
Exercise 2.2 (Try Yourself). Find the absolute maxima and absolute minima of the
following functions on the given intervals:
p
3
( a) f ( x) = x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 8
( b) f ( x) = x3 − 3 x2 + x, −1/2 ≤ x ≤ 4
( c) f ( x) = x/( x2 − x + 1), 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
( c) f (a) = f ( b).
Then by Rolle’s theorem, there exists at least one c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 ( c) = 0. Now
solving f 0 ( x) = 0, we get x = anm++bm
n · Taking c = m+ n , we note that c ∈ (a, b), and is
an+ bm
Exercise 3.1 (Try Yourself). Verify Rolle’s theorem and and find an appropriate con-
stant c of it for each of the following functions:
p
( a) 1 − x2 , [−1, 1]
h 2 i
b) , in [a, b], a > 0
( b) log xx(a++ab
p
( c) x − x/3, [0, 9]
( d ) sin x, [0, π]
ex ,
sin x
( e) [0, π]
Exercise 3.2 (Try Yourself). Give the reason why Rolle’s theorem is not applicable to
each of the following functions:
x2 −4 x
( a) x−2 , [0, 4]
( b) 1 − ( x − 1)2/3 in [0, 2]
( d ) | x|, [−1, 1]
( e) tan x, [0, π]
Example 3.2. Consider f ( x) = lx2 + mx + n for all x ∈ [a, b]. Then f is continuous
and differentiable at all real values. Hence, f is continuous on [a, b], differentiable on
(a, b) with f 0 ( x) = 2 lx + m. Then by the mean value theorem, there exists a c ∈ (a, b)
such that f 0 ( c) = f (bb)−
− f ( a)
a · That is,
( lb2 + mb + n) − ( la2 + ma + n)
2l c + m =
b−a
so that c = (a + b)/2. Since c, being the average of a and b, lies in between them. Thus
the mean value theorem is verified.
Example 3.3. Now we find the values of a, m and b such that function f ( x) satisfy the
hypotheses of the mean value theorem on [0, 2], and hence an appropriate c, where
3,
x=0
f ( x) = − x2 + 3 x + a, 0<x<1
mx + b, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
From the conditions of the mean value theorem, f is continuous on [0, 2] and differ-
entiable on (0, 2). From the continuity of f at x = 0, we have f (0) = f (0 + 0), that is
3 = limh→0 [−(0 + h)2 + 3(0 + h) + a] so that a = 3. While, by the differentiability of f at
x = 1, we see that R [ f 0 (1)] = L[ f 0 (1)] or m = |−2 x + 3| x=1 so that m = 1. Finally, by the
continuity of f at x = 1, we get f (1 − 0) = f (1 + 0) or limh→0 [−(1 − h)2 + 3(1 − h) + a] =
limh→0 [ m(1 + h) + b] so that 2 + a = m + b or b = a + 2 − m = 3 + 2 − 1 = 4. Thus with
a = 3, b = 4 and m = 1, we redefine the function as
3,
x=0
f ( x ) = − x 2 + 3 x + 3, 0<x<1
x + 4, 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
If c ∈ (0, 1), then f 0 ( c) = −2 c+3. Then from (3.2), we get −2 c+3 = 3/2 or c = 3/4. While,
if c ∈ (1, 2), then f 0 ( c) = 1. Then, from (3.2), we get 1 = 3/2, which is not possible. Thus
the constant c must lie in (0, 1) only.
Example 3.4. Verify the mean value theorem for the following functions f ( x) in the
given interval and find an appropriate constant c in each case:
(a) x + 1x , x ∈ [ 21 , 1]
p
( b) x − 1, x ∈ [1, 3]
( c) log x, x ∈ [1, e]
( a) c = 1
3
( b) c = 2
( c) c = e − 1
p
( d ) c = ab
Example 3.5. Explain why for each of the following functions, the mean value theo-
rem is not applicable:
4 Monotonic Functions
Definition 4.1. We say that f : [a, b] → R is
p p
x-values x−1 3/ x − 1 f 0 ( x) f ( x) Interval
x<1 imaginary
1 < x < 10 <3 >1 − & (1, 10)
x > 10 >3 <1 + % (10, ∞)
(a) 2 x3 − 18 x
( b ) x4 − 4 x3 + 4 x2
p
( c ) x 8 − x2
( d ) x2/3 ( x + 5)
x2 −3
( e) x−2 ,
x 6= 2
p
( f ) x2 5 − x
p
( g ) 4 x − x2 + 3
Answers
p p p
x) =p6 x2 − 18; Critical points are x = ± 3; % on (−∞, − 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞), & on
(a) f 0 (p
(− 3, 3)
( x−3)( x−1)
( e ) f 0 ( x) = ( x−2)2
; Critical points are x = 1, 3; % on (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞), & on (1, 2) ∪
(2, 3)
Theorem 4.2 (First Derivative Test). If f 0 ( x) changes its sign from positive to negative on
passing through c from left to the right, that is
for x < c
(
0 >0
f ( x)
<0 for x > c
then f has a local maximum at c. If f 0 ( x) changes its sign from negative to positive on passing
through c from left to the right, that is
for x < c
(
0 <0
f ( x)
>0 for x > c
then f has a local minimum at c. If f 0 ( x) positive or negative on both sides of c, then f does
not have local extremum at c.
Example 4.4. Using the first derivative test, identify the local extreme values of
Solution. We have
Solution. We have
Step 1. f ( x) is continuous for all x ∈ [−5, 5], and f ( x) = 0 at the end points x = ±5
Step 2. f 0 ( x) = − p x
for x ∈ (−5, 5), the critical point is x = 0
25− x2
Step 3. Note that f 0 ( x) > 0 on (−5, 0), and f 0 ( x) < 0 on (0, 5). Thus, x = 0 is a point
of local maximum and the local maximum value is f (0) = 5. Also, at the end
points x = ±5, f has the absolute minimum value is f ( x) = 0
Example 4.6. Using the first derivative test, identify the local extreme values of
12 x − x3 in [−3, −∞) :
Solution. We have
f 0 ( x) changes its sign from negative to positive on passing through c = −2 from left to
right. So a local minimum value of −16 occurs at x = −2. Similarly, f 0 ( x) changes its
sign from negative to positive on passing through c = 2 from left to right. Therefore,
x = 2 is also a point of local minimum with the local minimum value is f (2) = 0
Example 4.7. Find the intervals on which the function f ( x) = ax2 + bx + c with a 6= 0,
is increasing and decreasing. Describe the reasoning behind your answer.
³ ´2 ³ 2 ´
Solution. We can write f ( x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x + 2ba − b 4−a42ac , which is a parabola
with vertex at x = − 2ba ;
³ ´
• For a > 0, the parabola is oriented up and hence f is increasing on − 2ba , ∞
³ ´
and decreasing on ∞, − 2ba .
³ ´
• If a < 0, the parabola is oriented down and hence f is decreasing on − 2ba , ∞
³ ´
and increasing on ∞, − 2ba .
³ ´
Note that f 0 ( x) = 2a x + 2ba = 0 so that x = − 2ba is a critical point of f .
Example 4.8. Determine the constants a and b so that f ( x) = ax2 + bx has an absolute
maximum at the point (1, 2).
(a) x3 + 3 x2 + 3 x + 1, x ≤ 0
x2
( b) 4− x2
, −2 < x ≤ 1
Definition 4.2 (Concavity). If the graph of f ( x) lies above the tangents at its points
on an interval I , we say that C is concave up in I . While, If the graph of f ( x) lies
below the tangents at its points on an interval I , we say that C is concave down in I .
Theorem 4.3. Let y = f ( x) be a plane curve C . Then the graph of f ( x) is concave up or
down in I according as f 00 ( x) > 0 or f 00 ( x) < 0 for all x ∈ I respectively.
Definition 4.3. A point P on a curve y = f ( x) is called a point of inflection, if f
is continuous at P and the concavity of the curve reverses on passing through P .
P ( c, f ( c)) is a point of inflection on the curve y = f ( x) if the sign of f 00 ( x) is different
on either side of the ordinate x = c
Theorem 4.4 (Second Derivative Test). Suppose that f "( x) is continuous near the point
c.
• f 0 ( x) = 1
x2 +1)3/2
, x
f 00 ( x) = − x2 +31) 5/2 ; No critical points;
• f is % on (−∞, ∞),
• No local maxima and No local minima;
• concave up on (−∞, 0) and concave down on (0, ∞);
• x = 0 is a point of inflection
Example 4.11. Determine the critical points, points of local maxima and local min-
x1/3 2
ima of 914 ( x − 7), and then identify the intervals on which f is concave up and con-
cave down. Also find the points of inflection of f .
Solution. We have
−2/3
• f 0 ( x) = 3 x 2 ( x2 − 1), f 00 ( x) = x−5/3 (2 x2 + 1); The critical points are x = 0, ±1;
• f is % on (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞), & on (−1, 1);
• local maximum 27
7 at x = −1, local minimum − 27
7 at x = −1;
3 2 2/3
( a) 4 ( x − 1)
( b ) 6 − 2 x − x2
( c) −2 x3 + 6 x2 − 3
( d ) x4 ( x − 5)
( e) x2/5
( f ) (2 − x2 )3/2
p3
( g ) x3 + 1
x2 −3
(a) f 0 ( x) = x( x2 − 1)−1/3 , f 00 ( x) = 3( x2 −1)4/3
; Critical points are x = 0, ±1; f is increas-
ing on (−1, 0)∪(1, ∞), decreasing on (−∞, −1)∪(0, 1); local maximum 43 at x = 0,
p p
local minima
p p 0 at x p = ±1; concave up on (−∞, − 3) ∪ ( 3, ∞), concave down
on (− 3, 3); x = ± 3 are points of inflection
( b) f 0 ( x) = −2(1 + x), f 00 ( x) = −2; Critical point is x = −1; increasing on (−∞, −1),
decreasing on (−1, ∞); local maximum 7 at x = −1, No minimum; concave down
for all x; No point of inflection
( c) f 0 ( x) = 6 x(2 − x), f 00 ( x) = 12(1 − x); Critical points are x = 0, 2; increasing on
(0, 2), decreasing on (−∞, 0) ∪ (2, ∞); local maximum at x = 2, local minimum
at x = 0; concave up on (−∞, 1) and concave down on (1, ∞); x = 1 is a point of
inflection
( d ) f 0 ( x) = 5 x3 ( x − 4), f 00 ( x) = 20 x2 ( x − 3); Critical points are x = 0, 4; increasing on
(−∞, 0) ∪ (4, ∞), decreasing on (0, 4); local maximum at x = 0, local minimum
at x = 4; concave up on (3, ∞) and concave down on (−∞, 3); x = 3 is a point of
inflection
( e ) f 0 ( x) = 1
5 x4/5
,
f 00 ( x) = − 5 x49/5 ; x = 0 is a critical point; increasing on (−∞, ∞); No
maxima, No minima; concave up on (−∞, 0) and concave down on (0, ∞); x = 0
is a point of inflection
2 p p
p − x ) ; Critical points are x = ± 2; f is increasing on (− 2, 0), de-
( f ) f 0 ( x) = − 6(1
2− x2p p
creasing on (0p, 2); Local maximum
p at x = 0, Local minima at x = ± 2; con-
cave up on (− 2, −1) ∪ (1, 2) and concave down on (−1, 1); x = ±1 are points
of inflection
2
( g) f 0 ( x) = ( x3 +x1)2/3 , f 00 ( x) = ( x3 +21)
x
5/3 ; Critical points are x = 0, −1; f is increasing on
(−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, 0) ∪ (0, ∞); No maxima, No minima; concave up on (−∞, −1) ∪
(0, ∞) and concave down on (−1, 0); x = 0, −1 are points of inflection
Zb
A= [ f ( x) − g( x)] d x
x= a
Zb Zc Zb
A= | f ( x) − g( x)| d x = [ f ( x) − g( x)] d x + [ g( x) − f ( x)] d x
x= a x= a x= c
Example 5.1. Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas y = 2 x − x2 and
y = x2 .
Solution. Let f ( x) = 2 x − x2 and g( x) = x2 . From y = 2 x − x2 , we see that y − 1 =
−(1 − 2 x + x2 ) or y − 1 = −( x − 1)2 , which is a negatively oriented parabola, with vertex
at (1, 1), passing through the origin (0, 0). This intersects the parabola y = x2 in two
points (0, 0) and (1, 1). So the x-limits are x = 0 to x = 1. Also, f ( x) − g( x) = 2 x2 − x2 −
x2 = 2( x − x2 ) ≥ 0 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Therefore,
Z1 Z1
3 ¯1
¯ 2 ¯
[ f ( x) − g( x)] d x = 2 ( x − x2 ) d x = 2 ¯ x2 − x3 ¯
¡1
− 13 = 1
¢
A= =2
¯
x=0 2 3
x=0 x=0
Example 5.2. Find the area of the region enclosed by the cubical parabola y = x3 and
the straight line y = x.
Solution. The curve y = x3 and the straight line y = x intersect in the points (0, 0) and
(1, 1). So the x-limits are x = 0 to x = 1. Also, x ≥ x3 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Therefore,
Z1
4 ¯1
¯ 2 ¯
( x − x3 ) d x = ¯ x2 − x4 ¯
¡1
− 14 = 1
¢
A= =
¯
x=0 2 4
x=0
Example 5.3. Find the area of the region enclosed by the curves y = sin x and y =
cos x between the ordinates x = 0 and x = π/2.
Solution. The curves y = sin x and y = cos x intersect in the point where x = π4 . Also,
cos x ≥ sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π4 , while sin x ≥ cos x for π4 ≤ x ≤ π2 . Therefore,
Zπ/4 Zπ/2
A= (cos x − sin x) d x + (sin x − cos x) d x
x=0 x=π/4
Example 5.4. Find the area enclosed by the curves y = sin x and y = sin 2 x between
the ordinates x = 0 and x = π
Solution. The curves y = sin x and y = sin 2 x intersect in the point where x = π3 . Also,
sin 2 x ≥ sin x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π3 , while sin x ≥ sin 2 x for π3 ≤ x ≤ π.
Therefore,
Zπ/3 Zπ
A= (sin 2 x − sin x) d x + (sin x − sin 2 x) d x
x=0 x=π/3
¯π/3 ¯ ¯π
= ¯− cos22 x + cos x¯ x=0 + ¯− cos x + cos22 x ¯ x=π/3 = 5
¯
2
Example 5.5. Find the area enclosed by the parabolas y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4a y in the
first quadrant.
Solution. The parabolas intersect in the points, given by 4ax = ( x2 /4a)2 , that is at x = 0
p
and x = 4a. Also, 2 ax ≥ x2 /4 for all 0 ≤ x ≤ 4a. Therefore,
Ra
4 p ¯ p 3/2 3 ¯4 a
¯ p 3
A= (2 ax − x2 /4a) d x = ¯2 a · x3/2 − 3x.4a ¯ = 43 · a · (4a)3/2 − (412aa) = 16a2 /3.
¯
x=0 x=0
Z4 ¯ 2 ¯4
A= [2 x − ( x2 − 8)]) d x = ¯− x3 + x2 + 8 x¯ = 56
¯ ¯
x=−2
x=−2
Z1/2 Z1/2
A= [1 − | x| − | x|] d x = (1 − 2 | x|) d x
x=−1/2 x=−1/2
Z0 Z1/2
= (1 + 2 x) d x + (1 − 2 x) d x = 1/2
x=−1/2 x=0
Exercise 5.1 (Try Yourself). Find the area of the region enclosed by
(a) the curves y = sin x and y = cos x between the ordinates x = 0 and x = π
Let f ( x) be a continuous function on [a, b]. The volume of solid of revolution obtained
by revolving the arc of the plane curve y = f ( x) from x = a to x = b about the x-axis,
is
Z b Z b
V= π y2 dx = π[ f ( x)]2 dx. (6.1)
a a
Example 6.1. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the arc of the parabola
p
y = x from x = 0 to x = 1 about the x-axis.
Solution. The solid of revolution of the arc of the parabola is a paraboloid with x-axis
R1 R1
as its axis, and its volume is V = π y2 dx = π xdx = π/2.
x=0 x=0
Exercise 6.1 (Try Yourself). Find the volume of the hyperboloid, obtained by revolv-
ing the hyperbola y2 − x2 = 1 from x = −a to x = a about the x-axis.
Example 6.3. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the arc of the curve y = x3
from y = 0 to y = 8 about the y-axis.
Solution. The required volume is
Z8 Z8 ¯ 5/3 ¯8
2
¯ 3y ¯
V= πx d y = π y2/3 d y = 4π ¯¯ ¯ = 96π/5.
5 ¯ y=0
y=0 y=0
Example 6.4. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region en-
closed by the hyperbola x y = 2 about the y-axis, between the limits y = 1 to y = 8.
Z4 Z1 ¯ ¯4
1 3
π x2 d y = π(2/ y)2 d y = 4π ¯¯− ¯¯
¯ ¯
V= = 4π · = 3π.
y y=1 4
y=1 x=0
Exercise 6.2 (Try Yourself). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the graph
of each of following functions about the x-axis, between the given limits
(a) x2 − 4 x + 5 from x = 1 to x = 4
(b) x2 − 3 x from x = 0 to x = 3
(c) x5/3 from x = 1 to x = 8
p
(d) x + 1 from x = 1 to x = 4
Exercise 6.3 (Try Yourself). Regarding a cone of height h and radius a, as a solid of
revolution of the straight line segment joining the vertex (0, 0) to the point (a, h) from
y = 0 to y = h about the y-axis, find its volume.
Solution. V = πa2 h/3
Exercise 6.4 (Try Yourself). Regarding a cylinder of height h and radius a, as a solid
of revolution of the rectangle with edges x = 0, x = a, y = 0 and y = h about the y-axis,
find its volume.
Solution. V = πa2 h
Washer Method
The volume of solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the plane curves y = f ( x)
and y = g( x) with f ( x) ≥ g( x) from x = a to x = b about the x-axis, is
Z b
V= π[ f ( x)2 − g( x)2 ]dx. (6.3)
a
The volume of solid of revolution of the region enclosed by the plane curves x = f ( y)
and x = g( y) with f ( y) ≥ g( y) from y = c to y = d about the y-axis, is
Z d
V= π[ f ( y)2 − g( y)2 ]d y. (6.4)
c
Example 6.5. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the region enclosed by
the parabola y = x2 and the line y = x about the x-axis.
Solution. The two curves intersect in the points (0, 0) and (1, 1), and x2 ≤ x for all
0 ≤ x ≤ 1. Therefore, the volume of the solid of revolution is
Z1 Z1 ¯ 3 ¯1
2 2 2
¯x x5 ¯¯
V= π[ x − ( x ) ] dx = π( x2 − x4 )dx = π ¯¯ − = 2π/5.
3 5 ¯ x=0
x=0 x=0
Example 6.6. Find the volume of the solid of revolution of the region enclosed by
the parabola y = x2 + 1 and the line x + y = 3 about the x-axis.
Solution. The two curves intersect in the points, where x = −2 and x = 1. Also, x2 + 1 ≤
3 − x for all −2 ≤ x ≤ 1. Hence
Z1 Z1
2 2 2
V= π[(3 − x) − ( x + 1) ]dx = π(8 − 6 x − x2 − x4 )dx = 117π/5.
x=−2 x=−2
Exercise 6.5 (Try Yourself). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of each of the
following regions enclosed by the given curves about the x-axis (between the given
limits):
(a) y = x3 and y = x2
(b) y2 = 4( x − 1) and y = x − 1
(c) y = x2 + 2 and y = 10 − x2
(d) y = 1/ x and 2 y = 5 − 2 x
Exercise 6.6 (Try Yourself). Find the volume of the solid of revolution of each of the
following regions enclosed by the given curves about the y-axis:
Exercise 6.7 (Try Yourself). Imagine the region D, which gives a cylindrical shell
with height h, in-radius r and out-radius R , as a solid of revolution about x-axis. Then
find its volume.
1
Z b
f ave = f ( x) dx. (7.1)
b−a x= a
Example 7.1. A ball is thrown in the air vertically from ground level with an initial
velocity of 64 feet per second. Find the average height of the ball over the time interval
extending from the time of ball’s release to its return to ground level.
Solution. Given that the initial velocity is u = 64 feet per second, and the acceleration
due to gravity is g = 42 feet per second squared. Therefore, the height of the ball at
any time t is given by h ≡ h( t) = ut − gt2 /2. The minus sign is due to the fact that
the object is thrown against the gravity. Thus h( t) = 64 t − 16 t2 . The ball will be at
the ground when h( t) = 64 t − 16 t2 = 0, that is t = 0 and t = 4. Therefor, the average
height of the ball over 0 ≤ t ≤ 4 is
Z 4 Z 4
1 1
h ave = h( t) dt = [64 t − 16 t2 ] dt
4 − 0 t=0 4 − 0 t=0
1¯ ¯4
= ¯32 t2 − 16 t3 /3¯ t=0 = 42.667 ft.
4
Exercise 7.1 (Try Yourself). Find the average value f ave of each of the following func-
tions on the indicated interval:
8 Gamma Function
(a) Definition
Z∞
Γ( p) = e− x x p−1 dx, p>0 (8.1)
0
Γ(6) 5! 5×4×3×2×1
= = = 30
2Γ(6) 2 × 2! 2×2
¡ ¢ p
Example 8.2. Γ 21 = π
Example 8.3. For n = 1, 2, 3, ..., we have
1 1 3 3 1 p
µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
Γ n+ = n− n − ··· π
2 2 2 2 2
Thus
p
3 1 1 π
µ ¶ µ ¶
( a) Γ = ·Γ =
2 2 2 2
p p
5 3 3 3 π 3 π
µ ¶ µ ¶
( b) Γ = ·Γ = · =
2 2 2 2 2 4
p p
7 5 5 5 3 π 15 π
µ ¶ µ ¶
( c) Γ = ·Γ = · =
2 2 2 2 4 8
p p
9 7 7 7 15 π 105 π
µ ¶ µ ¶
(d ) Γ = ·Γ = · =
2 2 2 2 8 16
Example 8.4.
¡5¢ 3
· 12 Γ
¡1¢
Γ 2 Γ(3) 2 2 · 2! 3 1 2 3
= ¡1¢ = · · =
7 · Γ(1/2) 7·Γ 2 2 7 14
2
(c) Gamma for Negative Real Numbers For p < 0, p 6= 0, −1, −2, ..., we have
1 1 1 1
Γ( p) = · Γ( p + 1) = · ··· · Γ( p + k + 1),
p p p+1 p+k
Example 8.5.
1 1 1 p
µ ¶ µ ¶
( a) Γ − = ·Γ = −2 π
2 −1/2 2
3 1 1 p p
µ ¶ µ ¶
( b) Γ − = · Γ − = −2(−2 π) = 4 π
2 −1/2 2
5 1 3 2 p 8 p
µ ¶ µ ¶
( c) Γ − = ·Γ − = − ·4 π = − π
2 −3/2 2 3 15
p
7 1 5 2 8 16 π
µ ¶ µ ¶ ½ ¾½ ¾
(d ) Γ − = ·Γ − = − − =
2 −5/2 2 5 15 105
9 Beta Function
(a) Definition
Z1
B( p, q) = x p−1 (1 − x) q−1 dx, p > 0, q > 0 (9.1)
0
(d) Beta in terms of Gamma If p, q and r are positive real numbers, then
Γ ( p) Γ ( q)
B( p, q) = (9.4)
Γ ( p + q)
Example 9.1.
Γ (2) Γ (5) 1 · 4! 1
( a) B(2, 5) = = =
Γ (2 + 5) 6! 30
Γ (4) Γ (7) 3! · 6! 1
( b) B(4, 7) = = =
Γ (4 + 7) 10! 1680
Γ (2) Γ (3/2) 1 · Γ (3/2) Γ (3/2) 4
( c) B(2, 3/2) = = = ¡3¢ =
Γ (2 + 3/2) Γ (7/2) 3
· 2 ·Γ 2 15 5
2
¸2
Γ (9/2) Γ (7/2) 7 [Γ (7/2)] 2
1 5 3 1 5π
·
( d ) B(9/2, 7/2) = = · = · · Γ (1/2) =
Γ ((9 + 7)/2) 2 7! 2.6! 2 2 2 2048
Zπ/2 3
³ ´
Γ 2 Γ(2)
( a) sin2 θ cos3 θ d θ = 1
2 · Γ((3/2)+2) = 1
2 · ΓΓ(3/2).1
(7/2) =
1
2
Γ(3/2)
· (5/2)(3/2)Γ(3/2) = 2/15
0
Zπ/2 11
³ ´
Γ 2 Γ(1/2) 63π
( b) sin10 θ d θ = 1
2 · Γ((12/2)+2) = 1
2 · 15 · 92 · 72 · 52 · 32 · 12 · Γ (1/2) = 2π 9.7.5.3
.5! · 25 = 512
0
Zπ/2 Zπ/2
128 16
( c) cos9 θ d θ = (d ) sin6 θ cos7 θ d θ =
315 3003
0 0
Zπ/2p Zπ/2
µ ¶µ ¶
(1/2)+1 (−1/2)+1
Γ 2 2
( a) tan θ d θ = sin1/2 θ cos−1/2 θ d θ = 1
2 · µ
(1/2)−(1/2)+1
¶
Γ 2
0 0
π p
= 1
2 · Γ(3/4)Γ(1/4)
Γ(1) = 1
2 · = π/2 2
sin(π/4)
Zπ/2p Zπ/2q Zπ/2p p
¡π
cot θ d θ = cot 2 − θ d θ = tan θ d θ = π/2 2
¢
( b)
0 0 0
Example 10.3.
π/2 π/2
Z p Z ½ ¾½ ¾
sin θ d θ p 1
d θ = 12 · Γ(3/4)
¡ 3 Γ(1/2) 1 Γ(1/2)
· Γ(1/4)
sin θ Γ 4 + 12 2 Γ 12 + 41
¢ ¡ ¢
0 0
np onp
= 14 2 · ΓΓ(3/4)
π Γ(1/4)
o
π
(5/4) 2 · Γ(3/4)
Γ(1/4)
=π
4 · Γ(1/4)/4 = π
R1
Exercise 10.1 (Try Yourself). Find x3/2 (1 − x2 )5/2 dx, with the substitution x = sin θ .
0
R1
Exercise 10.2 (Try Yourself). Evaluate p x dx, using the substitution x = (sin θ )2/5 .
0 1− x5