Experimental Reservoir

Engineering
Practical Handbook

Department of Petroleum Engineering

MIT – World Peace University
 Table of Contents

1. FLUORESCENECE.................................................................................................................3

2. DETERMINATION OF POROSITY OF A CORE.................................................................7

3. PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT USING GAS PERMEAMETER..............................15

4. DETERMINATION OF SATURATION USING DEAN STARK APPARATUS..............21

5. DETERMINATION OF WETTABILITY.............................................................................28

6. CAPILLARY PRESSURE MEASUREMENT.....................................................................33

7. CALCIMETRY......................................................................................................................44

8. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION......................................................................................47

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Figure 1-1 Diagrammatic Representation of Fluorescence Apparatus............................................5

Figure 2-1 (a) Cubic packing (b) Rhombohedral packing (c) Cubic packing with two grain sizes

(d) typical sand with irregular grain................................................................................................8

Figure 2-2 Porosity Estimation using Fluid Saturating Method....................................................11

Figure 2-3 Porosity Measurement using Helium Porosimeter Method.........................................12

Figure 2-4 Porosity Measurement using Mercury Porosimeter Method.......................................12

Figure 3-1 The Klinkenberg Effect in Gas Permeability Measurement........................................17

Figure 3-2 Permeability Measurement Using Gas Permeameter..................................................18

Figure 4-1 Schematic of (a) Soxhlet (b) Dean Stark Apparatus....................................................24

Figure 4-2 Vacuum Distillation Apparatus....................................................................................25

Figure 5-1 Interfacial Tensions for Water-Oil-Solid System at Equilibrium................................29

Figure 5-2 Wettability Measurement using Contact Angle Method.............................................31

Figure 6-1 Typical capillary pressure curves.................................................................................35

Figure 6-2 The Porous Plate Method Assembly............................................................................36

Figure 6-3 Schematic of a Core in a Centrifuge and its Boundary Conditions.............................37

Figure 6-4 Graphical differentiation of cL SP - PcL curve (a) to determine S-Pc curve (b).........39

Figure 6-5 Apparatus for Mercury Injection, Dynamic Capillary Pressure Apparatus.................40

Figure 7-1 Calcimetry Apparatus..................................................................................................45

Figure 8-1 Particle Size Analysis..................................................................................................48

Figure 8-2 Sieve Shaker.................................................................................................................49

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Name:__Abhinandan Shetty_________________________. Class:__SY
BTech_________________ . Batch:_____G________.
Roll No.:____PA29_________ Expt. No. 1
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

1. FLUORESCENECE
Purpose of the experiment:-
To observe fluorescence in drill cuttings and crude oil samples
Instruments:-
Fluoroscope, Observation Dish
Chemicals Required:-
Benzene, Toluene, Diesel, Petrol, Drill cuttings, Xylene, Carbon tetrachloride, Paraffin
oil, oil etc.
Theory:-
Fluorescence was first described by Sir George Stokes over 160 years ago. It is a phenomenon in
which a material absorbs light of one colour (wavelength) and emits it at a different colour
(wavelength). Excitation occurs when an incoming photon causes an electron to move from a
stable ground state to a higher energy, unstable ‘excited’ state. When the excited electron returns
to the ground state it emits a photon (fluorescence). Some energy is lost to heat in the process,
such that the fluorescence emitted has less energy (longer wavelength) than the original photon.
Crude petroleum oils are complex mixtures of different compounds (mainly organic), which are
obtained from an extensive range of different geological sources. The fluorescence of crude
petroleum oils derives largely from the aromatic hydrocarbon fraction, and this fluorescence
emission is strongly influenced by the chemical composition (e.g. fluorophore and quencher
concentrations) and physical characteristics (e.g., viscosity and optical density) of the oil.

Fluorescence is an extremely sensitive test for the presence of hydrocarbons in mud, drill
cuttings, and cores. Fluorescence is evaluated in terms of color (ranging from brown to green,

3
gold, blue, yellow, white), intensity and distribution. Fluorescence color can indicate oil gravity,
with dark color suggestive of low API gravity heavy oils, white light colors indicate high API
gravity, light oils.

Because fluorescence may be attributing to a number of causes, the cuttings that fluoresce are
separated from the main sample for further examination. Various mud additives, oil in the rock
and certain types of minerals such as pyrite and calcite may cause sample to fluoresce. Mineral
fluorescence may closely resemble oil fluorescence; but the difference can be confirmed by
application of a solvent. Mineral fluorescence will remain undisturbed. Whereas hydrocarbon
fluorescence will appear to flow and diffuse into solvent as the oil dissolves. This diffusion is
commonly known as cut fluorescence or more commonly just cut. Under UV light, hydrocarbons
may be seen to stream from the rock pores into surrounding solvent, the solvent cloudy. If no
streaming cut is observed, the sample is left until solvent has evaporated and the examined once
more under UV light. A fluorescent ring around the sample indicates that hydrocarbons have
been liberated by the solvent.
Table 1.1: API Gravity and Color of Fluorescence

Gravity, API Color of Fluorescence

< 15 Brown or none
15-25 Orange
25-35 Yellow to cream
35-45 White
>45 Blue-white to violet

Diagram:-

4
 Figure 1-1 Diagrammatic Representation of Fluorescence Apparatus

Procedure:-
1. Take a sample of crude oil in a glass dish.
2. Observe the color in visible light and UV light.
3. Repeat for other samples.
Observation Table and Results:
State your observations for each sample under bright light and UV light
Sample Name Visible Light UV
Benzene Colourless Yellow to cream white
Toulene Colourless White
Paraffin Pale Yellow Yellow
Crude Oil Black or brown
Petrol Bluish Green
Diesel Brown
Oil based mud Yellow
Anhydride Greyish
Pyrite Brass yellow
Dolomite White pink grey

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Questions: -
1. What is fluorescence?
2. What is the application of the above experiment to Petroleum Engineering?
3. Describe the type of compounds in crude oils which are fluorescent under UV rays.
4. What properties of fluorescent hydrocarbons are responsible for fluorescence?
5. If the fluorescence of sandstone is suspected to be due to the presence of minerals such as
calcite, how can the test be modified to ensure correct analysis? (Only by Fluoroscence).

6
Name:_ABHINANDAN SHETTY________________________Class:__SY BTECH________.
Batch:____G_________. Roll No.:_PA 29_________
Expt. No. 2
Performed on:___07-04-21___________. Submitted on:___14-07-21__________. Teacher’s
Sign.:____________.

1. DETERMINATION OF POROSITY OF A
CORE
Purpose of the experiment:-
To measure the porosity of a core sample using three methods
Instruments:-
Weight balance, Vacuum Pump, Core Sample
Chemicals Required:-
NaCl brine
Theory:-
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity (pore volume) that is capable of
holding fluids. Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume
(bulk volume). This important rock property is determined mathematically by the following
generalized relationship:
pore volume V b −V gr V p
∅= = = (2.1)
bulk volume Vb Vb
Where,
Ø = porosity, fraction
V b= bulk volume of the reservoir rock
V gr= grain volume
V p = pore volume

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Figure 2-2 (a) Cubic packing (b) Rhombohedral packing (c) Cubic packing with two grain sizes (d) typical sand with
irregular grain

For a uniform rock grain size, porosity is independent of the size of the grains. A maximum
theoretical porosity of 48% is achieved with cubic packing of spherical grains, as shown in Fig.
2.1a. Rhombohedral packing, which is more representative of reservoir conditions, is shown in
Fig. 2.1b; the porosity for this packing is 26%. If a second, smaller size of spherical grains is
introduced into cubic packing (Fig. 2.1c), the porosity decreases from 48% to 14%. Thus,
porosity is dependent on the grain size distribution and the arrangement of the grains, as well as
the amount of cementing materials. Not all grains are spherical, and grain shape also influences
porosity. Typical reservoir sand is illustrated in Fig. 2.1d.

The effective porosity is the value that is used in all reservoir engineering calculations because it
represents the interconnected pore space that contains the recoverable hydrocarbon fluids.
Porosity may be classified according to the mode of origin as original induced. The original
porosity is that developed in the deposition of the material, while induced porosity is that
developed by some geologic process subsequent to deposition of the rock. The intergranular
porosity of sandstones and the inter crystalline and oolitic porosity of some limestones typify
original porosity. Induced porosity is typified by fracture development as found in shales and
limestones and by the slugs or solution cavities commonly found in limestones. Rocks having
original porosity are more uniform in their characteristics than those rocks in which large part of
the porosity is included. For direct quantitative measurement of porosity, reliance must be placed
on formation samples obtained by coring.

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Bulk Volume Measurement:
Although the bulk volume may be computed from measurements of the dimensions of a
uniformly shaped sample, the usual procedure utilizes the observation of the volume of fluid
displaced by the sample. The fluid displaced by a sample can be observed either volumetrically
or gravimetrically. In either procedure it is necessary to prevent the fluid penetration into the
pore space of the rock. This can be accomplished (1) by coating the sample with paraffin or a
similar substance, (2) by saturating the core with the fluid into which it is to be immersed, or (3)
by using mercury.
Gravimetric determinations of bulk volume can be accomplished by observing the loss in weight
of the sample when immersed in a fluid or by change in weight of a pycnometer with and
without the core sample.

Pore Volume Measurement:

All the methods measuring pore volume yield effective porosity. The methods are based on
either the extraction of a fluid from the rock or the introduction of a fluid into the pore spaces of
the rock.
One of the most used methods is the helium technique, which employs Boyle’s law. The helium
gas in the reference cell isothermally expands into a sample cell. After expansion, the resultant
equilibrium pressure is measured. The Helium porosimeter apparatus is shown schematically in
Fig. 2.
Helium has advantages over other gases because: (1) its small molecules rapidly penetrated small
pores, (2) it is inert and does not adsorb on rock surfaces as air may do, (3) helium can be
considered as an ideal gas (i.e., z = 1.0) for pressures and temperatures usually employed in the
test, and (4) helium has a high diffusivity and therefore affords a useful means for determining
porosity of low permeability rocks.
The schematic diagram of the helium porosimeter shown in Fig. 2 has a reference volume V1, at
pressure p1, and a matrix cup with unknown volume V2, and initial pressure p2. The reference cell
and the matrix cup are connected by tubing; the system can be brought to equilibrium when the
core holder valve is opened, allowing determination of the unknown volume V2 by measuring the
resultant equilibrium pressure p. (Pressure p1 and p2 are controlled by the operator; usually p1 =
100 and p2 = 0 psig). When the core holder valve is opened, the volume of the system will be the

9
equilibrium volume V, which is the sum of the volumes V1 and V2. Boyle’s law is applicable if
the expansion takes place isothermally. Thus the pressure-volume products are equal before and
after opening the core holder valve:
p1 V 1+ p2 V 2= p(V 1 +V 2 ) (2.2)
Solving the equation for the unknown volume, V2:

( p− p1)V 1
V 2= (2.3)
(p 2− p)
Since all pressures in equation (2.3) must be absolute and it is customary to set p1 = 100 psig and
p2 = 0 psig, Eq. (2.3) may be simplified as follows:

(100− p)V 1
V 2= 
p

Where, V2 in cm3 is the unknown volume in the matrix cup, and V1 in cm3 is the known volume of
the reference cell. p in psig is pressure read directly from the gauge.
Small volume changes occur in the system, including the changes in tubing and fittings caused
by pressure changes during equalization. A correction factor, G, may be introduced to correct for
the composite system expansion. The correction factor G is determined for porosimeters before
they leave the manufacturer, and this correction is built into the gauge calibration in such a way
that it is possible to read the volumes directly from the gauge.
Another method of pore volume determination is to saturate the sample with a liquid of known
density, and noting the weight increase (gravimetric method).
When a rock has a small fraction of void space, it is difficult to measure porosity by the
mentioned methods. At this case, mercury injection is used. The principle consists of forcing
mercury under relatively high pressure in the rock pores. A pressure gauge is attached to the
cylinder for reading pressure under which measuring fluid is forced into the pores. Fig. 3b shows
a typical curve from the mercury injection method. The volume of mercury entering the core
sample is obtained from the device with accuracy up to 0.01 cm3.

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Grain Volume Measurement:
The grain volume of pore samples is sometimes calculated from sample weight and knowledge
of average density. Formations of varying lithology and, hence, grain density limit applicability
of this method. Boyle’s law is often employed with helium as the gas to determine grain volume.
The technique is fairly rapid, and is valid on clean and dry sample.
The measurement of the grain volume of a core sample may also be based on the loss in weight
of a saturated sample plunged in a liquid.
Grain volume may be measured by crushing a dry and clean core sample. The volume of crushed
sample is then determined by (either pycnometer or) immersing in a suitable liquid.

Diagram:-

Figure 2-3 Porosity Estimation using Fluid Saturating Method

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 Figure 2-4 Porosity Measurement using Helium Porosimeter Method

Figure 2-5 Porosity Measurement using Mercury Porosimeter Method

Procedure:-
1. Weigh dry Berea plug Wdry, measure its diameter D, and length L, with caliper (1 core
for each group).
2. Put the cores in the beaker inside a vacuum container, run vacuum pump about 1 hour.
3. Saturate the cores with brine of density = 1.02g/cm3.

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 4. Weigh the saturated cores, Wsat.
5. Verify the same with Mercury porosimeter and Helium porosimeter.

Calculations:-
1. Calculate the saturated brine weight,

Wbrine = Wsat -Wdry

2. Calculate the pore volume (saturated brine volume),

Vp = Wsat / ρbrine
3. Calculate effective porosity,

∅e = Vp / Vb.
Results:-
L= cm, D= cm
∅e
Wdry(g) Wsat (g) Wbrine (g) Vp(cm )
3
Vb(cm )3

Questions: -
1. Define porosity
2. What is effective and absolute porosity?
3. Gravimetry/Hg porosimeter measures absolute/effective porosity?
4. IF rocks had only absolute porosity and no effective porosity, how would you produce
the oil?
5. Find the porosity of the least compact and most compact arrangement of spheres
6. Calculate the grain volume and porosity of a sand pack. Available data is given as
follows: length = 20 in.; diameter = 2.4 in.; weight of dry sand = 6.1 lbs; and the specific
gravity of the dry sand = 2.6 (water = 1.0).

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7. Calculate the porosity and grain density of a core. Can the information obtained from a
core analysis be used in estimating oil and gas in place? Available core and fluid data
include the following: diameter of core = 3.8 cm; length of core = 10.0 cm; dry weight of
core = 275 g; weight of 100% brine-saturated core = 295 g; and brine density = 1.05
g/cm3.
8.

14
Name:___Abhinandan Shetty__________________ Class:_SY BTech___________________.
Batch:_____G________.
Roll No.:___PA29__________ Expt. No. 3
Performed on:_22-04-21_____________. Submitted on:_28-04-21____________. Teacher’s
Sign.:____________.

2. PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENT
USING GAS PERMEAMETER
Purpose of the experiment:-
To measure permeability of a given core sample using Gas Permeameter
Instruments:-
Gas Permeameter
Chemicals Required:-
Compressed Air
Theory:-
Permeability of a medium is a measure of its flow capacity to transmit fluids. The absolute
permeability of the porous medium is measured when the rock is 100% saturated with a single
phase fluid and is strictly the property of the porous medium. The rock permeability, k, is a very
important rock property because it controls the directional movement and the flow rate of the
reservoir fluids in the formation. This rock characterization was first defined mathematically by
Henry Darcy in 1856. In fact, the equation that defines permeability in terms of measurable
quantities is called Darcy’s Law.

kA ΔP
Q= (3.1)
μL

Here, Q = Volumetric flow rate (m3/sec)

k = Absolute permeability (m2)
μ = Fluid viscosity (cP)

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ΔP = P2 - P1 (N/m2)
L = Length (m)
A = Cross-sectional area through which the flow happens (m2)
Dimensional analysis of the above equation suggests that the unit of permeability is L 2.
Therefore permeability has a unit of ft2 in English system, cm2 in CGS system and m2 in SI
system.
However, because these units are too large a measure with the porous medium, petroleum
industry adopted the unit “darcy” for permeability in honor of Henry Darcy for his pioneering
work.
A porous medium is said to have a permeability of 1 darcy when a single phase fluid having a
viscosity of 1 centipoise (cP) completely saturates the porous medium and flows through it at a
rate of 1 cm3/sec under a viscous flow regime and a pressure gradient of 1 atm/cm through a
CSA of 1 cm2.

1 D = 1000 mD

Measurement of absolute permeability using gases:

Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability measurements made with air as the flowing
fluid showed different results from permeability measurements made with a liquid as the flowing
fluid. The permeability of a core sample measured by flowing air is always greater than the
permeability obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid. Klinkenberg postulated, on the basis of
his laboratory experiments, that liquids had a zero velocity at the sand grain surface, while gases
exhibited some finite velocity at the sand grain surface. In other words, the gases exhibited
slippage at the sand grain surface. This slippage resulted in a higher flow rate for the gas at a
given pressure differential. Klinkenberg also found that for a given porous medium as the mean
pressure increased the calculated permeability decreased.

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Mean pressure is defined as upstream flowing plus downstream flowing pressure divided by two,
[Pm = (P1 + P2)/2]. If a plot of measured permeability versus 1/pm were extrapolated to the point
where 1/Pm = 0, in other words, where Pm = infinity, this permeability would be approximately
equal to the liquid permeability. A graph of this nature is shown in Figure 3.1. The absolute
permeability is determined by extrapolation as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 3-6 The Klinkenberg Effect in Gas Permeability Measurement

The magnitude of the Klinkenberg effect varies with the core permeability and the type of the
gas used in the experiment. The resulting straight-line relationship can be expressed as

b
k gas=k liquid [ 1+ ] (3.2)
Pmean
Here: kgas = Measured gas permeability,
kliquid = Equivalent liquid permeability or the Klinkenberg corrected liquid permeability
b = gas slip factor

4 cλ Pmean
b= (3.3)
r
Where: Here, λ = mean free path of the gas molecules (mm)
r = radius of the capillary or a pore (mm)
C is constant
Klinkenberg expressed the slope c by the following relationship:

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 c = bkL (3.4)

Where kL = equivalent liquid permeability, i.e., absolute permeability, k

b = constant which depends on the size of the pore openings and is inversely proportional to
radius of capillaries.

Diagram:-

Figure 3-7 Permeability Measurement Using Gas Permeameter

The equipment has some different spares as under:

1. Pressure Gauge- 0.00-1.00 ATM
2. Golden Core Holder to hold different sixes of core ½” to 1 ½” through rubber ring.
3. Digital temperature indicator attached with core holder
4. A Flow meter (Rota meter) of capacity 0-250 cc/sec with regulator holding
arrangement.
5. Regulator to operate different pressure through a gas pressure line attached with
pressure gauge.

Procedure:-

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 1. Connect the system to a compressed air supply through the inlet connection of the
equipment.
2. Then remove the core holder ny turning the handle and also with the help of a
spanner.
3. Insert the prepared core into the core holder’s sleeve and tighten the core holder with
the instrument.
4. Now open the air valve of the compressor or gas supply. Set the pressure gauge with
the controlling valve of the gas permeameter to a desired pressure (0.5atm, 1 atm, 1.5
atm and so on)
5. Now by turning the valve of the permeameter, select the desired pressure.
6. After setting the desired pressure, observe the flow rate in the flow meter attached to
the permeameter and note down the flow rate in cc/sec corresponding to the float
position.
7. After taking three to four observations at least three different pressures observe the
flow rate and close the compressor air supply valve.
8. Now remove the core holder and sleeve and then take out the core sample from the
sleeve.
Calculations:-
Darcy’s law for applicable for gases is given as:
2 2
kA( P1 −P2 )
Q2 = (3.5)
2 μ LP2
Where: k= Permeabililty of the core in Darcy
μ = Viscosity in centipoises of gas
Q= Rate of flow in flow meter in cm3/sec
L= Length of the sample in cm
P= Pressure gradient in atm
A= CSA of the sample in cm2

1. Calculate air permeability from Eq. (3.5).

2. Plot k versus 1/Pm and calculate kL.

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 3. Calculate Klinkenberg constant b.

Observation Table:-
Inlet Pressure Outlet Pressure 1 / Pm kgas
P1(atm) P2(atm) (atm-1) (md)

Results:-

Questions:-

1. What is the meaning of permeability?

2. What is the definition of one milidarcy?
3. State five assumptions of Darcy’s Law.
4. If two liquids flow through the same core, all other parmeter the same, is it possible for
you to get two values of permeability? Why or why not?
5. If two gases flow through the same core, all other parameters the same, is it possible for
you to get two values of permeability? Why or why not?
6. Is permeability scalar, vector or tensor? Why?
7. Calculate the permeability of the core. The available data is given as follows: length = 20
in.; diameter = 2.4 in., air flow rate = 30 cm3/sec; inlet pressure = 10 psig; outlet pressure
= 1 atm (14.7 psia); and air viscosity at elevated temperature = 0.0198 cp.
8.

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Name:_ABHINANDAN SHETTY ____Class:_SY BTECH__Batch:_G____________.
Roll No.:_PA 29____________ Expt. No. 4
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

3. DETERMINATION OF SATURATION
USING DEAN STARK APPARATUS
Purpose of the experiment:-
To determine saturation of oil and water in a given core sample using Dean Stark
apparatus
Instruments:-
Beaker, Filter paper, Stirrer, Core, Heating mantle.
Chemicals Required:-
Toluene
Theory:-
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular
fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the following
relationship:

total volume occupied by fluid

saturation= (4.1)
pore volume
It should be noted that the fluid saturation may be reported either as a fraction of the totalpore
volume or as the effective (interconnected as well as dead-end- or cul-de-sac-type pores) pore
volume. However, fluid saturation is generally reported as a fraction of the effective pore volume
rather than the total pore volume because it is more meaningful as fluids present in the
completely isolated pore space cannot be produced. Therefore, the above equation assumes that
the pore volume is effective pore volume.

Applying the above equation to three different phases:

21
 total volume occupied by gas
s g= (4.2)
pore volume
total volume occupied by oil
so = (4.3)
pore volume
total volume occupied by water
sw = (4.3)
pore volume
Where s g , so and sw are saturation of gas, oil and water respectively.

Fluid saturation can be expressed as a fraction or percentage (by multiplyingthe values in the
above equations by 100) of the pore volume. The above equations clearly indicate that
saturations can range from 0% to 100% or 0 to 1, and since all saturations are scaled down to the
pore volume, their summation should always equal 100% or 1, leading to

s g+ s o +s w =1 (4.4)

The above equation is probably the most simple yet fundamental equation in reservoir
engineering and is used almost everywhere in reservoir engineering calculations.
Moreover, many important reservoir rock properties, such as capillary pressure and relative
permeability, are actually related or linked with individual fluid-phase saturations.

From the above equations, it can also be inferred as;

Volume of gas + volume of oil + volume of water = pore volume

So if fluid saturations are accurately measured on a reservoir rock sample, the summation of
volumes of individual fluid phases can also be used to determine the pore volume (or porosity if
the bulk volume is also known) of that particular sample because fluid phases originated from
the pore spaces of that very sample
Measurement Methods:
1. Direct Injection of Solvent

22
The solvent is injected into the sample in a continuous process. The sample is held in a rubber
sleeve thus forcing the flow to be uniaxial.
2. Centrifuge Flushing
A centrifuge which has been fitted with a special head sprays warm solvent onto the sample. The
centrifugal force then moves the solvent through the sample. The used solvent can be collected
and recycled.
3. Gas Driven Solvent Extraction
The sample is placed in a pressurized atmosphere of solvent containing dissolved gas. The
solvent fills the pores of sample. When the pressure is decreased, the gas comes out of solution,
expands, and drives fluids out of the rock pore space. This process can be repeated as many
times as necessary.
4. Soxhlet Extraction
A Soxhlet extraction apparatus is the most common method for cleaning sample, and is routinely
used by most laboratories. As shown in Figure 4.1a, toluene is brought to a slow boil in a Pyrex
flask; its vapors move upwards and the core becomes engulfed in the toluene vapors (at
approximately 1100C). Eventual water within the core sample in the thimble will be vaporized.
The toluene and water vapors enter the inner chamber of the condenser, the cold water
circulating about the inner chamber condenses both vapors to immiscible liquids. Recondensed
toluene together with liquid water falls from the base of the condenser onto the core sample in
the thimble; the toluene soaks the core sample and dissolves any oil with which it come into
contact. When the liquid level within the Soxhlet tube reaches the top of the siphon tube
arrangement, the liquids within the Soxhlet tube are automatically emptied by a siphon effect and
flow into the boiling flask. The toluene is then ready to start another cycle. A complete extraction
may take several days to several weeks in the case of low API gravity crude or presence of heavy
residual hydrocarbon deposit within the core. Low permeability rock may also require a long
extraction time.

23
 Figure 4-8 Schematic of (a) Soxhlet (b) Dean Stark Apparatus

5. Dean-Stark Distillation-Extraction
The Dean-Stark distillation provides a direct determination of water content. The oil and water
area extracted by dripping a solvent, usually toluene or a mixture of acetone and chloroform,
over the plug samples. In this method, the water and solvent are vaporized, recondensed in a
cooled tube in the top of the apparatus and the water is collected in a calibrated chamber (Figure
4.1b). The solvent overflows and drips back over the samples.
The oil removed from the samples remains in solution in the solvent. Oil content is calculated by
the difference between the weight of water recovered and the total weight loss after extraction
and drying.
6. Vacuum Distillation
The oil and water content of cores may be determined by this method. As shown in Figure 4.2, a
sample is placed within a leakproof vacuum system and heated to a maximum temperature of

24
230C. Liquids within the sample are vaporized and passed through a condensing column that is
cooled by liquid nitrogen.

Figure 4-9 Vacuum Distillation Apparatus

Summary
The direct-injection method is effective, but slow. The method of flushing by using centrifuge is
limited to plug-sized samples. The samples also must have sufficient mechanical strength to
withstand the stress imposed by centrifuging. However, the procedure is fast. The gas driven-
extraction method is slow. The disadvantage here is that it is not suitable for poorly consolidated
samples or chalky limestones. The distillation in a Soxhlet apparatus is slow, but is gentle on the
samples. The procedure is simple and very accurate water content determination can be made.
Vacuum distillation is often used for full diameter cores because the process is relatively rapid.
Vacuum distillation is also frequently used for poorly consolidated cores since the process does
not damage the sample. The oil and water values are measured directly and dependently of each
other.

25
In each of these methods, the number of cycles or amount of solvent which must be used
depends on the nature of the hydrocarbons being removed and the solvent used. Often, more than
one solvent must be used to clean a sample. The solvents selected must not react with the
minerals in the core. The commonly used solvents are:
 Acetone
 Benzene
 Benzen-methol Alcohol
 Carbon-tetrachloride
 Chloroform
 Methylene Dichloride
 Mexane
 Naphtha
 Tetra Chloroethylene
 Toluene
 Trichloro Ethylene
 Xylene

Toluene and benzene are most frequently used to remove oil and methanol and water is used to
remove salt from interstitial or filtrate water. The cleaning procedures used are specifically
important in special core analysis tests, as the cleaning itself may change
wettabilities.
The core sample is dried for the purpose of removing connate water from the pores, or to remove
solvents used in cleaning the cores. When hydratable minerals are present, the drying procedure
is critical since interstitial water must be removed without mineral alteration. Drying is
commonly performed in a regular oven or a vacuum oven at temperatures between 500C to
1050C. If problems with clay are expected, drying the samples at 600C and 40 % relative
humidity will not damage the samples.

Procedure:-
1. Take a saturated core plug which contains oil and water.
2. Put the core in a thimble or a filter paper.
3. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the figure.

26
 4. Put Toluene in the round bottom flask.
5. Heat the flask and measure the amount of water collected in the tube.
6. Estimate the pore volume and calculate the amount of oil.

Results:-
A = Amount of water collected________cc.
B = Pore volume of the rock__________cc.
C = Amount oil is therefore________cc
D = Saturation of water is Sw________
E = Saturation of oil is So__________

Questions:-
1. Why is toluene used? Can benzene also be used?
2. What is the application of Saturation to Petroleum Engineering?
3. Suggest improvements in the technique to measure Saturation?
4. What are the drawbacks of this technique to measure saturation?
5. If gas were present, how would you measure water saturation?
6. What other methods do you know to measure saturation?
7. How much time do you have to heat it for?
8. What is the use of thimble/filter paper in this experiment?

27
Name:__Abhinandan Shetty____________________ Class:_SY BTech___________________.
Batch:___G__________.
Roll No.:____PA29_________ Expt. No. 5
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

4. DETERMINATION OF WETTABILITY
Purpose of the experiment:-
To find the contact angle hence, wettability of a fluid on rock.
Instruments:-
Density bottle, Scoop, Pipette, Glass plate, Beaker, Viscometer.
Chemicals Required:-
Benzene, Toluene, Diesel, Petrol, Drill cuttings, Xylene, Carbon Tetrachloride, Paraffin
oil, oil etc.
Theory:-
When a liquid is brought into contact with a solid surface, the liquid either expand over the
whole surface or form small drops on the surface. In the first case the liquid will wet the solid
completely, whereas in the latter case a contact angle  > 0 will develop between the surface and
the drop.
When two immiscible fluids contact a solid surface, one of them tends to spread or adhere to it
more so than the other. For example, for water-oil-solid system at equilibrium, the following
equation (known as Young’s equation) can be expressed

σ so −σ sw =σ wo cos θ (5.1)

Where, σ sois the interfacial tension between the oil and solid, σ swbetween the water and solid, σ wo
between the oil and water.  is the contact angle measured through the water phase (Fig. 5.1).

28
 Figure 5-10 Interfacial Tensions for Water-Oil-Solid System at Equilibrium

Adhesion tension, which is a function of the interfacial tension, determines which fluid
preferentially wets the solid. In the case of water-oil-solid, the adhesion tension AT is defined as

AT =σ so −σ sw =σ wo cos θ (5.2)

A positive adhesion tension AT indicates that water preferentially wets the solid surface (water
wet). An AT of zero indicates that both phases have an equal affinity for the surface (neutral
system). A negative AT indicates the oil wets the solid surface (oil wet). The magnitude of the
adhesion tension determines the ability of the wetting phase to adhere to the solid and to spread
over the surface of the solid.

Wettability of a reservoir rock-fluid system is defined as the ability of one fluid in the presence
of another to spread on the surface of the rock. Wettability play an important role in the
production of oil and gas as it not only determines initial fluid distributions, but also is a main
factor in the flow processes in the reservoir rock. The degree of wetting of solid by liquids is
usually measured by the contact angle that a liquid-liquid interface makes with a solid.
Based on the contact angle, the wetting index WI is defined according to the tabulation below:

Wetting Index (Cos ) Contact Angle () Wetting Condition

1.0 0 Completely Water Wet
0 90 Neutral Wet
-1.0 180 Completely Wet

29
The limits of the scales are not definite, since a system with contact angle in the range of about
70 to 110 is considered neutral.

The wettability of a reservoir rock system will depend on the following factors
- Reservoir rock material and pore geometry
- Geological mechanisms (accumulation and migration)
- Composition and amount of oil and brine
- Physical conditions; pressure and temperature
- Mechanisms occurring during production; i.e. change in saturations, pressure and composition.
Note that it is difficult to make a general model of wettability including all these factors.
Although a lot of work has been done on wettability, it is not fully understood how the
wettability of a porous rock surface is composed.
Measurement of Wettability
No satisfactory method exists for in situ measurement of wettability, and therefore it is necessary
to estimate the wettability from laboratory measurements.
To obtain representative information on wetting preferences in the reservoir from laboratory
experiments, the following conditions should be fulfilled:
 The method should not damage the surface properties of the rock.
 The method should enable differentiation of entire range of wettability from very
water-wet to very oil-wet.
 The results should include the effects of microheterogeneities of the rock (except
where ideal systems are used).
 The results should not depend on parameters such as rock permeability and fluid
viscosity unless these parameters can be isolated.
 The results should be reproducible both with respect to a given core sample and
also between different cores having the same rock properties.

One way in which this can be done directly is by using the method of contact angle measurement
by photographing a drop. Other indirectly methods are based on measurement on core samples.

Three methods have been commonly employed for wettability measurement. These methods are:

30
  The Amott method
 The centrifuge method
 The contact angle method.

Diagram:-

Figure 5-11 Wettability Measurement using Contact Angle Method

Procedure:-
1. Take a glass slide, place a drop of liquid.
2. Approximately measure the contact angle with a protractor.
3. Repeat for different surfaces and liquids.
4. Repeat for fluids on changing the viscosity.
Results:-
Sample Name Contact Angle

31
Questions:-
1. What is the significance of wettability to Petroleum Engineering ?
2. Why does a liquid wet one surface differently from another ?
3. If a particular reservoir is oil wet, is it good or bad ? Explain /
4. If this oil wet reservoir’s wettability has to be changed, what needs to be done ?
5. Suggest improvements in this experiment.

32
Name:_Abhinandan Shetty_____________________ Class:__SY BTech__________________.
Batch:____G_________.
Roll No.:___PA29__________ Expt. No. 6
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

5. CAPILLARY PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
Purpose of the experiment:-
To measure the capillary pressure in tubes and in a rock sample.
Instruments:-
Capillary Tubes, Density Bottles
Chemicals Required:-
Paraffin, water.
Theory:-
When two immiscble fluids are in contact in the interstices of a porous medium, a discontinuity
in pressure exists across the interface separating them. The difference in pressure Pc is called
capillary pressure, which is pressure in the non-wetting phase minus the pressure in the wetting
phase
Pc =Pnon−wetting −Pwetting (6.1)

Thus, the capillary pressure may have either positive or negative values. For an oil-water, gas-
water or gas-oil system, capillary pressure is defined as

Pc =Po −Pw (6.2)

Pc =P g−Pw (6.3)
Pc =P g−Po (6.4)

The hydrostatic pressure of a liquid with density is dependent on the elevation z as follows

33
dP
=ρg (6.5)
dZ

For an oil-water system, the capillary pressure becomes

dPc
=( ρw −ρo ) g (6.6)
dZ

If fluid columns are continuous in the reservoir, the followi ng relationship holds
Z
Pc ( Z )=Pc ( Z o ) + g ∫ (ρw − ρo)dZ (6.7) where
Zo

Pc(z) is capillary pressure at height z above z0 and ρw ρo are densities of water and oil,
respectively.
The capillary pressure is a result of the curvature of fluid interfaces, according to the well-known
Laplace equation

1 1
Pc =σ ( + ) (6.8)
r1 r2

Where, is interfacial tension between the two fluids and r1 and r2 are principle radii of
curvature.

The condition for capillary forces to exist is a certain curvature of the fluid-fluid interface. The
relation between fluid saturation and capillary pressure in the reservoir is a function of pore
sizes, wettability, interfacial tension and fluid saturation history (drainage and imbibition). Based
on laboratory measurements of capillary pressure, it is possible to convert those into reservoir
capillary pressure. From these values fluid saturations in the reservoir can be evaluated.

An example of the capillary pressure versus saturation relationship (capillary pressure function)
is shown in Fig. 6.1. It is apparent that the relationship between capillary pressure and saturation
is not unique, but depends on the saturation history of the system.

34
Definitions of the main terms are as follows (oil-water system):

Figure 6-12 Typical capillary pressure curves

Irreducible water saturation Swi: The reduced volume of the wetting phase retained at the
highest capillary pressure where wetting phase saturation appears to be independent of further
increases in the externally measured capillary pressure.

Residual oil saturation Sor: The reduced volume of the non-wetting phase which is entrapped
when externally measured capillary pressure is decreased from a high value to a big negative
value.

Primary drainage curve: The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the wetting phase
from 100% saturation to the irreducible saturation.

Imbibition curve: The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the non-wetting phase
from the irreducible saturation to the residual saturation.

Secondary drainage curve: The relationship characteristic of the displacement of the wetting
phase from residual saturation to the irreducible saturation.

35
Most experimental evidences indicate that the irreducible saturation obtained by primary
drainage is the same as that obtained by secondary drainage. When the residual saturation is the
same, the imbibition after secondary drainage will follow exactly the imbibition curve obtained
after primary drainage. Thus, the secondary drainage curve and the imbibition curve constitute a
closed and reproducible hysteresis loop.
The capillary pressure hysteresis as can be seen in Fig. 9.1 is a result of the different mechanisms
governing filling/ emptying of pores with a non-wetting or a wetting fluid respectively. Contact
angle hysteresis is one factor also contributing to hysteresis.

Capillary Pressure Measurement Methods:

Porous Plate Method (restored state)
Water saturated samples for air-water or oil-water tests and oil saturated cores for air-oil tests are
placed on a semi-permeable diaphragm, and a portion of the contained liquid is displaced with
the appropriate fluid of air or oil. A schematic diagram of an apparatus for performing such tests
is seen in Fig. 6.2. It consists of a cell for imposing pressure, a semi-permeable diaphragm C,
manometer for recording pressure M, and a measuring burette for measuring produced volumes.

Figure 6-13 The Porous Plate Method Assembly

During measurement, the pressure is increased in steps and final equilibrium produced volumes
of the wetting phase are recorded for each step.
The porous plate method is slow and one full curve may take up to 40 days or more to obtain.
However, equipment needed for this method is simple and inexpensive and the work needed is

36
limited to some volume reading during the process. Several samples may be run in one chamber.
Then the samples have to be removed in order to weigh them separately between each pressure
increase. Preferably, one and one sample should be run in an assembly of one-sample cells. Then
it is not necessary to decrease pressure between each reading.
This method is regarded as the standard method against which all other methods are compared.
Routinely only the drainage curve is measured, but with appropriate modifications the imbibition
curve may be determined in the same manner. The weakness, as with all the other methods, is the
transformation of data to reservoir conditions.

Centrifuge Method
Hassler and Brunner (1945) presented the basic concepts involved in the use of the centrifuge by
relating the performance of a small core in a field of high acceleration.
If the cylindrical core of length L is subjected to acceleration a c =−ω2 r where is angular
velocity of the centrifuge and r is the distance from the axis of rotation, then from Eq. (6.6) we
have

dPc
=ac (6.9)
dr

Given the boundary conditions show in Fig. 6.3, the differential equation can be solved by
simple integration

37
 Figure 6-14 Schematic of a Core in a Centrifuge and its Boundary Conditions

P cL

S PcL=∫ S ( P c ) d Pc (6.10)
0

OR in differential form,

d
S L= ( S PcL ) (6.11)
d PcL

In this method the cores is saturated with water (or oil) and rotated at increasing speed. The
speed is increased in steps, and average fluid saturations at each speed is calculated from
observation of liquid produced. The liquid volume is read with a stroboscope while centrifuge is
in motion, and the speed of centrifuge is increased stepwise. When the run is over the cores are
removed and weighed.

The values of PcL for each centrifuge speed are then computed from Eq. (9.13), and the average
saturation for each core is obtained from the dry and saturated weights and the corresponding
pipette reading. From these data a smooth curve is prepared for each core.

38
Fig. 6.4a shows a typical SPcL as a function of PcL and points indicated on the curve are first,
second and third speed.

Figure 6-15 Graphical differentiation of cL SP - PcL curve (a) to determine S-Pc curve (b)

The value of saturation that goes with each value of PcL, which now represents the capillary
pressure, is obtained from this curve by graphical differentiation according to Eq. (6.11). A
typical plot of Pc as a function of S is shown in Fig. 6.4b.

A complete capillary pressure curve by this method may be obtained in a few hours, and several
samples are run simultaneously. The method is claimed to be accurate, to reach equilibrium
rapidly, give good reproducibility, and is able to produce high pressure differences between
phases.

Mercury Injection (Purcell Method)

The test specimen is evacuated and mercury is injected in increments into the core at increasing
pressure levels. When the entry pressure is reached, one can easily determine the bulk volume of
the core. A mercury injection apparatus is schematically shown in Fig. 6.5. The equipment

39
consists basically of a mercury injection pump, a sample holder cell with a window for observing
constant mercury level, manometers, vacuum pump, and a pressurized gas reservoir.

Figure 6-16 Apparatus for Mercury Injection, Dynamic Capillary Pressure Apparatus

In this method the mercury injected is calculated as a percentage of pore volume and related to
pressure. A practical pressure limit on most equipment is about 15-25 MPa, but equipment for
150 MPa also exists.

Two important advantages are gained with the mercury injection method: (1) the time for
determining a complete curve is reduce to less than one hour, and (2) the range of pressure is
increased compared with the other methods. However, this method is a destructive method and it
is difficult to transform the results to reservoir conditions because of the highly unrealistic fluid
system and the uncertainty of wetting of mercury solid.

Using mercury-air as the fluid-pair, one will not obtain the irreducible saturation as when
displacing water with air.

Dynamic Method

40
The main feature in this method is the way it controls the capillary pressure at both ends of the
sample. This is accomplished by placing the tested core between two membranes, or porous
plates, which are permeable only to the wetting fluid (Fig. 6.5). This permits maintenance of a
uniform saturation throughout the length of the core even at low flow rates.
The membranes permit separate pressure measurements in each of the two phases. The capillary
pressure is then equal to the pressure difference between the non-wetting phase and the wetting
one at the inflow face. When equilibrium is reached, the sample is removed and its saturation is
determined by weighing.

Comparison of Methods
In Table 6.1 advantages and disadvantages of the method are listed. The mercury injection
method is primarily used for obtaining pore size distribution data, since it is destructive method.
Mercury-air capillary pressure curves have been found to be similar to water-air capillary
pressure curves when the mercury-air pressure is divided by a constant. The constant can range
from 5.8 to 7.5, depending on the nature of the rock.

The porous plate method is the simplest method conceptually and it must be regarded as the
standard method. Small and large samples can be used, and the choice of fluids is not restricted.
A serious drawback is the limitation in pressure, since most equipment is limited to about 5 atm.

Table 6.1: Comparison of the methods.

Method Fluid type Pc curve type Max. P in lab Test time
Porous plate Oil- Oil - water Imbibition 2-5 atm. Weeks
water Gas-water Drainage
Gas-oil

Mercury Hg-air Drainage 100 atm Minutes

injection

Centrifuge Gas-water (Imbibition) 10 atm Days

Oil-water Drainage
Gas-oil

Dynamic Gas-water (Imbibition) 1-10 atm Days

Gas-oil Drainage
Oil-water

41
The centrifuge can reach capillary pressures higher than the porous plate method, and a large
number of samples can be run in a relatively short time.

Procedure:-
1. Take different diameter tubes and measure the capillary pressure for water.
2. Take different diameter test tubes and measure the capillary pressure for water and
paraffin.

Observation:-
Liquid - Air
Tube Diameter (cm) Height (cm) Height (ft)
Tube 1
Tube 2
Tube 3

Liquid – Oil
Tube Diameter (cm) Height (cm) Height (ft)
Tube 1
Tube 2
Tube 3

Calculations:-
Density of Water = 62.4279 lbm/ft3
Density of Oil = 53.6879 lbm/ft3

Capillary pressure for liquid-air system is calculated as:

h
P= (ρ −ρ ) (6.12)
144 w a

Capillary pressure for liquid-oil system is calculated as:

h
P= ( ρ −ρ ) (6.13)
144 w o

Results:-
Liquid - Air

Tube Capillary Pressure (psia)

Tube 1

42
 Tube 2
Tube 3

Liquid - Oil
Tube Capillary Pressure (psia)
Tube 1
Tube 2
Tube 3

Questions:-
1. What is the application of capillary pressure to petroleum engineering?
2. Suggest improvement in the technique to measure capillary pressure
3. What are the drawbacks of this technique to measure capillary pressure?
4. How will you measure the capillary pressure if you tilt the capillary tube?
5. Explain the diagram and graph on the front page?

43
Name:___________________________. Class:____________________. Batch:_____________.
Roll No.:_____________ Expt. No. 7
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

6. CALCIMETRY
Purpose of the experiment:-
To measure the calcium carbonate content of a reservoir rock sample
Instruments:-
Mortar and Pestle, Stirrer, Pipette, Test tube, Conical flask, Gloves, Beaker
Chemicals Required:-
KMnO4, HCl, Rock Sample.
Theory:-
Carbonates are readily identifiable in cuttings using dilute (10%) hydrochloric acid. The general
rule is that:
 Calcite (calcium carbonate) reacts immediately
 Dolomite (calcium-magnesium carbonate) reacts slowly, speeding up over time, or with
heating. The readiness of reaction appears to decline as magnesium content increases in
the mixed carbonate.

Qualitative analysis between carbonates is a task best performed in a geochemical or

paleontological lab away from the well site. However, in some regions, discrimination between
limestone and dolomite or the identification of rarer carbonate minerals may be very important in
well-to-well or zone-to-zone correlations, when selecting core points, or designing well
stimulation or completion programs.

In these cases, more detailed carbonate identification techniques may be worthwhile. These can
include core slabbing, etching, or thin section preparations and these are performed by specialist
technicians brought to the well site for that purpose.

44
Most often, however, it is not necessary to identify rare carbonates. It is more common that we
need to know the proportions of Calcite, Dolomite and non-carbonate minerals in a sequence of
mixed carbonates. In order to do this at the well site, is best done with a calcimeter.

The simplest of these is the Bernard Calcimeter, which is a simple gas reaction cell in which
carbonate reacts with Hydrochloric Acid to produce Carbon Dioxide. The device is robust,
simple to operate and reliable. It is not particularly accurate but the results are acceptable within
limits of variability of carbonate composition within the sample.

CaCO3 +2 HCl→ CaCl 2 +CO2 + H 2 O

Diagram:-

Figure 7-17 Calcimetry Apparatus

45
Procedure:-
1. Take 0.5 grams of finely crushed reservoir rock sample.
2. Place 5 ml 1.0 N HCl solution in a test tube in a conical flask.
3. Put coloured water in the graduated tube.
4. Close the stopper and note the reading.
5. Start the reaction and note the reading after 1 minute.
Results/calculations:-
Calculate the amount of CO2 in grams by: - (Volume of CO2) X ((44)/24298 = Y grams.
Calculate the CaCO3 by : - (y) X 100/44 = Z grams of CaCO3.
Thus,
Amount of CaCO3.in sample 1 is _______________grams.
Amount of CaCO3.in sample 2 is _______________grams.

Questions: -
1. Justify the calculations above.
2. What is the use of above experiment to Petroleum Engineering?
3. Do all petroleum reservoir rocks have CaCO3?
4. Why put HCl in Test tube?
5. Why coloured salt is used in the solution?
6. Why 1 minute is used? Why not 2 or 3 minutes?

46
Name:___________________________. Class:____________________. Batch:_____________.
Roll No.:_____________ Expt. No. 8
Performed on:______________. Submitted on:_____________. Teacher’s Sign.:____________.

7. PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

Purpose of the experiment:-
To study the geological trends in observing the crushed cores
Instruments:-
Sieve shaker, Set of sieves
Chemicals Required:-
Rock sample
Theory:-
Particle size distribution is an index (means of expression) indicating what sizes (particle size) of
particles are present in what proportions (relative particle amount as a percentage where the total
amount of particles is 100 %) in the sample particle group to be measured.

Volume, area, length, and quantity are used as standards (dimensions) for particle amount.
However, generally, the volume standard is apparently often used.

Frequency distribution indicates in percentage the amounts of particles existing in respective

particle size intervals after the range of target particle sizes is divided into separate intervals.
Also, cumulative distribution (for particles passing the sieve) expresses the percentage of the
amounts of particles of a specific particle size or below. Alternatively, cumulative distribution
(for particles remaining on the sieve) expresses the percentage of the amounts of particles of a
specific particle size or above.

The way PSD is usually defined by the method by which it is determined. The most easily
understood method of determination is sieve analysis, where powder is separated on sieves of
different sizes. Thus, the PSD is defined in terms of discrete size ranges: e.g. "% of sample

47
between 45 μm and 53 μm", when sieves of these sizes are used. The PSD is usually determined
over a list of size ranges that covers nearly all the sizes present in the sample. Some methods of
determination allow much narrower size ranges to be defined than can be obtained by use of
sieves, and are applicable to particle sizes outside the range available in sieves. However, the
idea of the notional sieve, that retains particles above a certain size, and passes particles below
that size, is universally used in presenting PSD data of all kinds.

Figure 8-18 Particle Size Analysis

The PSD may be expressed as a range analysis, in which the amount in each size range is listed
in order. It may also be presented in cumulative form, in which the total of all sizes retained or
passed by a single notional sieve is given for a range of sizes. Range analysis is suitable when a
particular ideal mid-range particle size is being sought, while cumulative analysis is used where
the amount of "under-size" or "over-size" must be controlled.

48
The way in which size is expressed is open to a wide range of interpretations. A simple treatment
assumes the particles are spheres that will just pass through a square hole in a sieve. In practice,
particles are irregular – often extremely so, for example in the case of fibrous materials – and the
way in which such particles are characterized during analysis is very dependent on the method of
measurement used.

Diagram:-

Figure 8-19 Sieve Shaker

Procedure:-
1. Take a rock sample and crush it with a hammer/mortar/pestle.
2. Take 100 grams of crushed sample and put it in the top most tray.
3. Start the sieve shaker.
4. Weigh the contents of each tray.
Results:-
49
 1. Tabulate the results of weight in each tray.
2. Plot a graph of cumulative weight, percentage and diameter in mm on a semi log paper.
3. Plot a graph of cumulative weight percentage versus PHI size on Cartesian paper. PHI =
3.3 log10(d), d is diameter in mm.
Questions:-
1. What is the application of sieve analysis to Petroleum Engineering?
2. Discuss the relationship of sorting and particle size to the overall surface area of clastic
rocks.
3. What is the difference between Graph 1 and Graph 2? Explain.
4. What is the approximate shape of the grains?

50