W@ITGSRIMOM @OBIH@ON OJSOSIO NO KHNI@O

GRBWGNO MG \HRJSOMH
KOGR]SIO

G@ G@]HKHNHJËO

„Ojrhgbhsistgko mgn vonng mg Ibo‛

\rgsg`tomh phr6 Fh`oto` Fhgn Rï`bagz Shkï`

Mhbg`tg6 Kj. Rb. Juinngrkh Rï`bagz Tgnïsqugz

Niko- \grö 3<3<

 

Bh`tg`imh

I`trhmubbiò`
Hcfgtivhs
?. BOS
BOSOB] OB]GSËGSËR]I
R]IBOR
BOR MGN TON TONNG
NG M
MG
G IB
IBO
O
?.?. Wcib
Wcibobiò
obiò`` Jghjrïdibo
Jghjrïdibo
?.
?.3.
3. Ïr
Ïrgo
go
3. BH
BH@M @MIB
IBIHIH@G
@GRR BN
BNIK
IKO]
O]IB IBOR
OR
3.?.. ]g
3.? ]gkpg
kpgrotroturo
uro
3.3.. Auk
3.3 Aukgmo
gmomm
2. BO
BOSO SOB]
B]GS GSIR
IR]I
]IBO
BORR MGN RWGN
RWGNHH
2.?? Dgrtin
2. Dgrtinimom
imom quëk
quëkibo
ibo mgn sugnh
2.3 \rhpigmomgs dësibos mgmgnn sugnh
= OJWO MG SIGJH
7 \S
\SI@I@BI
BI\O
\ONGNGRR BW
BWN]
N]IT
ITHR
HR M MGN
GN T
TON
ONNG
NG M
MG
G IBO
7.?? Bunti
7. Buntivh
vh mg Gspï
Gspïrrojh
rrojh
7.?.?
.?
7. .?
7.?.
?.3 \ri`
\ri`bi
3 \ri`
\r bipo
i`bi pong
bipo ngsss G`
pong
ngs pn
pnoj
ojos
G`dg os
dgrk
rkgmgmomomgs
gs
7.33 Bunti
7. Buntivh
vh mmgg Ti
Timm
7.3.?
.3.? \ri`
\ri`bi bipo
pong
ngss pn
pnoj
ojos
os
7.3.
7.3.33 \ri`
\ri`bi bipo
pong
ngss G`
G`dg
dgrk
rkgmgmomomgs
gs
7.22 Bunti
7. Buntivh
vh mg \onth
7.2.
7.2.?? \ri`
\ri`bi bipo
pong
ngss pn
pnoj
ojos
os mmgg ppon
onth
th
7.2.
7.2.33 \ri`
\ri`bi bipo
pong
ngss G`
G`dg
dgrk
rkgmgmomomgs
gs
7.2.
7.2.22 Ti
Tirh rhim
imgg mg
mgnn su
su`c
`cnh
nhtb
tbaa (O
(ORCRCTmTm))
7.== Bunti
7. Buntivh
vh mg bbëtrib
ëtribhh
7.=.
7.=.?? \ri`
\ri`bi bipo
pong
ngss pnoj
pnojosos mg bitr
bitrib
ibhh
4. Bh`b
Bh`bnusih
nusih`gs
`gs
:. Sgbh
Sgbhkg`m
kg`mobih`
obih`gs
gs
1. Cic
Cicnih
nihjro
jrodëo
dëo
 

I@]SHMWBBIÒ@
Nhs ojrhgbhsistgkos sh` sistgkos kuy bhkpngfhs. Rh` cïsibokg`tg sistgkos
gbhn
gbhnòj
òjib
ibhs
hs,, bh`
bh` bhkp
bhkph`
h`g`
g`tg
tgss cihn
cihnòj
òjib
ibhs
hs mist
mistri
ricu
cuim
imhs
hs g` gn titigk
gkphph y gs
gspo
pobi
bih,
h,
i`tgrobtuo
i`tgrobtuo`mh
`mh bh` bhkp
bhkph`g`
h`g`tgs
tgs shbihbun
shbihbunturon
turongs,
gs, bhkh nhs hcfg
hcfgtivhs
tivhs,, bh`hbikig
bh`hbikig`ths
`ths,,
robih`onimomgs y bunturos mg nhs ojribunthrgs(\ongònhjhs gt on., 3<?:). Gs `gbgsorih
 prhkhvgr
sugnh,
sugn obbih`gs
h, y bhcg rturo poro
bhcgrturo gn n,ush
vgjgton,
vgjgto phrprhmubtivh
kgmihh mgmgobtivimo
kgmi nhs rgburshs
mgs mg`oturongs
obtivimomgs bh`sgrvorg`hvocngs,
bh`sgrvobiò` ojuo,
biò` mg sugnhs,
sug nhs,
rgdhrg
rgdhrgsto
stobiò
biò`` y uti
utiniz
nizobi
obiò`
ò` mg `ug `ugvo
voss tgb
tgb`hn
`hnhjë
hjëos
os po
poro
ro nhjror
nhjror u` mgmgsor
sorrhn
rhnnh
nh
shstg`icng(KI@OJSI, 3<?9)
Gn ophrtg mg no ojribunturo on \CI g` gn \grö, kugstro u` brgbikig`th shstg`imh qug sg
 prhygbto g` no bh`tricubiò` mirgbto mg no ojribunturo phr kgmih mg obtivimomgs mg
 prhmubbiò` prikorio, qug sij`idibo` :.2% mgn vonhr ojrgjomh pgruo`h, sg
bhkpngkg`torï bh` no bh`tricubiò` i`mirgbto mg phr nh kg`hs =% o trovés mg vë`bunhs
 prhjrgsivhs y rgjrgsivhs
rgjrgsivhs mg`trh mg
mgnn sistgko onikg`torih
onikg`torih kïs okpnih(KI@OJSI, 3<?9)
Rgjö` Kuÿhz (3<?4), gn brgbikig`th gbh`òkibh ojrhgxphrtomhr g` gn vonng mg Ibo ao
troëmh bh`sijh no bh`bg`trobiò` mg no tigrro y mg nos dug`tgs mg ojuo suctgrrï`go. Gstg
 prhbgsh ao momh koyhr phmgr o nos gkprgsos ojrhgxphrtomhro
ojrhgxphrtomhros,s, nos buongs rgsph`mg`
i`mivimuonkg`tg o no mgko`mo mgn kgrbomh i`tgr`obih`on. Gn i`brgkg`th g` no mgko`mo
gxtgr`o mg nhs prhmubths mgn vonng jg`gro ikphrto`tgs cg`gdibihs privomhs.
\hr kg
\hr kgmi
mihh mg no i`tg
i`tg`s
`sim
imom
om prhm
prhmub
ubti
tivo
vo ojrë
ojrëbh
bhno
no qu
qugg pr
prgs
gsg`
g`to
to gn vo
vonn
nngg mg Ib
Ibo,
o, no
noss
bh`mibih`gs bnikïtibos dovhrocngs prhpios mgn vonng, nhs buntivhs prgsg`tgs, aobg` qug sg
jg`grg u`o mi`ïkibo mg phcnobih`gs, i`tgrobtuo`mh g`trg nhs midgrg`tgs bhkph`g`tgs mgn
gbhsistgko. Gn bh`sto`tg mi`okiskh mg nhs gngkg`ths, aobg` qug gxisto u`o ontgrobiò`
mgn kgmih, qug phmrëo` jg`gror bigrtos bhkpnibobih`gs mg prhmubbiò` phr mivgrshs
dobthrgs, to`th dobthr ociòtibh bhkh ciòtibh.

HCFG]ITHR

Hcfgtivh jg`gron6
 Mgsorrhnnor u`o borobtgrizobiò` mg nhs gngkg`ths mgn vonng mg Ibo-\grö.

Hcfgtivh gspgbëdibh6

 Mgsbricir nos borobtgrëstibos mg nhs bhkph`g`tgs ociòtibhs mgn vonng mg Ibo.

 Sgsontor nhs pri`bipongs buntivhs prgsg`tgs g` gn Tonng mg Ibo, osë bhkh
no prgsg`bio mg pnojos y g`dgrkgmomgs
g`dgrkgmomgs kïs ikphrto`tg.
 \rhph`gr nhs midgrg`tgs kéthmhs mg bh`trhn bh`tro pnojos y g`dgrkgmomgs.
g`dgrkgmomgs.
 

?) BOS
BOSOB]
OB]GSGSËR]
ËR]IBO
IBORR MGN T
TON
ONNG
NG MG IB
IBO
O
o) Wcib
Wcibob
obiò
iò`
` Jgh
Jghjr
jrïd
ïdib
iboo
No rgjiò` Ibo gstï ucibomh on sur mgn \grö, notitum sur6 ?3¼ 7:’ =3’’ y nh`jitum hgstg :7¼
24’ =2’’ y :4¶ 32’ =1’’ bh` u`o gxtg`siò` mg 3? 23: ek³, no buongs gstï` bh`dhrkomos
 phr bi`bh prhvi`bios y =2 mistriths. Rus prhvi`bios sh`6 Ibo, Bai`bao (bopiton Bai`bao
Onto), mg
 portg @ozbo, \onpo y \isbh.
no bhrminngro mg nhsGsO`mgs.
u` mgportokg`th
Nikito phrgki`g`tgkg`tg bhstgÿh,
gn `hrtg bh` Niko, phrou`qug
gn surtig`g
bh`
Orgquipo, phr gn gstg bh` Auo`bovgnibo y Oyobubah, y phr gn hgstg bh` gn hbéo`h
\obëdibh.
\obëdibh. Gsto zh`o ocorbo bosi ë`tgj
ë`tgjrokg
rokg`tg
`tg portg mgn mgsigrth
mgsigrth bhstgrh pgruo`h
bhrrgsph`mig`mh o u`o zh`o mg mgsigrth sgbh trhpibon bh` orimgz pgrko`g`tg(Korbinno,
3<<:)
Ru bopiton gs no biumom mg Ibo no buon sg g`bug`tro o =<4 kgtrhs mg ontitum. No ontitum mg
no rgjiò` Ibo vorëo mgsmg nhs 3 k.s.`.k (\orobos) aosto nhs 2:94 k.s.`.k (Ro` \gmrh mg
Auoborpo`o)
Kopo mg ucibobiò` mg Ibo Kopo mg no rgjiò` Ibo

c) Ïrgo6
G`trg nos pri`bipongs obtivimomgs gbh`òkibos qug ophrto` on \rhmubth Cruth I`tgr`h
(\CI) mg Ibo rgonizomos g` gn 3<<1, gn sgbthr mg no Ojribunturo prgsg`to u` ?7.:%,mgsmg
gn 3<<? on 3<<1 bh` bosi gn mhcng mg brgbikig`th, nh qug kugstro gn jro` mi`okiskh mgn
sgbthr y su ophrtg on \CI (\SHMWBG, 3<??).
No rgjiò` Ibo tig`g u`o supgrdibig mg 3,? kinnh`gs mg agbtïrgos, mg nos buongs gn ïrgo
 phtg`bionkg`tg oprhvgbaocng
oprhvgbaocng osbig`mg
osbig`mg o 32= kin agbtïrgos6
agbtïrgos6 ??: kin agbtïrgos sh` tigrro
tigrross
ojrëbhnos (cofh rigjh y g` sgbo`h), tg`ig`mh bhkh ïrgo mg gxtg`siò` prhmubtivo g` gn
vonng mg Ibo mg 3: =71 ao5 phr htrh nomh, no midgr
midgrg`bi
g`bioo sh` tigrros
tigrros `h ojrëbhnos
ojrëbhnos (posths,
 chsqugs sgbhs
sgbhs y htros bno
bnosgs
sgs mg tigrro
tigrros)
s) (KI@OJSI, 3<<9)
 

Dug`tg6 Mirgbbiò` Sgjih`on Ojrorio mg Ibo

\ri`bipongs buntivhs mgn vonng mg Ibo (g` ao5 ]K y R/. phr Ej)

Dug`tg6 OjrhIbo- Ki`oj

3) BH@
BH@MI
MIBIH
BIH@GR
@GR BNI
BNIKO]
KO]IBO
IBOR
R
o) ]gkp
kpggrot
otur
uroo
No tgkpgroturo kgmio kg`suon mg Ibo hsbino g`trg nhs ?4 y 3= ¼B g` i`vigr`h (funih) y
vgro`h (dgcrgrh) rgspgbtivokg`tg, sg rgphrto` tgkpgroturos gxtrgkos gstobih`ongs mg 1 y
27 ¼B, bh` kg`hs mg 3 ahros mg murobiò`. Rg misph`g mg 3=<< ahros/oÿh mg crinnh shnor 
qug, sukomhs on cug` ro`jh mg tgkpgroturo bh`stituyg` no cosg bnikïtibo mg no
ojribunturo i`tg`sivo y pgrko`g`tg (Jorbëo, 3<?:)
 

Dug`tg6 Gstobiò` kgtghrhnòjibo Movis

Dug`tg6 Gstobiò` kgtghrhnòjibo Movis

c) Aukgmom

Gn bniko gs tgkpnomh y mgsértibh, no aukgmom otkhsdéribo gs onto g` gn nithron y

miski`uyg aobio gn i`tgrihr. Nos prgbipitobih`gs sh` gsbosos y `hrkonkg`tg i`dgrihrgs o
?7 kk o`uongs. Rhnh gxbgpbih`onkg`tg sg prhmubg` nnuvios mg jro` i`tg`simom, pgrh mg
bhrto murobiò` y qug tig`g` u` hrijg` gxtro zh`on (Jorbëo, 3<?:)
 

Dug`tg6 Gstobiò` kgtghrhnòjibo Movis

2) BOSOB]
BOSOB]GSI
GSIR]I
R]IBOR
BOR MGN RWG
RWGNH
NH
Nhs sugnhs sh` mg hrijg` onuvion, mg dhrkobiò` rgbig`tg, prhdu`mhs y gstrotidibomhs5 bh`
nïki`os mg nikh i`tgrbonomhs, no pg`mig`tg gs o `ivgn mg (<.3 o <.7 %) y gn rgnigvg gs
 pno`h.

Dug`tg6 Jorbëo (3<?:)

o) Dgrti
Dgrtinim
nimom
om q
quëk
uëkibo
ibo mgn sugnh
sugnh
Rugnhs. - Rh` nijgrokg`tg onboni`hs (pA :.= ‒ :.7) vorio`mh o khmgromokg`tg onboni`hs
(pA 1.3 ‒ 1.2) g` nos bopos kïs prhdu`mo. Gn bh`tg`imh mg bonizo gs nijgrh (BoBH2 <.4 ‒ 
?.?%), sh` sugnhs mgdibig`tgs g` kotgrio hrjï`ibo (K.H <.= ‒ <.7%) y `itròjg`h
hrjï`ibh (3<< ‒ 37< ppk). Nhs `ivgngs mg dhsdhrh osikinocng sh` khmgromhs (\ :.7 ‒ 9.9
 ppk), pgrh gn bh`tg`imh
bh`tg`imh mg phtosih mmisph`icng
isph`icng gs gngv
gngvomh
omh (E 237 ‒ 7?7 ppk).
ppk). Nhs sugnhs

tig`g`
??.2 - u`o khmgromo dgrtinimom `oturon, bh` bopobimom mg i`tgrbokcih botiò`ibh (BIB) mg
??.: kg/?<<j.). Gn bonbih i`tgrbokciocng gs gngvomh (Bo³+ 9.7 ‒ 9.: kg/?<<j.) pumig`mh
bousor cnhqugh g` no ocshrbiò` mg phtosih y koj`gsih. Aoy gsbosgs mg koj`gsih
 

i`tgrbokciocng (Kj³+ ?.? ‒ ?.3 kg/?<<j). G` kibrhgngkg`ths, nos bh`bg`trobih`gs mg

ko`jo`gsh y bhcrg sh` gngvomos5 g` bokcih, sh` borg`biongs g` aigrrh y zi`b. Gn `ivgn
mg chrh gs omgbuomh (Jorbëo, 3<?:)
Dgrtinimom quëkibo mg nhs sugnhs

Dug`tg6 Jorbëo (3<?:)

c) \rhpi
\rhpigmo
gmomg
mgss dës
dësibo
iboss mgn ssugn
ugnhh
\hr kgmi
kgmihh mg gstumihs rgonizo
rgonizomhs
mhs g` gsto
gstoss mhs zh`os bh` borobtgrë
borobtgrëstibo
stiboss portibuno
portibunorgs,
rgs,
i`mibo` qug nhs sugnhs Auoibh tig`g` u`o khmgromo bhkpobtobiò` g` nhs prikgrhs 4< bk
mg prhdu`mimom, bh` u` cofh gspobih oérgh (Go ?< ‒ ?=%). _ug phmrëo i`mubir o o`hxio
g` nos roëbgs y prhcngkos mg Dusoriuk(Korbinno, 3<<:)
Nhs sugnhs Youbo sh` kïs pgrkgocngs. No bopobimom mg onkobg`okig`th mg ojuo
oprhvgbaocng (BOO) dnubtöo g`trg ??< o ?=< kk/k, bonidibomo bhkh kgmio`o bh` di`gs
mg rigjh.
 

\rhpigmomgs dësibos mg nhs pgrdings mg sugnhs

Dug`tg6 Jorbëo (3<?:)

=) OJWO
OJWO MG S
SIG
IGJH
JH
Nhs rgburshs mg ojuo bh` qug bug`to gn vonng mg Ibo prhvig`g` mg trgs dug`tgs6
Ojuos mg ovg`imo6 Boptomos g` no bug`bo aimrhjrïdibo mgn rëh Ibo, qug gs u` réjikg`
irrg
irrgjun
junor
bug`bo org`ynhsqug mgpg`
mgpg`mg
kgsgs mgmg mg nos prg
prgbip
g`grh-ocrin. bipito
itobih
bih`gs
`gs dnu
dnuvio
viongs
ngs qug sg prg
prgsg`
sg`to`
to` g` mibao
mibao

Ojuos mg noju`o6 Muro`tg nhs kgsgs mg koyh-fu`ih y sgptigkcrg-mibigkcrg, nos ojuos

sh` gvobuomos mgsmg no portg onto mg no noju`o mg Bahbnhbhbao, mg ko`gro ton qug gn
ojuo i`jrgso aobio gn vonng mg Ibo to`th phr gn rëh bhkh phr gn bo`on pri`bipon mg No
Obairo`o y nhs 2< bo`ongs mg mgrivobiò`, pgrkitig`mh muro`tg gstos éphbos mg gstiofg
 phmgr bucrir nos `gbgsimomgs
`gbgsimomgs mg rigjh mg nhs tgrrg`
tgrrg`hs
hs mg buntivh mgn vonng.
vonng.
Ojuos suctgrrï`g
suctgrrï`gos6os6 g` gn vonng gs ikphrto`tg gn oprhvgbaokig`th bh` di`gs mg rigjh
mg ojuo
ojuoss suct
suctgr
grrï
rï`g
`gos
os kgkgmi
mio`
o`tg
tg gn ch
chkc
kcgh
gh mg ph phzh
zhs.
s. \o
\oro
ro bh
bhkp
kpng
ngkg
kg`t
`tor
or no
noss
`gbgsimomgs mg rigjh, sg mgcg utinizor ojuos suctgrrï`gos, boptomos kgmio`tg phzhs
tucunorgs, no bonimom mgn ojuo mg phzhs gs khmgromokg`tg
khmgromokg`tg soni`o.(Tinbo Sokirgz, 3<?3)
 

Sgsuntomhs mg o`ïnisis mg Ojuo

Dug`tg6 Tinbo Sokirgz (3<?3)

7) \SI@BI\O
\SI@BI\ONGR
NGR BWN]ITHR
BWN]ITHR MGN TONN
TONNG
G MG IBO
o) GR\Ï
R\ÏSSOJ
SSOJHH
Rituobiò` g` gn vonng mg Ibo
No rgjiò` Ibo bug`to bh` 37= kin agbtïrgos bh` optitum ojrëbhno, mg nos buongs gn buntivh
mgn gspïrrojh rgprgsg`to ?<,7<3 agbtïrgos, thmh poro no prhmubbiò` mg gspïrrojh vgrmg.
Bocg
vgrmg kg`bih`or, qug gn 17%
y gn ?7% rgsto`tg mgnnoïrgo
gs poro sgkcromo,
prhmubbiò` mgsggsporrojh
mirijg o no prhmubbiò`
cno`bh, qug sgmgrgonizo
gsporrojh
shnh
g` no rgjiò` mg no Nicgrtom (Shsongs _uispg, 3<?:)
\rhcngkos dithso`itorihs
Nhs pri`bipongs prhcngkos so`itorihs qug sg prgsg`to` sg kg`bih`o` o bh`ti`uobiò`, osë
bhkh gn ko`gfh qug sg rgonizo6 No gstobih`onimom mg gstos pnojos gs korbomo, pugs aoy
 pnojos qug sg prgsg`to` g` u`o éphbo mgn oÿh, phr nos bh`mibih`gs bnikïtibos dovhrocngs
 poro su mgsorrhnnh, nugjh nos bh`mibih`gs bnikïtibos bokcio` y bhrto` gn bibnh mg nos
 pnojos.
 

\ri`bipongs i`sgbths y ïborhs qug hbosih`o` moÿh g` gn buntivh mg gsporrojh g` gn vonng mg

Ibo

Dug`tg6 (Rï`bagz & Opozo, 3<<<)

 Agnihtais sp., gs Banhrimgo virgsbg`s, Gnoskhponpus nij`hsgnno y ]gtro`ybaus urtibog y
Rphmhptgro sp., gs R. drujipgrmo y R. hbargo.

Gstobih`onimomm mg pri`bipongsgsporrojh
Gstobih`onimo i`sgbths yg`ïborhs qug
gn vonng mghbosih`o`
Ibo moÿh g` gn buntivh mgn

Dug`tg6 (@isiro, 3<?:)

o.?)) \no
o.? \nojos
jos
Bhkgmhrgs mg dhnnofg
Gn bhkpngfh mg bhkgmhrgs mg dhnnofg, bhkh sh` Banhrimgo y Bhpitorsio, bouso` moÿh g`
tonnh y rokos, y mgpg`mig`mh mg no dg`hnhjëo mgn buntivh Banhrimgo pugmg obtuor bhkh
juso`hs mg tigrro. Gstos pnojos bouso` moÿh gbh`òkibh on odgbtor gn ïrgo dhnior mgn
gsporrojh, buyo koso sg i`brgkg`to o nhs 9< mëos mgn trospno`tg. Gn moÿh gs koyhr g`
éphbo mg prikovgro ‒ vgro`h, sig`mh kg`hr g` no éphbo mg hthÿh ‒ i`vigr`h, mh`mg nos
 cofos tgkpgroturos
tgkpgroturos onorjo` gn bibnh ccihnòjibh
ihnòjibh mg gsths i`sgbths, g` no zh`o mg Ibo.
Bhpitorsio gs ikphrto`tg phr hviphsitor g` nhs turih`gs muro`tg no bhsgbao.
 

Kgmimos mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn _uëkibh
Mgpg`mig
Mgpg`mig`mh
`mh mg nos gvon
gvonuobi
uobih`gs
h`gs,, sg rgonizo`
rgonizo` opnib
opnibobih
obih`gs
`gs mg prhmubths
prhmubths quëk
quëkibhs
ibhs
rgjistromhs poro gn bh`trhn mg gstos gspgbigs y poro gn buntivh (Bipgrkgtri`o, Kgtahkyn,
Mgntokgtri`o, i`aicimhrgs mg së`tgsis mg quiti`o, Cobinnus, Gkokgbti` cg`zhoth, gtb.),
thmhs gsths i`sgbtibimos tig`g` u` cug` bh`trhn shcrg no pnojo sigkprg y buo`mh sg aojo`
opnibobih`gs hphrtu`os mg obugrmh o nhs ukcrongs mg obbiò` gstocngbimhs.
Bh`trhn Bunturon
Gn bh`trhn mg gstos pnojos i`ibionkg`tg gs ko`tg`ig`mh gn bokph nikpih mg konos aigrcos
qug pugmg` sgr ahspgmgrhs ontgr`o`tgs mg gsths ngpimòptgrhs.
Cug` ko`gfh mg no dgrtinizobiò`
d grtinizobiò` `itrhjg`omo.
Cug` ko`gfh mgn ojuo mg rigjh.
Bh`trhn Gthnòjibh
 ]rokpos mg nuz y trokpos
tr okpos mg ojuo + kgnozo.
 Wsh mg trokpos `gjros poro phsturo mg Rphmhptgro (Onvo, 3<?7)

 \rhmipnhsis nh`jidino
nh`jidino

Gsto pnojo pugmg sgr hbosih`on g` gn vonng mg Ibo, phr no gstobih`onimom mgn bniko, mh`mg
no tgkpgroturo kë`iko mgn i`vigr`h rgstri`jg gsto pnojo, `h rgjistrï`mhsg su prgsg`bio.
\grh g` gn vgro`h no prgsiò` mg gsto pnojo gs kïxiko. Gsto pnojo pugmg moÿor nhs
sijuig`tgs gvg`ths dg`hnòjibhs mgn buntivh (crhtg, roko y opgrturo), nugjh yo `h bouso
moÿh on buntivh.
Kgmimos mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn quëkibh
Gn ko`gfh mg gsto pnojo sg rgonizo kgmio`tg no opnibobiò` mg i`sgbtibimos, tongs bhkh
ikimobnhprim, bnhrpiridhs, gtb. Omgkïs, sg i`bnuyg no utinizobiò` mg egthg`hngs poro gn
bh`trhn mg norvos, rgspgto`mh nhs pgrëhmhs mg borg`bio y mg ush phr bokpoÿo pgrkitimhs
Bh`trhn bunturon
 Hrmg`okig`th mg nos dg`hnhjëos g` bhhrmi`obiò` bh` no portg bhkgrbion.
 Nikpigzo mg bokphs, yo qug sg ao` phmimh hcsgrvor qug nhs rgsimuhs vgjgtongs
mg gspïrrojh h mg kongzos, sh` nujorgs prgdgrimhs poro qug nhs i`sgbths omunths
sg rgdujig` y g` bh`sgbug`bio rgi`dgstor gn gspïrrojh y osë vhnvgrsg g`mékibh.
 G` dgrtirrigjh, sg aobg ush mgn i`brgkg`th mgn `itròjg`h poro pgrkitir qug nhs
gvg`ths mg crhtobiò` rokidibobiò` y opgrturo mgn crhtg, sgo nh kïs rïpimh phsicng
y ng pgrkito o no pno`to gsbopor on otoqug mgn i`sgbth, yo qug `h vo o g`bh`tror 
 

gstrubturos vgjgtongs qug pgrkito` gn mgsorrhnnh mg nos norvos bhkh crïbtgos

bgrromos(Bostinnh Tonig`tg, 3<?1)
 Nikpigzo y ko`tg`ikig`th mg bgrbhs vivhs h corrgros dësibos6 Gn i`sgbth `h
i`dgsto o gstos pno`tos mg bgrbhs vivhs on gstomh norvon shnh nh utinizo bhkh nujor 
mg rgdujih mgn gstomh omunth
Bh`trhn gthnòjibh

Gn
mg ush mg nos trokpos
nhs i`sgbths mg onuz,
omunths, ton sh` rgbhkg`momos
pu`th bhkhbhkpngkg`torios
qug nos kgmimos u` kgmih poro cofor
qug nosgmg`simom
rgonizo`
 poro su ko`gfh, pugmo` sgr gdgbtivos, yo qug no bo`timom mg i`sgbths qug sg jg`gro` phr 
agbtïrgo gs kuy onto, pumig`mh nngjor o kinnh`gs mg omunths(Bostinnh Tonig`tg, 3<?1)

 Gnoskhponpus nij`hsgnno

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon


Khvikig`th
notgro mgjugro
notgronn no ko` ko`jugro
ko`jug g` nhs
ro mg rigjh prhprikgrhs
prhbur o`mhh mëos
buro`m aukgmmggbgr
aukgmgbgbuntivh6 sggnh
r gn su
sugnhkugvg
g` gng`ïrgo
sg`timh
ïrgo qug
bhkprg`mg gn o`bah mg no bhrh`o pugsth qug `h hviphsito` g` bh`mibih`gs mg
sugnh aökgmh, gvito`mh mg gsto ko`gro qug i`dgstg nhs bokphs.
 Ko`tg`gr no pno`tobiò` nicrg mg kongzos.
 Gvitor no shcrg bhsgbao, pugs nos pno`tos mécings sh` nos kïs i`dgstomos.

Bh`trhn quëkibh
No opnibobiò` mg nhs i`sgbtibimos mgcg gdgbtuorsg g` dhrko mirijimo on bugnnh mg nos pno`tos.

o.3) G`dg
G`dgrkgm
rkgmomgs
omgs
 Rtgkpaynniuk

vgsiboriuk Kéthmhs mg

bh`trhn Bh`trhn bunturon

 Hrmg`okig`th mg buntivhs6 Rg mgcg` hrmg`or nos bhsgbaos poro `h prhvhbor 
i`dgbbiò` bh`sto`tg, yo qug gn potòjg`h gs `gbròtrhdh y porïsith dobuntotivh.
 Nikpigzo mg bokphs. Gsto nochr i`bnuyg no gniki`obiò` mg rgsimuhs mg bhsgbao
qug sg g`bug`tro` g` bokph y gn trosnomh mg crhzo, qug sg rgonizo bh` gn koyhr 
buimomh phsicng.
 

c) TIM
Rituobiò` g` gn vonng mg Ibo
No supgrdibig thton mg vim gs mg 3< kin agbtïrgos (ao) oprhxikomokg`tg, mg nos buongs ?7
kin ao sh` uvo mg kgso, =:<< ao sh` uvo poro \isbh y 2<< ao mg uvo poro gnochrobiò` mg
vi`h. No obtivimom vitivi`ëbhno gs costo`tg tromibih`on g` Ibo y no prhmubbiò` mg \isbh, gs
u` rucrh ikphrto`tg mg no gbh`hkëo rgjih`on, rgprgsg`to gn 4< o 47 phr big`th mg no
 prhmubbiò` `obih`on
`obih`on mg \isbh (Ki`
(Ki`istgrih
istgrih mg \rhmubbiò`,
\rhmubbiò`, 3<?=)

\rhcngkos dithso`itorihs
c.?) \nojos
 \no`hbhbbus spp

Gn bh
bh`tr
`trhn
hn mg „Bh
„Bhba
bai`i
i`inno
nno aori`
aori`hso
hso‛‛ sg rgo
rgoniz
nizoo g` gtopo
gtoposs gstrot
gstrotéji
éjibo
boss utiniz
utinizo`m
o`mhh
i`jrgmig`
i`jrgmig`tgs
tgs obtiv
obtivhs
hs bhkh ]aio
]aiokgth
kgthxo`,
xo`, Ikimobnhp
Ikimobnhprim,
rim, Rpirhtgtrok
Rpirhtgtrokot,
ot, Bnhrp
Bnhrpiridhs
iridhs..
Khkg`ths hphrtu`hs poro no opnibobiò` mg prhmubths bhkh ]aiokgthxo` h Ikimobnhprim
gs mgspués mg no bhsgbao y vëo sistgko mg rigjh poro gvitor nhs rgsimuhs g` gn prhmubth
bhsgbaocng, pugsth qug gsths prhmubths tig`g` u`o onto rgsimuonimom. G` no gtopo phst
bhsgbao
bhsgbao sg pugmg
pugmg utini
utinizor
zor gn bnhrp
bnhrpiridhs
iridhs mirijim
mirijimhh on trh`bh mg no pno`to qug gs mh`mg sg
g`bug`tro` no koyhrëo mg nhs i`mivimuhs, prgvih o nos prïbtibos bunturongs qug gxph`g` on
i`sgbth, tongs bhkh gn mgsbhrtgzokig`th.
mgsbhrtgzokig`th.
Bgrotitis bopitoto

Nhs omunths prgsg`to` u`o obtivimom miur`o. Gn omunth bhnhbo sus augvhs mg`trh mgn druth
g` jruphs mg ?< o ?3. Mgspués, nos norvos sg onikg`to` mg no punpo mg no druto bouso`mh
su pumribiò`. \hstgrihrkg`tg, g` gn tgrbgr gstomih song mgn druth y gkpupo g` gn sugnh.
Nhs omunths rgbié` gkgrjimhs sg rgdujio` g` nos g` nos portgs vgjgtotivos mg no pno`to,
 poro mgspués cusbor onikg`ths prhtgibhs, nhs buongs i`dnug`biorï` g` gn omunth poro
onbo`zor su komurgz sgxuon y bh`ti`uor bh` su mgsorrhnnh (Rgrvibih @obih`on mg Ro`imom
Ojrorio ‒ RG@ORO, 3<?=).

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 Sgbhfh mg drutos rgko`g`tgs
 Bhsgbaor thmhs nhs druths mgn ïrchn
  @h mgfor qug nhs druths shcrg komurg`
komurg`
 Gniki`or gn druth boëmh

Bh`trhn gthnòjibh
Wtinizobiò` trokpos onikg`tib
Wtinizobiò` onikg`tibios
ios (prht
(prhtgë`o
gë`oss aimrhnizo
aimrhnizomos)
mos)66 Rg troto mg u` otroy
otroyg`tg
g`tg
onik
onikg`
g`ti
tibi
bihh po
poro
ro no bopt
boptur
uroo ko
kosi
sivo
vo mg no kh khsb
sboo mg no drdrut
uto,
o, kgmi
kgmio`
o`tg
tg gn us
ushh mg
khsqugrhs/trokpos,
khsqugrhs/trokp os, prgsg`tomh g` dhrko nëquimo. Gn i`jrgmig`tg obtivh gstï cosomh bh`
 

u` dhrkunomh prhtgibh. \rhvhbo no gkisiò` bh`ti`uo y bh`trhnomo mg bhkpugsths

vhnïtings, prikhrmionkg`tg oki`os agtgrhbëbnibos (pipgrozi`mih`os) y ïbimhs hrjï`ibhs,
mg gngvomh phmgr otroyg`tg poro nhs omunths mg gsto pnojo,

c.3)) G`dgr
c.3 G`dgrkgmo
kgmomgs
mgs
 Chtrytis bi`grgo

No phmrgmukcrg jris gxistg g` thmhs nhs viÿgmhs mgn ku`mh. Nhs bnikos aökgmhs,
tgkpnomhs h drëhs dovhrgbg` gsto g`dgrkgmom. G` nos prhmubbiò` mg uvos poro
vi`idibobiò`, gn moÿh kïs ikphrto`tg gs buonitotivh mgcimh o nos khmidibobih`gs mg no
bhkphsibiò` quëkibo mg nos uvos i`dgbtomos(\gorsh` & Jhagg`, ?994). Mg obugrmh o
Sgy`igr (3<<3), gn ah`jh sg mgsorrhnno cig` g`trg ?7 y 3< ¼B. Gn ojuo mg nnuvio h u`o
aukgmom supgrihr on 17% brgo bh`mibih`gs kuy dovhrocngs poro gn mgsorrhnnh mg gstg
 potòjg`h. Ru bh`trhn
bh`trhn sg nikito o no oopnibobiò`
pnibobiò` mg du`jibim
du`jibimos.
os.

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 Mgsahfg pgriòmibh (prgsg`to u` koyhr ikpobth shcrg gn bh`trhn mgn khah jris)
 Mgscrhtg
 \hmo g` vgrmg

Bh`trhn quëkibh
Nhs trotokig`ths quëkibhs sh` u` bhkph`g`tg ikphrto`tg mg no gstrotgjio poro gn
bh`trhn mg no pumribiò` jris mg no vim. Ri` gkcorjh, gn bh`trhn mg gsto g`dgrkgmom sg
nhjr
nhjroo bh`
bh` no i`tg
i`tgjr
jrob
obiò
iò`` mg trot
trotok
okig
ig`t
`ths
hs qu
quëk
ëkib
ibhs
hs y bu bunt
ntur
uron
ongs
gs.. Rg opopni
nibo
bo``
 prikhrmionkg`tg g` no dnhrobiò` y gn pgrihmh bhkprg`mimh g`trg g`vgrh y bhsgbao. Rg
utinizo` midgrg`tgs prhmubths quëkibhs6 iprhmih`g, triozhngs, gstrhcinuri`os, g`trg htrhs
(Rgrvibih @obih`on mg Ro`imom Ojrorio ‒ RG@ORO, 3<?1)
Bh`trhn jg`étibh
Gxistg` midgrg`bios g` no susbgpticinimom o  Chtrytis bi`grgo g`trg gspgbigs y buntivorgs
mg no vim. G` Titis vi`ëdgro, nhs buntivorgs Gkpgrhr y Outuk` cnobe sh` khmgromokg`tg
rgsistg`tgs, kig`tros qug ]ahkpsh` Rggmngs y Dnokg Rggmngs sh` kuy susbgpticngs y
Sgm Jnhcg ngvgkg`tg rgsistg`tg(\gorsh` & Jhagg`, ?994)

Kinmiu ( \noskhporo vitëbhno)

 \noskhporo vitëbhno

Gn Kinmiu gs u` g`mhporïsith qug i`jrgso phr nhs gsthkos mg no pno`to y bhnh`izo gn

kgsòdinh mg no ahfo, poro nugjh dhrkor gstrubturos mg rgprhmubbiò` osgxuon nnokomhs
gsphro`jiòdhrhs, nhs qug shstig`g` o nhs gsphro`jihs, qug sh` o sus vgz gstrubturos qug
 

bh`tig`g` nos zhhsphros, bugrphs kibrhsbòpibhs u`ibgnunorgs y cidnojgnomhs qug sg

dhrko` bh` di`gs mg mispgrsiò` (\gorsh` & Jhagg`, ?994)
Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 \hmor y gniki`or nhs crhtgs h gxtrgkhs mg borjomhrgs i`dgbtomhs.
 Opnibobiò` mg mgdhnio`tg poro obgngror no boëmo mg nos ahfos, dovhrgbig`mh gn
bh`trhn (urgo h `itroth mg okh`ih on 7%)
 Ristgko mg bh`mubbiò`
Bh`trhn quëkibh
 Rg phmr
phmrëo
ëo`` gk
gkpn
pngo
gorr onju
onju`h
`hss prhm
prhmub
ubth
thss quëk
quëkib
ibhs
hs55 to
tong
ngss bh
bhkh
kh66 Bnhrhtonh`in,
Ko`bhzgc, g`trg htrhs. ]g`ig`mh g` bug`to no `h utinizobiò` mg prhmubths pgrtg`gbig`tgs
on jruph mg nhs cg`zikimozhngs, triozhngs5 yo qug gstg gstg öntikh tig`g u`o obtivimom
i`aicig`mh no së`tgsis mg grjhstgrhn, y gn potòjg`h on borgbgr mg gsto gstrubturo `h tg`mrï
gdgbth onju`h.

Himiuk ( Grysipag `gbothr )

 Grysipag `gbothr 

Rg borobtgrizo` phr no dhrkobiò` mg ko`baos bh`stituimos phr kosos mg aidos

 phnvhrig`tos, khahsos y mg u` bhnhr qug vo mgn cno`bh on jrisïbgh shcrg nhs tgfimhs
 fòvg`gs mg nos pno`tos h shcrg nos ahfos y htrhs òrjo`hs bhkpngtokg`tg bucigrths phr 
u`o bg`ibinno(Ojrihs, ?997)

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 Ristgko mg bh`mubbiò`
 \hmo g` vgrmg, quito`mh nos ahfos bgrbo`os on robikh
r obikh y rgmubig`mh gn dhnnofg poro
 pgrkitir no oirgobiò`
 Dgrtinizobiò`
 Nikpigzo mgn buntivh
Bh`trhn quëkibh
Gn ozudrg gs gn prikgr du`jibimo gdgbtivh poro gn bh`trhn mg gsto g`dgrkgmom mgcimh o su
gdibobio bhkh prgvg`tivh, burotivh, y mg cofh bhsth, y sijug sig`mh gn kïs usomh poro
gstg prhpòsith (\gorsh` & Jhagg`, ?994)
 

No rhtobiò` mg du`jibimos bh` midgrg`tgs bòmijhs DSOB (Bhkité mg obbiò` drg`tg o no

rgsistg`bio o du`jibimos) `h gs u`o prïbtibo bhkö` mg no koyhrëo mg prhmubthrgs mg vim,
nh `hrkon gs qug sg sijo` prhjrokos mg opnibobiò` bh` kïs mg = h 7 opnibobih`gs mg
du`jibimos mgn kiskh bòmijh DSOB, `hrkonkg`tg i`aicimhrgs mg no mgkgtaynoso B?=
(MKIs bòmijh 2 nh buon bh`nngvo o bh`trhngs bomo vgz kg`hs gdibobgs mg nhs du`jibimos,
gs phr gsth qug kubaos vgbgs nhs prhmubthrgs gngvo` nos mhsis mg nhs kiskhs poro
hctg`gr `ivgngs mg bh`trhn obgptocng(Ojrih
obgptocng(Ojrihs,
s, ?997)
Bh`trhn cihnòjibh
W`h mg nhs o`tojh`istos mg nos g`dgrkgmomgs dhniorgs qug prgsg`to cug` bh`trhn gs no
utinizobiò` mg ]ribahmgrko spp (Rgrvibih @obih`on mg Ro`imom Ojrorio ‒ RG@ORO,
3<?1)

b) \ON]H

\ri`bipongs rgjih`gs prhmubthrgs mg ponto

Dug`tg6 MJRG\/MG

G` no rgjiò` mg Ibo
I bo gxistg 2.:17 agbtïrgos mg ponto, bh` u`o prhmubbiò` mg ?= 3=1 ej/ao,
gsto
gstocn
cngb
gbié
ié`m
`mhs
hsgg bhkh
bhkh no sg sgju
ju`m
`moo rgji
rgjiò`
ò` g` pr prgs
gsg`
g`to
torr koyh
koyhrg
rgss vo
vonh
nhrg
rgss mg
 prhmubbiò`(Auokï`
 prhmubbiò`(Auo kï` Chrmo, 3<?:)

\rhcngkos dithso`itorihs
B.?) \nojos
 

Hnijh`ybaus spp.

Gs u` ïborh kuy phnëdojh qug sg onikg`to mg no pno`to, bh`brgtokg`tg ocshrcig`mh gn

nëquimh mg nos bénunos, y bouso`mh ko`baos bnhròtibos g` gn aoz mg nos ahfos. Gs no
gspgbig kïs ocu`mo`tg y okpniokg`tg rgportimo g` `ugstrh poës(Corchso & Gspi`hzo,
?912).
Moÿhs
Moÿhs mirgbths bousomhs phr no oroÿo rhfo sg mgcg o su obtivimom onikg`tibio, poro
onikg`torsg i`sgrto sus gstingtgs g` gn tgfimh mg no ahfo, subbih`o`mh gn bh`tg`imh mg nos
bénunos gpimérkibos, nos bénunos sg bhnopso` y kugrg` on sgr vobiomos dhrkï`mhsg u`os
ko`bao
ko` baoss bnh
bnhròt
ròtibo
iboss g` nos ahf
ahfos
os,, mis
miski`
ki`uyg
uyg`mh
`mh no ob obtiv
tivimo
imomm mg no pno`to
pno`to o `ivgn
`ivgn
dhthsi`tétibh y mg toso mg tro`spirobiò`. Ri no i`dgbbiò` bhi`bimg bh` ontos tgkpgroturos
y/h gstrés aëmribh, pugmg bousor mgdhniobiò` jrovg y gn `ökgrh mg dnhrgs prhmubimos
 pugmg rgmubirsg bh`simgrocngkg`tg(Auoko`
bh`simgrocngkg`tg(Auoko` Chrmo
Chrmo,, 3<?:)
Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 \hmos

Bh`trhn kgbï`ibh
 Novomhs mirgbtokg`tg o no pno`to, bh` no i`tg`biò` mg ontgror gn gspobih dësibh
mh`mg sg gstï` mgsorrhnno`mh.
Bh`trhn quëkibh
 No utinizobiò` mg prhmubths quëkibhs, tongs bhkh5 Ocokgbti`o, Gthzoxhn, g`trg
htrhs

Bh`trhn cihnòjibh
 No utinizobiò` mg gdibig`tg mg Rtgta
Rtgtahrus pu`btinnu bhkh g`gkijh `oturon. Gs u`
hrus pu`btinnu
vhnomhr obtivh y cusbo bhnh`ios `ugvo mg ïborhs mg nhs qug onikg`torsg(Shy gt
on., 3<<3)

 Agkicgrngsio noto`iog
noto`iog

Gn moÿh mg nos gsbokos sg prhmubg pri`biponkg`tg shcrg no pno`to mgcimh o no gxtrobbiò`

mg sovio mgsmg gn poré`quiko, nh qug bouso mgdhniobiò` y kugrtg mg rokinnos. O trovés mg
su sonivo, nos gsbokos pugmg` i`ygbtor thxi`os g` nhs tgfimhs vgjgtongs qug bouso`
kugrtg mg rokos y ïrchngs g` boshs mg gngvomo mg`simom phcnobih`on mg no pnojo. Momh
qug tokcié` sg difo` g` nhs druths, hbosih`o` moÿhs g` ésths rgmubig`mh su bonimom,

mgcimh
no o no prgsg`bio
supgrdibig mg gsthsmgni`sgbths
h mgbhnhrobiò` h cig` oChrmo,
druth(Auoko` no dhrkobiò`
3<?:) mg pgqugÿos mgprgsih`gs g`
 

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
Gn buimomh mg nhs ïborhs gs kuy ikphrto`tg phr no bouso o`tgs kg`bih`omo.
kg`bih`omo. su bh`trhn sg
rgonizo bh` novomhs o cosg mg HW] MWR] (Mgtgrjg`tg Ojrëbhno), poro gvitor qug gn
 phnvh sg bh`bg`trg g` nos ahfos,
ahfos, sig`mh u`o bh`mibiò` dovhrocng
dovhrocng poro no misgki`obiò` mg
no pnojo(@oforrh Sivgro, 3<?7)
Bh`trhn quëkibh
Gn bh`trhn mg no qugrgso gs ikphrto`tg poro hctg`gr druths mg cug`o bonimom g` buo`th o
no so`imom. Rg gkpngo gstg kéthmh mg bh`trhn buo`mh no pnojo posg nhs ukcrongs mg moÿh
gbh`òkibh, yo qug sg mgcg rgonizor opnibobih`gs bh` Ocokgbti`o, Gthzoxhn, g`trg htrhs
oboribimos(Suiz, 3<?7).
b.3)) G`dgrkgmo
b.3 G`dgrkgmomgs
mgs
 Nosihmipnhmio taghcrhkog
taghcrhkog

No ikphrto`bio mg nos g`dgrkgmomgs hbosih`omos phr gstg potòjg`h romibo g` su

bhkpngfh ko`gfh mg nos i`dgbbih`gs. W`o vgz i`stonomo g` no pno`to hbosih`o u`o kugrtg
rgjrgsivo, dhrko`mh bo`brhsis mg tonnhs y rokos, pumribiò` mgn bugnnh mg pno`to,
okorinnokig`th, qug odgbto` sgvgrokg`tg on buntivh miski`uyg`mh sus rg`mikig`ths. O
gsth sg suko qug sg misgki`o rïpimokg`tg, phr gn ojuo mg rigjh, phmos, agrrokig`tos
i`dgbtomos, phbo gdgbtivimom mg nhs du`jibimos tromibih`ongs, y nos rgstribbih`gs
r gstribbih`gs mg su ush
 phr nos borg`bios mg nhs kiskhs, aobg mg gsto g`dgrkgmom kuy midëbin su bh`trhn(Ojrihs,
?997)
Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
W`o mg nos dhrkos mg prgvg`ir no misgki`obiò` mgn potòjg`h gs no mgsi`dgbbiò` mg nos
agrrokig`tos mg trocofh pri`biponkg`tg mg phmos, utinizo`mh aiphbnhrith on 3%.
Bh`trhn quëkibh
Gn bh`trhn quëkibh, tig`g u` gdgbth kuy nikitomh omgkïs mg nhs prhcngkos qug phmrëo`
hbosih`or sus rgsimuhs g` no druto. \oro prgvg`ir no misgki`obiò` g` nos pno`tos phr  N.
taghcrhkog g` pno`tos mg ponth, gsth sg mgcg` dukijor bh` u`o shnubiò` mg u` du`jibimo
o cosg prhbnhroz, g`trg htrhs(Auoko` Chrmo, 3<?:)

Tirhimg mgn su`cnhtba (ORCTm)

Nhs së`thkos kïs nnokotivhs odgbto` o nhs druths, nhs buongs sh` mgdhrkomhs y prgsg`to`
zh`os okorinnos y au`mimos. O vgbgs nos ïrgos au`mimos pugmg` sgr `gbròtibos h mg bhnhr 
rhfizh g` gn bg`trh. Nh crhtgs `ugvhs y nhs pgbihnhs mg nos ahfos pugmg` prgsg`tor 
mgbh
mgbhnh
nhro
robi
biò`
ò`,, aost
aostoo cn
cno`
o`qu
qugo
goki
kig`
g`th
th.. G` nos
nos ro
roko
koss kï
kïss vivigf
gfos
os pu
pugm
gmg`
g` op
opor
orgb
gbgr 
gr 
obo`onomuros mg bhnhr okorinnh h rhsomh. No bo`hpio mg nos pno`tos i`dgbtomos gs kg`hs
mgso
mgsorr
rrhn
hnno
nomo
mo y opor
oporg`
g`to
to mgbo
mgboik
ikig
ig`t
`th.
h. G` pn pno`
o`to
toss om
omun
unto
toss ao
aoyy po
porm
rmgo
goki
kig`
g`th
th y
ojrigtokig`th mg no bhrtgzo(Mgsformi`s gt on., ?91<)
 

Kéthmhs mg bh`trhn
Bh`trhn bunturon
 Gniki`or pno`tos qug prgsg`tg` si`thkothnhjëo pgbunior prhmubimos phr gstg
virhimg.
 Mgsi`dgbtor nos agrrokig`tos on khkg`th mg rgonizor nos phmos bhrrgsph`mig`tgs.
bhrrgsph`mig`tgs.
 Gvitor no utinizobiò` mg sgkinnos prhvg`ig`tgs mg pno`tos g`dgrkos, pugsth qug
tig`g` u` 14 o ?<<% mg tro`skisiò`
m) Bëtribhs
G` \grö, nos pri`bipongs zh`os mg buntivh sh`6 Niko (74%), Ibo (37%) y Fu`ë` (?2%). Gn
khkg`th sg bhsgbao mg nos ko`mori`os sg rgonizo g` midgrg`tgs khkg`ths mgn oÿh
mgcimh o nhs midgrg`tgs kibrhbnikos qug prgsg`to gn poës, si` gkcorjh, jg`gronkg`tg sg
rgonizo g`trg nhs kgsgs mg ocrin y ojhsth, sig`mh onrgmgmhr mgn 17% mg thton bhsgbaomh g`
gn oÿh. Nos pri`b
pri`bipong
ipongss vorig
vorigmomg
momgss mg buntivh sh`6 Rotsuko
Rotsukos,
s, Bngkg`ti`
Bngkg`ti`os,
os, Aëcrimhs,
Aëcrimhs,
g`trg htros (Aurtomh mg Kg`mhzo, 3<?1).
Rgjö` no Ojg`bio \gruo`o mg `htibios O`mi`o (3<3<), g` nos gxphrtobih`gs mg bëtribhs g`
\grö mgstoborh` nhs g`vëhs mg ko`mori`os drgsbos, rgprgsg`to`mh gn 11% mgn thton mg
bëtribhs gxphrtomhs g`trg g`grh y ojhsth mg 3<3<. Nos rgjih`gs Niko, Ibo y No Nicgrtom
bh`bg`trorh` no koyhr bo`timom mg ko`mori`o drgsbo gxphrtomo bh` =7%, ==% y ?<%
mgn thton gxphrtomh, rgspgbtivokg`tg.
rgspgbtivokg`tg.
Rgjö` RG@ORO (3<?9), g` gn 3<?1 sg bgrtidiborh` 291:.<? agbtïrgos mg bëtribhs poro no
gxphrtobiò` g` \grö, g`trg nhs buongs mg oprhcorh` g` thton ??= zh`os mg prhmubbiò`,
g`trg nhs buongs :< zh`os mg prhmubbiò` sg ucibo` g` Bai`bao, 3= g` Ibo, ?3 g` \isbh, <4
g` @osbo y <3 g` no prhvi`bio mg \onpo.

m.
m.?)
?) \nojos
\nojos
bitri (KbJrgjhr)
 \o`h`ybaus bitri

Gstg ïborh pgrtg`gbg o no dokinio ]gtro`ybaimog, nhs kigkcrhs mg gstg jruph rgbicg` no
mg`hki`obiò` mg „oroÿitos‛ phrqug tgfg` u`o di`o tgno onrgmgmhr mg nos ahfos mg nos
 pno`tos mh`mg vivg`. Rg ao mgtgrki`omh qug  \o`h`ybaus bitri i`dgsto okpniokg`tg nhs
bëtribhs, prgsg`to`mh koyhr i`bimg`bio g` gn jruph @ovgn (Boiro, 3<?7).
Cihnhjëo
 \. bitri  prgsg`to
bi`bh gstomhs mg mgsorrhnnh6 augvh, norvo, prhth`i`do, mguth`i`do y
omunth. Nhs augvhs sh` bhnhbomhs phr no agkcro g` no `grvomuro pri`bipon mg no boro
supg
supgri
rihr
hr mg nos
nos ah
ahfo
fos.
s. Bu
Buo`
o`mh
mh nhs
nhs augv
augvhs
hs gb
gbnh
nhsi
sih`
h`o`
o`,, no
noss no
norv
rvos
os ki
kimg
mg`` <.
<.33 kk
oprhxikomokg`tg y prgsg`to` trgs porgs mg potos. Nugjh, o nhs trgs mëos poso on gstomh
mg prhth`i`do, no buon kimg <.37 kk y prgsg`to buotrh porgs mg potos, phstgrihrkg`tg
bh`ti`uo gn gsto
bh`ti`uo gstomh
mh mg mguth`i`
mguth`i`do
do y omun
omunth.
th. G` gn bosh mg no agkcro,
agkcro, sh` dgbu`mom
dgbu`momos
os
mgspués mg no kumo y gkpigzo o hviph`gr o nhs mhs h trgs mëos, si` gkcorjh, nos agkcros
qug `h ao` simh
 

dgbu`momos tokcié` pugmg` bhnhbor augvhs qug morï` hrijg` o i`mivimuhs kobahs
(Torjos, 3<?=)

Bh`trhn quëkibh
Ocokgbti`o
Gs u` oboribimo mg obtivimom tro`snoki`or, gkpngomh poro gn bh`trhn mg ïborhs. Gn khmh
mg obbiò` mg no ocokgbti`o sg coso g` su obbiò` tro`snoki`or, obtöo phr bh`tobth g
i`jgstiò`. Sgspgbth o su kgbo`iskh mg obbiò`, obtöo cnhqugo`mh gn `gurhtro`skishr 
obimh-y-oki`h cutëribh (JOCO) g` nos bh`gxih`gs `gurhkusbunorgs mg i`sgbths y
ïborhs, odgbto`mh no tro`skisiò` mg ikpunshs `grvihshs (Boiro, 3<?7).
\rhporjitg
Gs u` obobori
oribim
bimoo bh` obbiò`
obbiò` mg bhbh`to
`tobth
bth,, i`j
i`jgst
gstiò`
iò` g i`aono
i`aonobiò
biò`` bh` rgsimu
rgsimuoni
onimom
mom
 prhnh`jomo. Gn khmh
khmh mg obbiò` mg pprhporjitg
rhporjitg sg coso g` su obbiò` mg bh`tobth, i`jgstiò`
i`jgstiò`
g i`aicibiò` y obtöo shcrg gn sistgko `grvihsh bg`tron mg nhs ïborhs. Ru kgbo`iskh mg
obbiò` bh`sistg g` i`aicir no O]\oso kithbh`mrion o trovés mgn buon sg i`tgrrukpg gn
kgtochniskh y rgspirobiò` bouso`mh tgkcnhrgs, bh`vunsih`gs, porïnisis y htrhs bokcihs
g` su bhkphrtokig`th (Boiro, 3<?7).
Bh`trhn cihnòjibh
G`trg nhs g`gkijhs `oturongs mg  \. bitri sg bito` nhs ïborhs prgmomhrgs, pri`biponkg`tg
mg no do doki
kini
nioo \a
\ayt
yths
hsgi
giim
imog
og.. ]o
]okc
kcié
ié`` sg ao`
ao` mg
mgsb
sbri
rith
th gs
gspg
pgbi
bigs
gs mg no noss do
doki
kini
nios
os
Bh`ihptgryjimog, Baryshpimog y Agkgrhciimog. Rgjö` Juo`inh & Kortë`gz (3<<:), g`
no bhsto bg`tr
bg`tron
on mg \grö sg img`tidib
img`tidiborh`
orh` qui`bg mgprgmo
mgprgmomhrgs
mhrgs oshbiomhs
oshbiomhs o  \o`h`ybaus
bitri6  Okcnysgius bau`jos Mg`kore & Kuko, \aythsgiunus pgrsikinis Otaios-Ag`riht,
 @ghsgiunus bonidhr`ibus (KbJrgjhr), ]ypan]ypanhmrhk us gvgbtus (Rbaustgr), ]ypanhmrhkus
hmrhkus
tro`svoong`sis (@gscitt), ]ypanhmrhki`o suctrhpibo Kuko & Mg`kore, Kgxgbagngs sp.,
Bagngthjg`gs sp. y Orkosbirus sp. Rtgtahrus trimg`s Jhrmh`, Rtgtahrus aistrih Baozgou,

to sp., Baryshpgrno gxtgr`o Aojg`, Bgrogh

Hnijhto
Hnijh
sp.
Bgroghbaryso
baryso bi`bto Rba`gimgrr y  Oghnhtarips
Rba`gimg

Rgjö` Juo`inh & Kortë`gz (3<<9), gn ïborh prgmomhr  Okcnysgius bau`jos Mg`kore &
Kuko (Obori6 \aythsgiimog) gs no gspgbig kïs drgbug`tg oshbiomo o  \. bitri g` no bhsto
bg`tron mgn \grö y ao simh g`bh`tromh ö`ibokg`tg g` `ugstrh poës, g` nhs Mgportokg`ths
mg Buzbh, Ibo, No Nicgrtom, Nokcoygqug, Niko, y Ro` Kortë`.
Bh`trhn bunturon
Rg rgbhkig`mo gn bh`trhn mgn rigjh y mg no dgrtinizobiò` `itrhjg`omo, yo qug nos pno`tos
gxbgsivh dhnnofg dovhrgbg no prgsg`bio mg mivgrsos pnojos bhkh nhs ïborhs. \hr gnnh, gs
ikphrto`tg ko`tg`gr u`o dgrtinizobiò` cono`bgomo. Rgjö` ]g`o gt on . (3<??),
rgbhkig`mo` gn ko`gfh mg no bucigrto vgjgton, yo qug g` nhs öntikh oÿhs sg ao rgonizomh
gstumihs qug mgkugstro` qug no sigkcro mg  Dgstubo oru`mi`obgo g`trg në`gos oukg`to no
ocu`mo`bio y
 

no mivgrsimom mg nhs ïborhs dithséimhs, miski`uyg`mh no prgsg`bio mg oroÿo rhfo g` nos

bngkg`ti`os oshbiomhs.

Bh`trhn dësibh
Gn nov
novom
omhh mg pno
pno`to
`toss gs gn ké
kéthm
thmhh kï
kïss gkpng
gkpngomh
omh po
poro
ro ko`tg
ko`tg`gr
`gr nos phc
phcnob
nobih`
ih`gs
gs mg
 \o`h`ybaus bitri mgcofh mgn ukcron mgn moÿh gbh`òkibh. Nhsgvito`mh
novomhs sg
di`onimom mg rgmubir no obukunobiò` mg phnvh g` nos pno`tos, qugrgonizo` bh` no
i`brgkg`tg`
nos phcnobih`gs mg oroÿito rhfo. \oro gnnh, sg gkpngo` mgtgrjg`tg h focò` ojrëbhno,
 pumié`mhsg omibih`or u` oboribimo. Rg rgbhkig`mo
r gbhkig`mo gvitor rgonizor nhs novomhs muro`tg no
éphbo mg dnhrobiò` mg nhs bëtribhs poro gvito nos boëmos mg nos dnhrgs phr gn ikpobth mgn
novomh (Aurtomh mg Kg`mhzo, 3<?1).
Bh`trhn quëkibh
Rgjö` @orrgo (3<?3), sg rgbhkig`mo rgonizor opnibobih`gs mg obgitg vgjgton on ?%
buo`mh sg shcrgposg gn 7% mg druths i`dgstomhs phr  \. bitri. ]okcié` rgbhkig`mo
opnibobih`gs mg ozudrgs ahros si` shn, gs mgbir `h opnibor o gngvomos tgkpgroturos, y `h
sg mgcg kgzbnor bh` obgitgs `i prhmubths mg rgobbiò` onboni`o.
Bgrotitis bopitoto

Mg obugrmh o nh gstocngbimh g` gn buntivh mg vim, sg sujigrg sgjuir nhs kiskhs kéthmhs

mg bh`trhn poro gsto pnojo.
m.3)) G`dgr
m.3 G`dgrkgmo
kgmomgs
mgs
Rgjö` nh mgsbrith g` gn buntivh mg Tim, nos g`dgrkgmomgs kïs rgngvo`tgs sh` no prgsg`bio
mg khah jris, osikiskh sg gkpngo kéthmhs mg bh`trhn sikinorgs o nh mgsbrith.
 

TI. BH@BNWRIH@GR

?. Gn von
vonng
ng mg Ib
Iboo prgsg
prgsg`to
`to u` ïrg
ïrgoo mg gxt
gxtg`si
g`siò`
ò` prhm
prhmubti
ubtivo
vo mg 3: =71
=71 ao. Gn vonng
vonng mg
Ibo gs ocostgbimh bh` gn rgbursh aëmribh cofh trgs ko`gros5 ojuos mg ovg`imo,
ojuos mg noju`o y ojuo suctgrrï`go.
3. Gn bnik
bnikoo mg
mgnn vo
vonn
nngg mg Ibo
Ibo gs prpriv
ivin
ingj
gjio
iomh
mh po
poro
ro no prprhm
hmub
ubbi
biò`
ò` mg mi
midg
dgrg
rg`t
`tgs
gs
buntivorgs, bukpnig`mh bh` nos `gbgsimomgs disihnòjibos mg no pno`to.
2. Gn vonn
vonngg mg Ibo prgs
prgsg`to
g`to u`
u`oo jro` sup
supgrdib
grdibig
ig mg sigkc
sigkcro,
ro, tg`ig`mh
tg`ig`mh bh`sijh
bh`sijh bhkh
bhkh
buntivhs pri`bipongs o Gspïrrojh, \onto, Bëtribh y Tim.
=. Nos pno
pnojos
jos y g`dgr
g`dgrkgmo
kgmomgs
mgs sh` bh`trhn
bh`trhnomos
omos bh` mimidgrg`
dgrg`tgs
tgs kéthmhs
kéthmhs mg bh`trhn,
bh`trhn,
 portig`mh mg qug kubaos gkprgsos sh` ojrhgxphrtomhros,
ojrhgxphrtomhros, gsh nngvo bh`sijh o
tg`gr buimomh mg nos opnibobih`gs, to`th mgn khkg`th mg opnibobiò`, mgn prhmubth
o utinizor qug sgo` gbh okijocngs y `h pgrfumibion poro no sonum.

TII. SGBHKG@MOBIH@GR

?. Gs `gbgsori
`gbgsorih
h no i`bhrphrob
i`bhrphrobiò`
iò` mg no kotgrio
kotgrio hrjï`ibo,
hrjï`ibo, pugsth
pugsth qug
qug oyumorëo
oyumorëo o kgfhror
kgfhror
nhs sugnhs prgsg`tgs g` gn vonng, miski`uyg`mh gn rigsjh mg `gkothmhs, kgfhro`mh
nos prhpigmomgs dsibos-quëkibos mgn sugnh.
3. Gstocngbg
Gstocngbgrr u` cug` ko`gfh
ko`gfh mgn
mgn rgbursh
rgbursh aëmribh,
aëmribh, pugsth
pugsth qug
qug gs u` obthr
obthr viton
viton g`
gn u`bih`okig`th mg nos obvimomgs sihnòjibos mg no pno`to.
2. Gstocngbg
Gstocngbgrr brh`hjrokos
brh`hjrokos mgmg obvimomgs
obvimomgs ojrëbhn
ojrëbhnos
os mg`trh
mg`trh mgn vonng
vonng,, poro phmgr
phmgr kijor
gn moÿh mg onju`os pnojos bnovgs prgsg`tgs g` nhs bunvhs.
=. Gstocngbg
Gstocngbgrr u` omgbuomh
omgbuomh ko`gfh
ko`gfh i`tgjromh
i`tgjromh mgn bunvh
bunvh,, tg`ig`mh
tg`ig`mh g` bh`simgro
bh`simgrobiò`
biò`
nhs gvg`ths bnikïbhs qug sg prgsg`to` g` gn vonng y qug rgpgrbutg` g` no mi`ïkibo
mg pnojos y g`grkgmomgs.
g`grkgmomgs.
 

TIII. CICNIHJSODËO

Ojg`bio pgruo`o mg `htibios O`mi`o. Gxphrtobiò` pgruo`o mg ko`mori`os bosi sg mupnibò g`

bi`bh oÿhs. Hbtucrg 3<3<. Bh`suntomh gn ?=.?3.3< g`6 attps6//o`mi`o.pg/ojg`bio/`htibio-
gxphrtobih`gs-bitribhs-onbo`zo`-rgbhrm-aisthribh-1?19?4.ospx

Ojrihs, J. (?997). Dithpothnhjëo (W. Gmithrion Nikhso (gm.)).

Onufo, R. (?992). Ko`gfh I`tgjromh mg no Khsbo mg no Druto (Gmithrion).

Onvo, O. (3<?7). Ko`gfh I`tgjromh Mg Ngpimòptgrhs G` Gn Bunvh Mg \ikig`th (Bopsibuk

 O``uuk) ]iph \iquinnh G` Baovikhbaib.
ap6//rgphsithrih.nokhni`o.gmu.pg/citstrgok/ao`mng/W@ONK/?9=2/A?<-O=9
ap6//rgphsithrih.nokhni`o.gmu.pg/citstrgok/ao`mng/W@ONK/?9=2/A?<-O=9--  ].pm8
sgqug`bg;?&isOnnhwgm;y

Corchso, J., & Gspi`hzo, B. (?912). Bibnh cihnòjibh mg no oroÿo rhfo mgn ojuobotg Hnijh`ybaus
pu`ibog (Airts) g` gstumih mg nochrothrih. Baopi`jh.
Boiro, M. (3<?7). Dnubtuobiò` gstobih`on (G`grh- Ojhsth) mg \o`h`ybaus bitri Kb Jrgjhr g`
ko`mori`o Rotsuko Tor. Hwori, g` Boÿgtg. ?<<.
Bosnnh Tonig`tg, F. S. (3<?1). Mgsorrhnnh mg u` prhjroko m ko`gfh i`tgjromh mg pnojos poro
gspïrrojh (Osporojus hdbi`onis N.) g` no Irrijobiò` Baovikhbaib .
Mgsformi`s, \., Mroeg, S., & Rwigbei, R. (?91<). I`gbvity stumigs h ovhbomh su`cnhtba misgosg
bouson ojg`t, phssicny o virhim rotagr tao` o virus . 4=, 2?2 ‒2?7.
Jorbëo, N. (3<?:). Gstumihs mg sugnhs poro no \rhmubbiò` Ojrëbhno.

Juo`inh, O. M., & Kor`gz, @. (3<<:). \rgmomhrgs oshbiomhs o po`h`ybaus bitri kbjrgjhr (obori6
]gtro`ybaimog) g` no bhsto bg`tron mgn \grö ]] - \rgmothrs osshbiotgm th po`h`ybaus bitri
Kbjrgjhr
Kbjr gjhr (obori6 ]gtro`
]gtro`ybaimog) i` tag bg`tron bhost h \gru. Gbhnhjëo Opnibomo, 4(? ‒3),
ybaimog)
??9 ‒?39.

Juo`inh, O. M., & Kor`gz, @. (3<<9). Cihnhjëo y bhkphrtokig`th mg Okcnysgius bau`jos

Mg`kore & Kuko (Obori6 \aythsgiimog) bhkh prgmomhr mg \o`h`ybaus bitri (KbJrgjhr)
(Obori6 ]gtro`ybaimog). Gbhnhjëo Opnibomo, 1(? ‒3), ?7. aps6//mhi.hrj/?<.3?:<=/rgo.v1i?-
3.2:1
Auoko` Chrmo, F. (3<?:). I@DHSKG \HS RGSTIBIHR \SHDGRIH@ONGR G@ GN BWN]ITH MG \ON]H
(\grsgo okgribo`o) bv. ‑Aoss’ \OSO GQ\HS]OBIÒ@ G@ NO GK\SGRO OJSËBHNO \OK\O COFO
ROB. W`ivgrsimom @obih`on Ro` Ojus` mg Orgquipo.
Aurtom
Aurtomh
h mg Kg`mh
Kg`mhzo, (3<?1).. Ko`gfh i`tgjromh mg \o`h`ybaus bitri (KbJrgjhr) g` gn
zo, O. (3<?1)
bunvh mg ko`mori`h (Bitrus rgbunoto N.) g` Bai`bao, \grö.
Korbinno, K. (3<<:). Ospgbths jg`grongs.

KI@OJSI. (3<<9). Mirgbbiò` Sgjih`on Ojrorio Ibo „ Obtuonizobih` Mgn \no` Gstrotgjibh
Mg No Mirgbbih` Sgjih`on Ojrorio Ibo .‛ 

KI@OJSI. (3<?9). G`bugsto @obih`on mg I`tg`bih`gs mg Rigkcro. Ristgko I`tgjron Mg

Gstomisbo
Gstomisbo Ojrorio
Ojrorio, 23. ng6///A6/nicrhs , hnngth . gtb agrvobghs/Nicrh Sgsuntomh G@IR
3<?9-3<3.pm
Ki`istgrih mg \rhmubbiò`. (3<?=). Gstumih mg miïj`hsbh mg brgbikig`th mg no rgjiò` Ibo .
 

Kuÿhz, I. (3<?4). Ojrhgxphrtobiò` y shcrgxpnhtobiò` mgn obuëgrh mg Ibo g` \grö.

 O`tarhphnhjibo Mgn Mgportokg`th mg mg Big`bios Rhbiongs, 2=, 2:.
@ofo
@oforr
rrh
h Sivg
Sivgro
ro,, S. (3<?7).. DNWB
(3<?7) DNWB]WOB
]WOBIÒ@
IÒ@ \HCNOB
\HCNOBIH@
IH@ON
ON MG ONJW@OR
ONJW@OR _WGSGRO
_WGSGRORR Y RWR
BH@]SHNOMHSGR CIHNÒJIBHR G@ \ON]H (\grsgo okgribo`o Kinn.) bv. AORR G@ NO
KHNI@O. W@ONK.
@orrgo, K. (3<?3). Ko`gfh i`tgjromh mg pnojos g` gn bunvh mg bëtribhs .

@isiro, S. (3<?:). Ristgko i`tgjromh mg jgsò` ojrëbhno . vgrsiò` ?.?377=<.

?.?377=<.
\onghnhjhs, K., Igrko`ò, K., Cno`mi, K., & Roro`mò`, R. (3<?:). Nos rgnobih`gs gbhnòjibos6 u`
ospgbth bg`tron g` gn rgmisgÿh mg ojrhgbhsistgkos sustg`tocngs, o porr mg no
 Ojrhgbhnhjëo.
\gorsh`, S., & Jhagg`, O. (?994). \nojos y g`grkgmomgs mg no vim. ]ag Okgribo`
\aythpotahnhjibon Rhbigty , 9?.
\SHMWBG. (3<??). O`ïnisis Sgjih`on mg Gkprgsos I`mustriongs Sgjiò` Ibo.

Sgy`igr, O. (3<<3). Ko`uon mg Tibunturo. =9:.

Shsongs _uispg, O. (3<?:). Ko`gfh Mgn Bunvh Mgn Gsporrojh G` No Sgjih` Ibo. I` Sgphsithrih
I`stubih`on W`ivgrsimom @obih`on Ojrorio no Khni`o .
Shy,
Shy, K.
K.,, Chrm
Chrmgh
ghr,
r, F.,
F., & Bnhu
Bnhug
gr,
r, B. (3<<
(3<<3)
3).. Sgno
Sgnoh
h`s
`sai
aip
p cgtw
cgtwgg
gg`
` tgkp
tgkpgrgrot
otur
urg
g o`
o`mm
mgvgnhpkg
mgvg nhpkg`ton
`ton rotg h Rtgtahrus
Rtgtahrus pu`bnnuk
pu`bnnuk (Bhnghptgr
(Bhnghptgro6
o6 Bhbbi`gn
Bhbbi`gnnimog
nimog)) o`m its prgy
]gtro`ybaus kbmo`igni (Obori`o6 ]gtro`ybaimog). G`virh`. G`thkhn, 2?(?), ?:: ‒?1:.

Suiz, S. (3<?7). Bh`trhn quikibh mg pnojos (\gorsh`).

Rï`bagz, J., & Opozo, Z. (3<<<). \nojos y G`grkgmomgs mgn Gspïrrojh g` gn \grö.

Rgrvibih @obih`on mg Ro`imom Ojrorio ‒ RG@ORO. (3<?=). Cihnhjio y bhkphrtokig`th mg no khsbo

mg no ruto.
Rgrvibih @obih`on mg Ro`imom Ojrorio ‒ RG@ORO. (3<?1). Ristgko I`tgjromh mg Jgsò` mg I`sukhs
 Ojrhpgbuorihs (RIJIO)6 Bh`sunto mgn Sgjistrh mg pnojuibimos (g` në`go).
]g`o, O., Wrco`gfo, O., & Fobos, F. O. (3<??). Jgsò` I`tgjromo mg \nojos g` bëtribhs6 opnibobiò`
prïbbo. \aythko Gspoÿo, 32<.

Torjos, S. (3<?=). Oroÿitos. Oujust.

Tinbo Sokirgz, K. (3<?3). I`stonobiò` mg u` Ristgko mg Sigjh ]gb`ibomh phr Jhtgh poro JJG 
Ro` O`th`ih mg \omuo- g` 77.4= ao, Mistrith mg Ructo`fonno prhvi`bio mg Ibo,
Mgportokg`th mg Ibo.