LECTURE NOTES

ON
AutoCAD

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 WORKING WITH COORDINATE SYSTEMS

ABSOLUTE & RELATIVE COORDINATE SYSTEMS

To enter an absolute X, Y coordinate, specify a point by entering its X and Y values in the
format X,Y. Use absolute X,Y coordinates when you know the precise X and Y values of the
location of the point.
For example, to draw a line beginning at an X value of –2 and a Y value of 1, make the
following entries on the command line:

Command: line
From point: –2,1
To point: 3,4

AutoCAD locates the line as follows:

Use relative X,Y coordinates when you know the position of a point in relation to the previous
point. For example, to locate a point relative to –2,1, precede the next coordinate with the @
symbol:

Command: line
From point: –2,1
To point: @5,3

This is the equivalent of entering the absolute coordinate 3,4.

CARTESIAN COORDINATE SYSTEM

A Cartesian coordinate system has three axes: X, Y, and Z. When you enter coordinate values,
you indicate a point's distance (in units) and its direction (+ or –) along the X, Y, and Z axes
relative to the coordinate system origin (0,0,0) or relative to the previous point. Usually, when
you begin a new drawing in AutoCAD®, you are automatically in the world coordinate system
(WCS); the X axis is horizontal, the Y axis is vertical, and the Z axis is perpendicular to the XY
plane.

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POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Polar coordinate systems use a distance and an angle to locate a point. When you enter polar
coordinate values, you indicate a point's distance from the origin or from the previous point and
its angle along the XY plane of the current coordinate system.

To enter a polar coordinate, enter a distance and an angle, separated by an angle bracket (<). For
example, to specify a point at a distance of 1 unit from the previous point and at an angle of 45
degrees, enter @1<45.
By default, angles increase in the counterclockwise and decrease in the clockwise direction. To
move clockwise, enter a negative value for the angle. For example, entering 1<–45 is the same as
entering 1<315. You can change the angle direction and set the base angle on the Units Control
dialog box. See "Setting Drawing Units."

The following example shows a line drawn with polar coordinates.

Command: line
From point: 0,0
To point: 4<120
To point: 5<30

To point: @3<45
To point: @5<285
To point: Press ENTER to exit the command

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 CREATING OBJECTS IN AUTOCAD

LINE
A line can be one segment or a series of connected segments, but each segment is a separate line
object. Use lines if you want to edit individual segments. If you need to draw a series of line
segments as a single object, use a polyline. You can close a sequence of lines so that the first and
last segments join to form a closed loop.
To draw a line
1 From the Draw menu, choose Line.
2 Specify the start point (1).
3 Specify the endpoint (2).
4 Specify the endpoints of the next segments (3, 4, 5, 6).
5 Press ENTER to complete the line.

POLYLINE
A polyline is a connected sequence of line or arc segments created as a single object. Use
polylines if you want to edit all segments at once, although you can also edit them singly. You
can set the width of individual segments, make segments taper, and close the polyline. When you
draw arc segments, the first point of the arc is the endpoint of the previous segment. You can
specify the angle, center point, direction, or radius of the arc. You can also complete the arc by
specifying a second point and an endpoint.

Polylines with arc segments

In the next example, you draw a polyline line segment, continue with an arc segment, and then
draw another line segment in a tangential direction.
To draw a line and arc combination polyline

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First draw the line segment.
1 From the Draw menu, choose Polyline.
2 Specify the start point of the line segment (1).
3 Specify the endpoint of the line segment (2).
4 Enter a to switch to Arc mode.
5 Specify the endpoint of the arc (3).
6 Enter l to return to Line mode.
7 Enter the distance and angle of the line in relation to the endpoint of the arc. You can
enter these relative values in the form @distance<angle.
8 Press ENTER to end the polyline.

After you've created a polyline, you can edit it with PEDIT or use EXPLODE to convert it to
individual line and arc segments. When you explode a wide polyline, the line width reverts to 0
and the resulting line segments are positioned along the center of what was the wide polyline.

MULTILINE
Multilines consist of between 1 and 16 parallel lines, called elements. You position the elements
by specifying the desired offset of each element from the origin of the multiline. You can create
and save multiline styles or use the default style, which has two elements. You can set the color
and linetype of each element and display or hide the joints of the multiline. Joints are lines that
appear at each vertex. There are several types of end caps you can give the multiline, for
example, lines or arcs.

Examples of multilines

Creating Multiline Styles

To create a multiline style
1 From the Format menu, choose Multiline Style.
2 In the Multiline Styles dialog box, enter a name and description for the style.
Descriptions are optional and can be up to 255 characters, including spaces.
3 To create a multiline style, choose Add.
4 To add elements to the style or to modify existing elements, choose Element Properties.
5 In the Element Properties dialog box, highlight the element in the list, and then make
changes to Offset, Color, and Linetype.
6 To add an element, choose Add, and then make changes to Offset, Color, and Linetype.
Choose OK.

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 The offset defines the 0,0 origin of the multiline relative to which other elements are
drawn. An element does not have to be drawn at the origin.
7 To set multiline properties, choose Multiline Properties in the Multiline Styles dialog
box.
8 In the Multiline Properties dialog box, make any changes and choose OK.
Properties include the display of segment joints and the type of start and end caps with
their angles and fill color.
9 Choose Save to save the style to an external multiline style file (the default is acad.mln).
You can save multiline styles to the same file.
If you create more than one multiline style, save the current style before creating a new one or
you lose the changes to the first style.
You can add up to 16 elements to a multiline style. If you create or modify an element so that it
has a negative offset, it appears below the origin in the image tile of the Multiline Styles dialog
box.
To specify the properties of the entire multiline
1 From the Format menu, choose Multiline Style.
2 In the Multiline Styles dialog box, choose Multiline Properties.
3 In the Multiline Properties dialog box, select Display Joints to display a line at the
vertices of the multiline.
4 Under Caps, select a line or an arc for each end of the multiline, and enter an angle.
Lines cross the end of the whole multiline, and outer arcs join the ends of the outermost
elements. Inner arcs connect pairs of elements, leaving the centerline unconnected if there is an
odd number of elements. For example, if there are six elements, inner arcs connect elements 2
and 5 and elements 3 and 4. If there are seven elements, inner arcs connect elements 2 and 6 and
elements 3 and 5; element 4 is left unconnected.

5 Under Fill, select On to display a background color.

This color is not displayed in the image tile of the Multiline Styles dialog box.
6 Choose Color.
7 In the Select Color dialog box, select the background fill color and choose OK.
8 In the Multiline Properties dialog box, choose OK to return to the Multiline Styles dialog
box.
Next, save the multiline style.

POLYGON
Polygons are closed polylines with between 3 and 1,024 equal-length sides. You draw a polygon
by inscribing it in, or circumscribing it about, an imaginary circle or by specifying the endpoints

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of one of the edges of the polygon. Because polygons always have equal-length sides, they
provide a simple way to draw squares and equilateral triangles.

Use inscribed polygons when you want to specify the distance between the center of the polygon
and each vertex. This distance is the radius of the circle within which the polygon is inscribed. In
this example, you draw an inscribed square, the default polygon.
Use circumscribed polygons when you want to specify the distance between the center of the
polygon and the midpoint of each side. This distance is the radius of the circle the polygon
circumscribes.

SKETCH
You can use the SKETCH command to draw freehand sketches. Freehand sketches comprise
many line segments. Each line segment can be a separate object or a polyline. You set the
minimum length or increment of the segments. Sketching is useful for creating irregular
boundaries or for tracing with a digitizer. Small line segments allow for greater accuracy, but
they can greatly increase the drawing file size. For this reason, use this tool sparingly.

RECTANGLE
Draws a rectangular polyline.
Command line: rectang or rectangle
Specify first corner point or [Chamfer/Elevation/Fillet/Thickness/Width]: Enter an option or
specify a point (1)
First Corner
Specify other corner point: Specify a point (2)

The two specified points determine the diagonal corners of a rectangle with sides parallel to the
X and Y axis of the current UCS.

Chamfer
Sets the chamfer distances for the rectangle.
The values become the current chamfer distances for subsequent RECTANG commands.
Elevation

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Specifies the elevation of the rectangle.
The value becomes the current elevation for subsequent RECTANG commands.
Fillet
Specifies the fillet radius of the rectangle.
The value becomes the current fillet radius for subsequent RECTANG commands.
Thickness
Specifies the thickness of the rectangle.
The value becomes the current thickness for subsequent RECTANG commands.
Width
Specifies the polyline width of the rectangle to be drawn.
The value becomes the current polyline width for subsequent RECTANG commands.

CIRCLE
You can create circles in several ways. The default method is to specify the center and radius.
You can also specify the center and diameter or define the diameter alone with two points. You
can define the circle's circumference with three points. You can also create the circle tangent to
three existing objects or create it tangent to two objects and specify a radius. In the following
illustrations, the darker circles are the ones being drawn.

Four methods of drawing circles

To draw a circle by specifying a center point and radius
1 From the Draw menu, choose Circle Center, Radius.
2 Specify the center point.
3 Specify the radius.

To create a circle that is tangent to two objects, specify a tangent point on each of the objects and
the radius of the circle. The tangent point can be any point on the object. In the following
illustrations, the darker circle is the one being drawn, and the tangent points are points (1) and
(2).

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Circles created tangent to two objects
To create a circle tangent to existing objects
1 From the Draw menu, choose Circle Tan, Tan, Radius.
You are now in Tangent snap mode.
2 Select the first object to draw the circle tangent to.
3 Select the second object to draw the circle tangent to.
4 Specify the radius of the circle.
To create a circle tangent at two or three points, set OSNAP to Tangent and use the two-point or
three-point method to create the circle (see "Snapping to Points on Objects").

ARC
You can create arcs in many ways. The default method is to specify three points—a start point, a
second point on the arc, and an endpoint. You can also specify the included angle, radius,
direction, and chord length of arcs. The chord of an arc is a straight line between the endpoints.
By default, AutoCAD draws arcs counterclockwise.
In the following example, the start point of the arc snaps to the endpoint of a line. The second
point of the arc snaps to the middle circle.

To draw an arc by specifying three points

1 From the Draw menu, choose Arc Start, Center, End.
2 Specify the start point (1) by entering endp and selecting the line.
The arc snaps to the endpoint of the line.
3 Specify the second point (2) by entering cen and selecting the existing arc to define the
center of the arc.
4 Specify the endpoint of the arc (3).

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In the following illustrations, the center of an existing circle is used as the center of the arc. Once
you specify the center and start points of the arc, you complete the arc by specifying the chord
length. The distances shown in these illustrations from one endpoint to the cursor are chord
lengths.

To draw an arc using a start point, a center point, and a chord length
1 From the Draw menu, choose Arc Start, Center, Length.
2 Specify a start point (1).
3 Specify the center point (2).
4 Specify the chord length.
Use the Start, Center, Angle or Center, Start, Angle method when you have a start point and a
center point you can snap to. The angle determines the endpoint of the arc.

Use the Start, End, Angle method when you have both endpoints but no center point to snap to.

The following illustration on the left shows an arc drawn by specifying a start point, endpoint,
and radius. You can specify the radius by entering a length or by moving the cursor away from
the endpoint to specify a distance.

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The illustration on the right shows an arc drawn with the pointing device by specifying a start
point and endpoint and a direction of the tangent. Moving the cursor up from the start point and
endpoint draws the arc concave to the object, as shown here. Moving the cursor down would
draw the arc convex to the object.
You can start a line at the endpoint of the last drawn arc by starting LINE and pressing ENTER
at the Start Point prompt. The arc's endpoint defines the start point and the tangential direction of
the new line. You need to specify the length.

SPLINE
A spline is a smooth curve passing through a given set of points. AutoCAD uses a particular type
of spline known as a nonuniform rational B-spline (NURBS) curve. A NURBS curve produces a
smooth curve between control points. Splines are useful for creating irregular-shaped curves, for
example, drawing contour lines for geographic information system (GIS) applications or
automobile design.

ELLIPSE
You can create full ellipses and elliptical arcs, both of which are exact mathematical
representations of ellipses. The default method of drawing an ellipse is to specify the endpoints

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of the first axis and the distance, which is half the length of the second axis. The longer axis of
an ellipse is called the major axis, and the shorter one is the minor axis. The order in which you
define the axes does not matter.

In the following procedure, you draw an ellipse using the default method and the pointing
device. Here, the first axis is the major axis, and the second is the minor. The distance increases
as you drag the pointing device away from the midpoint.
To draw a true ellipse using endpoints and distance
1 From the Draw menu, choose Ellipse Axis, End.
2 Specify the first endpoint of the first axis (1).
3 Specify the second endpoint of the first axis (2).
4 Drag the pointing device away from the midpoint (3) of the first axis and click to specify
the distance.

You can provide a rotation angle instead of a distance or draw the ellipse based on a center point,
an endpoint of one axis, and half the length of the other axis.

Ellipses created by specifying axis endpoints and distance

In the illustrations above, points 1 and 2 are the endpoints of the first axis, and point 3 defines
the distance (half the length) of the second axis. The ellipse at the left is drawn by specifying the
center (1) and two axes. The endpoint of the first axis is at point 2, and point 3 defines half the
length of the second axis.

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DONUT
Drawing donuts is a quick way to create filled rings or solid-filled circles. Donuts are actually
closed polylines that have width. To create a donut, specify its inside and outside diameters and
its center. You can continue creating multiple copies with the same diameter by specifying
different centers until you press ENTER to end the command. To create solid-filled circles,
specify an inside diameter of 0.

POINT
Point objects can be useful, for example, as node or reference points that you can snap to and
offset objects from. You can set the style of the point and its size relative to the screen or in
absolute units.

HATCHING AREAS
Hatching fills a specified area in a drawing with a pattern. You can hatch an enclosed area or a
specified boundary using the BHATCH and HATCH commands.
BHATCH creates associative or nonassociative hatches. Associative hatches are linked to their
boundaries and are updated when the boundaries are modified. Nonassociative hatches are
independent of their boundaries. BHATCH defines boundaries automatically when you specify a
point within the area to be hatched. Any whole or partial objects that are not part of the boundary
are ignored and do not affect the hatch. The boundary can have overhanging edges and islands
(enclosed areas within the hatch area) that you choose to hatch or leave unhatched. You can also
define a boundary by selecting objects.
HATCH creates nonassociative hatches only. It is useful for hatching areas that do not have
closed boundaries.
After you've created a hatch, you can edit it with HATCHEDIT or explode it into composite
lines using the EXPLODE command.

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You can define a hatch boundary by specifying points directly. For example, you may want to
illustrate a pattern fill in a small section of a drawing, as shown in the following illustration.

Island detection methods specify whether to include objects within the outermost boundary as
boundary objects when you are using Pick Points. These internal objects are known as islands.
By default, AutoCAD uses the Flood island detection method. The Flood method includes
islands as boundary objects, as shown in the following illustration. How AutoCAD hatches the
detected islands depends on the island detection style. The following illustration uses the Normal
island detection style, meaning that islands remain unhatched and islands within islands are
hatched.

When you use Pick Points to define your boundaries, you can remove any detected islands from
your boundary definition.

You can control how AutoCAD hatches islands detected as boundaries using the three island
detection styles: Normal, Outer, and Ignore.

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SNAPING TO POINTS ON OBJECTS
During drawing commands, you can snap the cursor to points on objects such as endpoints,
midpoints, centers, and intersections. For example, you can turn on object snaps and quickly
draw a line to the center of a circle, the midpoint of a polyline segment, or the apparent
intersection of two lines.
You turn on object snaps in one of two ways:
Single point (or override) object snaps: Sets an object snap for one use.
Running object snaps: Sets object snaps until you turn them off.
To snap to a point on an object
1 Start a command requiring you to specify a point (for example, ARC, CIRCLE, COPY,
LINE or MOVE).
2 When the command prompts you to specify a point, choose an object snap using one of
the following methods:
Click a toolbar button on the Standard toolbar Object Snap flyout or on the Object Snap
toolbar.
Press SHIFT and right-click in the drawing area, and choose an object snap from the
shortcut menu.
Enter an object snap abbreviation on the command line.
3 Move your cursor over the snap location and click.
After you click to the snap point, the object snap clears. If you select any point other than the
object snap point, AutoCAD displays an invalid point message.

In addition to single-point object snaps, you can turn on running object snaps. Running object
snaps stay on until you turn them off. You can also turn on more than one running object snap at
a time.

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TEXT
Using TEXT you can create one or more lines of text and end each line when you press ENTER.
Each text line is a separate object that you can relocate, reformat, or otherwise modify.

MULTILINE TEXT
For long, complex entries, create multiline text using MTEXT. Multiline text fits a specified
width but can extend vertically to an indefinite length. You can format individual words or
characters within a multiline text object.
Multiline text consists of any number of text lines or paragraphs that fit within a width you
specify. Unlike single-line text, multiline text includes as part of the same mtext object all text
lines or paragraphs created in a multiline text editing session. You can move, rotate, erase, copy,
mirror, stretch, or scale mtext objects.
Multiline text has more editing options than single-line text. Using the Multiline Text Editor, you
can apply underlining, fonts, color, and text height changes to individual characters, words, or
phrases within a paragraph.
You can also use the Properties window to change all properties of multiline text objects.

WORKING WITH BLOCKS

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A block is a collection of objects you can associate together to form a single object, or block
definition. You can insert, scale, and rotate a block in a drawing. You can explode a block into
its component objects, modify them, and redefine the block. AutoCAD updates all current and
future instances of that block based on the block definition.
Blocks streamline the drawing process. For example, you can use blocks to
o Build a standard library of frequently used symbols, components, or standard parts. You
can insert the same block numerous times instead of re-creating the drawing elements
each time.
o Revise drawings efficiently by inserting, relocating, and copying blocks as components
rather than individual geometric objects.
o Save disk space by storing all references to the same block as one block definition in the
drawing database.
When you insert a block in your drawing, you are creating a block instance. Each time you insert
a block instance, you assign a scale factor and rotation angle to the inserted block. You can also
scale a block instance using different values in any coordinate (X, Y, Z) direction.

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 EDITING METHODS

EDITING WITH GRIPS

If grips are turned on, when you select objects with the pointing device before starting a
command, AutoCAD marks the selected objects with grips. (Noun/Verb Selection must be
turned on in order to select objects first.

With grips you can use the pointing device to combine several of the most common editing
commands with object selection to edit more quickly. When grips are turned on, you select the
objects you want before editing. You can then manipulate the objects.

USING THE OBJECT PROPERTIES TOOLBAR

AutoCAD provides two main tools that you can use to easily edit object properties such as
layers, colors, linetypes, and lineweights.
Object Properties toolbar: Provides options for viewing or changing the object
properties that are common to all objects, including layers and layer properties, colors,
linetypes, lineweights, and plot style.
Properties window: Provides a complete list of properties for any object. You can view
an object's properties and modify the ones that can be changed.
You can use the controls on the Object Properties toolbar to quickly view or change an object's
layer, layer properties, color, linetype, lineweight, and plot style. The Object Properties toolbar
consolidates the commands needed to view and edit these object properties. Selecting an object
when no command is active dynamically displays these properties in the controls on the toolbar.
You cannot change the properties of objects on locked layers.
All controls on the Object Properties toolbar support character matching: instead of scrolling
through the lists to make a selection, you can enter the first character of the property name to
select it. If the name is too long to be displayed within the control, it is shortened with an ellipsis
the control and displaying the text tip.

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Because blocks are distinct objects, it is important to understand that, although each object that
composes the block maintains its own object properties, the Object Properties toolbar reflects
only the object properties for the block, not its individual parts. This is likewise true for xrefs,
because xrefs are simply external blocks.
The layer, color, linetype, and lineweight values for a block are the layer, color, linetype, and
lineweight values that were current at the time you inserted the block, unless you manually
assigned other values to the block after insertion. For an individual object contained within a
block, the layer on which AutoCAD draws the object is always the layer on which the object
existed at the time you created the block. The color, linetype, and lineweight in which AutoCAD
draws the individual objects is described in the following table.

USING THE PROPERTIES WINDOW

When you enter PROPERTIES, AutoCAD displays the Properties window. While the Object
Properties toolbar provides convenient access to the properties that are common to all objects,
the Properties window is the main method you use to modify the complete set of object-specific
properties, including properties that you have defined.
The Properties window lists the current settings for all object properties when a single object or
multiple sets of objects are selected. From the Properties window, you can modify any property
that can be changed. To modify properties using the Properties window select the object whose
properties you want to change and use one of the following methods:
Enter a new value.
Select a value from a list.
Change the property value in a dialog box.
Use the Pick Point button to change a coordinate value.
You can leave the Properties window open while you work. When you select an object, the
Properties window displays the properties of that object. When multiple objects are selected, the
Properties window displays the general properties and any other properties that are common
among objects in the selection set. The general properties are as follows:
Color: Displays or sets the color.
Layer: Displays or sets the layer.
Linetype: Displays or sets the linetype.
Linetype scale: Displays or sets the linetype scale.
Plot style: Displays or sets the plot style.
Lineweight: Displays or sets the lineweight.
Hyperlink: Displays or sets the hyperlink.
Thickness: Displays or sets the thickness.

EDITING LAYERS
With the layer buttons and the layer control, you can view a selected object's layer, change an
object's layer, make a layer current, change a layer's properties, and access the Layer Properties
Manager. The layer name and properties displayed in the Layer control depend on the current
selection set:

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You can use the Layer control to transfer objects to locked, frozen, or turned- off layers, but you
cannot transfer an object to an xref-dependent layer (any layer that is defined within an inserted
xref). Xref-dependent layers are displayed as unavailable in the list because you cannot make
them current and you cannot edit objects on those layers. You can, however, still modify the
properties of xref-dependent layers by clicking icons in the Layer control. In the Layer Properties
Manager, if you turn on a filter and apply it to the Object Properties toolbar, the Layer control
does not list layers that match the filter. In this case, when you position your pointer over the
Layer control, the tooltip indicates either "Filter applied" or "Inverted filter applied," rather than
the full layer name.
To change an object's layer
1 Select the objects whose layers you want to change.
2 On the Object Properties toolbar, choose the Layer control.

Because you cannot transfer objects to xref-dependent layers, their names are displayed
as unavailable in the Layer control.
3 Choose a layer.
AutoCAD applies the chosen layer to all selected objects.

MATCHING PROPERTIES OF OTHER OBJECTS

You can copy some or all properties of one object to one or more objects using MATCHPROP.
Properties that can be copied include color, layer, linetype, linetype scale, lineweight, thickness,
plot style, and in some cases, dimension, text, and hatch.

COPYING THE OBJECTS

To copy objects within a drawing, create a selection set and specify a start point and an endpoint
for the copy. These points are called the base point and the second point of displacement,
respectively, and can be anywhere within the drawing.
Command: Copy

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OFFSETTING THE OBJECTS
Offsetting creates a new object that is similar to a selected object but at a specified distance. You
can offset lines, arcs, circles, 2D polylines, ellipses, elliptical arcs, xlines, rays, and planar
splines. Offsetting circles creates larger or smaller circles depending on the offset side.
Offsetting outside the perimeter creates a larger circle. Offsetting inside creates a smaller one.
Command: Offset

MIRRORING THE OBJECTS

You mirror objects around a mirror line, which you define with two points, as shown in the
following illustration. You can delete or retain the original objects. Mirroring works in any plane
parallel to the XY plane of the current UCS. Although you can mirror a viewport object in paper
space, doing so has no effect on its model space view or model space objects.
Command: Mirror

ARRYING OBJECTS
You can copy an object or selection set in polar or rectangular arrays (patterns). For polar arrays,
you control the number of copies of the object and whether the copies are rotated. For
rectangular arrays, you control the number of rows and columns and the distance between them.

Command: Array

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MOVING THE OBJECTS
When you move objects, you can rotate or align them or move them without changing
orientation or size. Use snap mode, coordinates, grips, and object snap modes to move objects
with precision.
In the following example, you move the window.

Command: Move

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ROTATING OBJECTS
You rotate objects by choosing a base point and a relative or absolute rotation angle. Specify a
relative angle to rotate the object from its current orientation around the base point by that angle.
Whether the objects are rotated counterclockwise or clockwise depends on the Direction Control
setting in the Units Control dialog box. Specify absolute angles to rotate objects from the current
angle to a new absolute angle.
In the following example, you rotate the plan view of a house, using the default relative angle
method.

Sometimes it's easier to rotate with absolute angles. For example, to align two objects when you
know the absolute angles of both, use the current angle of the object to be rotated as the
reference angle, and use the angle of the other object as the new angle. An easier way is to use
the pointing device to select the object that you want to rotate and the object you want to align it
with.

ALIGNING THE OBJECTS

You can move, rotate, or tilt an object so it aligns with another object. In the following example,
align the pieces of piping using a window selection box to select the object to be aligned. Use the
Endpoint object snap to align the pieces precisely.

Command: Align

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 Aligning the Objects

ERASING THE OBJECTS

You can erase objects using all the available selection methods. In the following example, you
use window selection to erase a section of piping. Only objects enclosed by the window are
erased.

Command: Erase

STRETCHING THE OBJECTS

To stretch an object, you specify a base point for the stretch and then two points of displacement.
You can also select the object with a crossing selection and combine grip editing with object
snaps, grip snaps, grid snaps, and relative coordinate entry to stretch with greater accuracy.

Command: Stretch
Moving by Stretching:
In the following example, you move a door from one part of a wall to another by stretching.
Turning on Ortho mode helps you move the object in a straight line.

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STRETCHING BY GRIPS
You stretch an object by moving selected grips to new locations. Some grips move the object
rather than stretching it. This is true of grips on text objects, blocks, midpoints of lines, centers of
circles, centers of ellipses, and point objects.

SCALING THE OBJECTS

You scale selection sets using the same scaling factor in the X and Y directions.
Scaling by a scale factor changes all dimensions of the selected object. A scale factor greater
than 1 enlarges the object. A scale factor less than 1 shrinks the object. In the following example,
you decrease the size of the block by half, scaling it by a factor of 0.5.

When you scale by reference, you use the size of an existing object as a reference for the new
size. To scale by reference, specify the current scale and then the new scale length. For example,
if one side of an object is 4.8 units long and you want to expand it to 7.5 units, use 4.8 as the
reference length and 7.5 as the new length. You can also specify the reference length by selecting
a base point and two reference points and dragging to specify the new scale. A quick way to
change the length of open objects such as lines, arcs, polylines, elliptical arcs, and splines is to
lengthen them.
You can use the Reference option to scale an entire drawing. For example, use this option when
the original drawing units are inappropriate. Select all objects in the drawing. Then use
Reference to select two points and specify the intended distance. All the objects in the drawing
are scaled accordingly.

Command: Scale

EXTENDING OBJECTS
You can extend objects so they end precisely at a boundary defined by other objects. You can
also extend objects to where they would intersect a boundary. This is called extending to an
implied boundary. In the following example, you extend the lines precisely to a circle, which is
the boundary.

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Command: Extend
In this example, you extend the three horizontal lines to an implied boundary, which is where
they would intersect the single line if it were extended.

CHANGING THE LENGTHS OF OBJECTS

You can change the angle of arcs, and you can change the length of open lines, arcs, open
polylines, elliptical arcs, and open splines. The results are similar to both extending and
trimming. You can alter the length in several ways:
Dragging an object's endpoint (dynamically)
Specifying a new length as a percentage of the total length or angle
Specifying an incremental length or angle measured from an object's endpoint
Specifying the object's total absolute length or included angle
Command: Lengthen

TRIMMING THE OBJECTS

You can cut an object precisely at an edge defined by one or more objects. Objects you define as
the boundary edges or cutting edges do not have to intersect the object being trimmed; you can
trim back to an implied intersection. Cutting edges can be lines, arcs, circles, polylines, ellipses,
splines, xlines, rays, and viewports in paper space. Wide polylines are cut along their centerline.

Command: Trim

26
An implied intersection is the point where two objects would intersect if they were extended.
You can trim objects using their implied intersection as the cutting edge. In the following
example, you trim the vertical wall back to its implied intersection with the horizontal wall.

An object can be one of the cutting edges and one of the objects being trimmed. For example, in
the light fixture illustrated, the circle is a cutting edge for the construction lines and is also being
trimmed.

When trimming complex objects, using different selection methods can help you choose the right
cutting edges and objects to trim. In the following example, the cutting edges are selected with a
crossing window.

In the following example, fence selection is used to select a series of objects for trimming.

27
INSERTING BREAKS IN OBJECTS
You can remove part of an object with the BREAK command. You can break lines, circles, arcs,
polylines, ellipses, splines, xlines, and rays. When breaking an object, you can either select the
object at the first break point and then specify a second break point, or you can select the entire
object and then specify the two break points.

EXPLODING OBJECTS
Exploding objects converts single objects to their constituent parts but has no visible effect. For
example, exploding forms simple lines and arcs from polylines, rectangles, donuts, and
polygons. It replaces a block reference or associative dimension with copies of the simple objects
that compose the block or dimension. Groups explode into their member objects or into other
groups.
Blocks inserted with unequal X, Y, and Z scale factors may explode into unexpected objects.

EDITING POLYLINES
You can edit polylines by closing and opening them and by moving, adding, or deleting
individual vertices. You can straighten the polyline between any two vertices and toggle the
linetype so that a dash appears before and after each vertex. You can set a uniform width for the
entire polyline or control the width of each segment. You can also create a linear approximation
of a spline from a polyline.
2D and 3D polylines, rectangles, and polygons and 3D polygon meshes are all polyline variants
and are edited in the same way.
AutoCAD recognizes both fit polylines and spline-fit polylines. A spline-fit polyline uses a curve
fit, similar to a B-spline. There are two kinds of spline-fit polylines, quadratic and cubic. Both of
these polylines are controlled by the SPLINETYPE system variable. A fit polyline uses standard
curves for curve fit and utilizes any tangent directions set on any given vertex. You can change
the splined polyline back to a polyline using the Decurve option. The illustration shows a
polyline edited with the Spline option.
However, some editing actions, such as trimming, breaking, and any grip editing, remove the
spline definition of a fit or splined polyline. For this reason, it is better to use a true spline, which
maintains its spline definition.

Command: Pedit

CHAMFERING OBJECTS
Chamfering connects two nonparallel objects by extending or trimming them to intersect or to
join with a beveled line. You can chamfer lines, polylines, xlines, and rays. With the distance
method, you specify the amount that each line should be trimmed or extended. With the angle
method, you can also specify the length of the chamfer and the angle it forms with the first line.
You can retain the objects as they were before the chamfer or trim or extend them to the chamfer
line.

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If both objects being chamfered are on the same layer, the chamfer line goes on that layer.
Otherwise, the chamfer line goes on the current layer. The same rules apply to chamfer color,
linetype, and lineweight.
If no intersection point is within the drawing limits and if limits checking is turned on, AutoCAD
rejects the chamfering.
Chamfering by Specifying Distances
The chamfer distance is the amount each object is trimmed or extended to meet the chamfer line
or to intersect the other object. If both chamfer distances are 0, chamfering trims or extends the
two objects until they meet but does not draw a chamfer line.

Chamfering by Specifying Length and Angle

You can chamfer two objects by specifying where on the first selected object the chamfer line
starts. Then specify the angle the chamfer line forms with this object. In the following example,
you chamfer two lines so that the chamfer line starts 1.5 units along the first line and forms an
angle of 30-degrees with this line.

Command: Chamfer

FILLETING OBJECTS
Filleting connects two objects with a smoothly fitted arc of a specified radius. Although an inside
corner is called a fillet and an outside corner is called a round, AutoCAD treats both as fillets.
If both objects being filleted are on the same layer, the fillet line goes on that layer. Otherwise,
the fillet line goes on the current layer. The same rules apply to fillet color, linetype, and
lineweight.
You can fillet pairs of line segments, polyline line (not arc) segments, splines, xlines, rays,
circles, arcs, and true (not polygon) ellipses. Lines, xlines, and rays can be filleted when parallel.
You can fillet every vertex of a polyline at the same time. You can fillet a combination of lines
and polylines and all true solids.

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LAYERS
Layers are like transparent overlays on which you organize and group different kinds of drawing
information. The objects you create have common properties including colors, linetypes, and
lineweights. An object can assume these properties from the layer it is drawn on, or properties
can be specifically assigned to individual objects. Color helps you distinguish similar elements in
your drawings, while linetypes help you differentiate easily between different drafting elements,
such as centerlines or hidden lines. Lineweights represent the size or type of an object through
width, enhancing your drawing and increasing legibility. Organizing layers and the objects on
layers makes it easier to manage the information in your drawings.
You always draw on a layer. It may be the default layer or a layer you create. Each layer has an
associated color, linetype, lineweight, and plot style. You can use layers to organize drawings
into groups of objects as well as to identify different objects with varying colors, linetypes, and
lineweights.

In a layout (paper space), you can specify layer visibility individually for each viewport. If you
do not want to display or plot a certain layer, you can turn off that layer or turn off plotting for
that layer. The same drawing limits, coordinate system, and zoom factor apply to all layers in a
drawing.
If you consistently use a specific layering scheme, you can set up a template drawing with layers
and their associated linetypes, lineweights, colors, and plot styles already assigned. Layers are
one of many nongraphical objects saved in a drawing.

LINETYPES
A linetype is a repeating pattern of dashes, dots, and blank spaces. A complex linetype is a
repeating pattern of symbols along with dashes, dots, and blank spaces. The linetype name and
definition describe the particular dash-dot sequence, the relative lengths of dashes and blank
spaces, and the characteristics of any included text or shapes. You can create your own linetypes.

Examples of linetypes

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To use a linetype you must first load it into your drawing. A linetype definition must exist in an
LIN library file before a linetype can be loaded into a drawing.
To load a linetype
1 From the Format menu, choose Linetype.
2 In the Linetype Manager, choose Load.
3 In the Load or Reload Linetypes dialog box, select one or more linetypes to load and then
choose OK.
To select or clear all linetypes simultaneously, right-click the linetypes list and choose Select All
or Clear All from the shortcut menu.
The linetypes you select are displayed in the linetype list in the Linetype Manager and in the
Linetype control on the Object Properties toolbar.
4 Choose OK.

Specifying Global Linetype Scale

You can set the global linetype scale for objects that you create. The smaller the scale, the more
repetitions of the pattern are generated per drawing unit. By default, AutoCAD uses a global
linetype scale of 1.0 in the current drawing units.

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 CREATING DIMENSIONS

A precise drawing plotted to scale often does not convey enough information for builders to
construct your design. Usually you add annotation showing object measurements and the
distances and angles between objects.
Dimensioning is the process of adding measurement annotation to a drawing. AutoCAD®
provides many ways to dimension objects and many ways to format dimensions. You can create
dimensions for a wide variety of object shapes in many different orientations. You can create
dimension styles to format dimensions quickly and ensure that dimensions in your drawing
conform to industry or project standards.
Design is often divided into four phases: drawing, annotating, viewing, and plotting. During
annotation, the designer adds text, numbers, and other symbols to communicate such information
as the size and materials of design elements or notes for constructing the design. Dimensions are
a common drawing annotation; they show object measurements such as a wall length, cylinder
diameter, or building site area.

The following table lists the AutoCAD dimensions and common methods for starting
dimensions. As you create dimensions, you probably will use more than one method, based on
your experience, personal preference, or design tasks.

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You can use Quick Dimension to dimension multiple objects at one time. Using Quick
Dimension, you can

 Quickly create arrangements of baseline, continued, staggered, and ordinate dimensions

 Quickly dimension multiple circles and arcs

 Edit existing dimension arrangements

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DIMENSION STYLES
Dimension styles control a dimension's format and appearance. They help you establish and
enforce drafting standards for drawings and make changes to dimension formats and behavior
easier to implement. A dimension style defines
The format and position of dimension lines, extension lines, arrowheads, and center marks
 The appearance, position, and behavior of dimension text
 The rules governing where AutoCAD places text and dimension lines
 The overall dimension scale
 The format and precision of primary, alternate, and angular dimension units
 The format and precision of tolerance values

PLOTTING & PRINTING

A layout is a paper space environment that simulates a sheet of paper and provides a predictable
plotting setup. In a layout, you can create and position viewport objects, and you can add a title
block or other geometry. You can create multiple layouts in a drawing to display various views,
each of which can contain different plot scales and paper sizes. Each layout displays the drawing
as it will be plotted on the sheet of paper.

USING MODEL SPACE & PAPER SPACE

As you design your model drawing and prepare it for plotting, you can use model space and
paper space just as with previous AutoCAD® releases. Using AutoCAD 2000, however, the
environment you use to layout and prepare your drawing for plotting is much more visual. At the
bottom of the drawing window are tabs that include the Model tab and one or more layout tabs.
Model space can be accessed from the Model tab or by making a floating viewport in a layout
current. The Model tab is where you spend most of your time creating and editing your drawing.
When you are in the Model tab, you are always working in model space. You can divide the
Model tab into tiled viewports to represent various views of your model. For more information
about creating and using tiled viewports in model space, see "Using Tiled Viewports." You can
also plot your drawing from the Model tab.
When you are ready to setup your drawing for plotting, you can use a layout tab. Each layout tab
provides a paper space drawing environment in which you can create viewports and specify page
settings for each layout you want to plot. Page settings are just plot settings that are saved with
the layout. As you designate page settings for a layout, you can choose to save and name the
page settings for one layout, then apply that named page setup to another layout. You can also
create a new layout from an existing layout template (.dwt or .dwg) file into a new layout.
Typically, when you begin designing a layout environment to plot, you step through the
following process:
o Create a model drawing.

34
 o Configure a plotting device.
o Activate or create a layout.
o Specify layout page settings such as plotting device, paper size, plot area, plot scale, and
drawing orientation.
o Insert a title block.
o Create floating viewports and position them in the layout.
o Set the view scale of the floating viewports.
o Annotate or create geometry in the layout as needed.
o Plot your layout.
For switching between Model Space & Paper Space, choose the Model tab or enter model at the
command line to make the Model tab current. To move from the Model tab to paper space,
choose the Layout1 tab or enter paper at the command line.

DETERMINING LAYOUT SETTINGS

Layout settings, which are also referred to as page setups, control the final plotted output. These
settings affect the plot device, paper size, plot scale, plot area, plot origin, and the drawing
orientation. Understanding how to use layout settings ensures that the layout plots as expected.
All of the settings for a layout can be changed and saved to the layout,without actually plotting,
using the Page Setup dialog box.

35
 WORKING IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL SPACE

If you create a three-dimensional (3D) model, you usually set up different two-dimensional (2D)
views in order to visualize, draw, and edit geometry easily. AutoCAD® provides tools that you
can use to set up different views of the model. You can also assign different user coordinate
systems (UCS) and elevations to the standard orthogonal views and easily switch between views.

SPECIFYING 3-D COORDINATES

Specifying 3D coordinates is the same as specifying 2D coordinates with the addition of a third
dimension, the Z axis. When drawing in 3D, you specify X, Y, and Z values of the coordinate in
either the world coordinate system (WCS) or the user coordinate system (UCS). The following
illustration shows the X, Y, and Z axes of the WCS.

Using the Right-Hand Rule

The right-hand rule determines the positive axis direction of the Z axis when you know the
direction of the X and Y axes in a 3D coordinate system. The right-hand rule also determines the
positive rotation direction about an axis in 3D space.

Entering X,Y,Z Coordinates

36
Entering 3D Cartesian coordinates (X,Y,Z) is similar to entering 2D coordinates (X,Y). In
addition to specifying X and Y values, you specify a Z value. In the following illustration, the
coordinate 3,2,5 indicates a point 3 units along the positive X axis, 2 units along the positive Y
axis, and 5 units along the positive Z axis. You can enter absolute coordinate values, which are
based on the origin of the UCS, or relative coordinate values, which are based on the last point
entered.

Entering Cylindrical Coordinates

Cylindrical coordinate entry is similar to 2D polar coordinate entry, but with an additional
distance from the polar coordinate perpendicular to the XY plane. You locate a point by
specifying its distance along an angle relative to the UCS X axis and its Z value perpendicular to
the XY plane. In the following illustration, the coordinate 5<60,6 indicates a point 5 units from
the origin of the current UCS, 60 degrees from the X axis in the XY plane, and 6 units along the
Z axis. The coordinate 8<30,1 indicates a point 8 units from the origin of the current UCS in the
XY plane, 30 degrees from the X axis in the XY plane and 1 unit along the Z axis.

In the following illustration, the relative cylindrical coordinate @4<45,5 indicates a point 4 units
in the XY plane from the last point entered, not from the UCS origin point, at an angle of 45
degrees from the positive X direction. The line extends to a Z coordinate of 5.

Entering Spherical Coordinates

Spherical coordinate entry in 3D is also similar to polar coordinate entry in 2D. You locate a
point by specifying its distance from the origin of the current UCS, its angle from the X axis (in
the XY plane), and its angle from the XY plane, each separated by an open angle bracket (<). In
the following illustration, the coordinate 8<60<30 indicates a point 8 units from the origin of the

37
current UCS in the XY plane, 60 degrees from the X axis in the XY plane, and 30 degrees up
from the XY plane. The coordinate 5<45<15 indicates a point 5 units from the origin, 45 degrees
from the X axis in the XY plane, and 15 degrees from the XY plane.

USING STANDARD 3D VIEWS & PROJECTIONS

Any 3D model can be viewed from any direction, but standard views are set for the six
orthogonal directions:
o Top
o Bottom
o Right
o Left
o Front
o Back
In AutoCAD, you can display 3D models from any of these standard six views, although three
views are usually enough information for you to fully comprehend the model.

STANDARD PROJECTIONS
Each of the six standard views is a 2D view, showing only two of the object's three possible
measurements: width, length, or height. Whenever multiple views are displayed, either on the
screen or on paper, the views must be arranged so that they share one of the two possible
measurements. When they share a common measurement, they are said to "project."
First angle projection and third angle projection are standard technical drawing methods for
presenting views relative to the front view, as shown in the following illustrations.

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ISOMETRIC VIEWS
An isometric view in a viewport is used primarily as a visual guide. It helps you comprehend
your 3D model as you create and edit chiefly in the 2D views. The next illustration shows the
relationship between the 2D views and the isometric view.

DEFINING A USER-COORDINATE SYSTEM

You define a user coordinate system (UCS) to change the location of the 0,0,0 origin point and
the orientation of the XY plane and Z axis. You can locate and orient a UCS anywhere in 3D
space, and you can define, save, and recall as many UCSs as you require. Coordinate input and
display are relative to the current UCS. If multiple viewports are active, you can assign a
different UCS to each viewport. Each UCS can have a different origin and orientation for various
construction requirements.

You define a user coordinate system (UCS) to change the location of the 0,0,0 origin point and
the orientation of the XY plane and Z axis. You can locate and orient a UCS anywhere in 3D
space, and you can define, save, and recall as many UCSs as you require. Coordinate input and
display are relative to the current UCS. If multiple viewports are active, you can assign a
different UCS to each viewport . Each UCS can have a different origin and orientation for
various construction requirements.
You can define a new UCS in paper space just as you can in model space; however, the UCSs in
paper space are restricted to 2D manipulation.
Generally, it is recommended that you leave the elevation set to zero and control the XY plane of
the current UCS with the UCS command. See "Setting Elevation and Thickness."
You can define a UCS in several ways:
o Specify a new origin, new XY plane, or new Z axis.
o Align the new UCS with an existing object.
o Align the new UCS with the current viewing direction.
o Rotate the current UCS around any of its axes.

39
 o Apply a new Z-depth to an existing UCS.
o Apply a UCS by selecting a Face.

WORKING WITH VEWS IN 3D

You can view and edit the geometry of your drawing without having to reset the coordinate
system settings each time by restoring named and orthographic views to viewports and
automatically restoring UCS settings. You can also assign a Z-depth to an orthographic
coordinate system relative to the base UCS, which provides different planes to work in and
streamlines the drawing process. These features are particularly useful if you require different
orthographic views of your drawing, typically used for 3D wireframe and surfacing models. You
can
o Save a coordinate system when you save a named view; restore the view, and the UCS
settings are restored
o Assign a Z-depth to an orthographic UCS to provide different working planes for the
same orthographic view
o Apply any of six orthographic views to a viewport
o Restore the corresponding orthographic UCS whenever you assign an orthographic view
to a viewport

MATERIALS IN 3D
When the Enable Materials option is selected in the 3D Graphics System Configuration dialog
box, objects to which you have attached materials show the materials in the 3D view. This
includes objects in the 3D Orbit view and objects shaded using the SHADEMODE command.
If no material is attached to an object, the default global material is used. For more information
about Materials, see "Using Materials in Rendering."
The following are limitations to the display of materials in 3D Orbit and when objects are shaded
using the SHADEMODE command:
o Objects to which you have applied the GLOBAL material colors maintain their object
colors. The GLOBAL material color is not shown.
o 2D textures (bitmaps or bitmap blending) are not shown.
o 3D textures (template materials) are not shown.
o Bump maps are not shown.
o Refraction is not shown.

SHADING MODES IN 3D

 Wireframe: Displays the objects in the 3D view using lines and curves to represent the
boundaries.

40
 Hidden: Displays the objects in the 3D view using wireframe representation with the
lines representing the back faces hidden.

 Flat Shaded: Shades the objects in the 3D view between the polygon faces. This gives the
objects a faceted, less smooth appearance.

 Gouraud Shaded: Shades the objects in the 3D view and smooths the edges between
polygon faces. This gives the objects a smoother, more realistic appearance.

 Flat Shaded, Edges On: Combines the Flat Shaded and Wireframe options. The objects
are flat shaded with the wireframe showing through.

 Gouraud Shaded, Edges On: Combines the Gouraud Shaded and Wireframe options. The
objects are Gouraud shaded with the wireframe showing through.

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 CREATING OBJECTS IN 3D

Although 3D models can be more difficult and time-consuming to create than 3D views of 2D
objects, 3D modeling has several advantages. You can
 View the model from any vantage point
 Generate reliable standard and auxiliary 2D views automatically
 Create 2D profiles
 Remove hidden lines and do realistic shading
 Check interference
 Export the model to create an animation
 Do engineering analysis
 Extract manufacturing data

AutoCAD supports three types of 3D modeling: wireframe, surface, and solid. Each type has its
own creation and editing techniques.

A wireframe model is a skeletal description of a 3D object. There are no surfaces in a wireframe

model; it consists only of points, lines, and curves that describe the edges of the object. With

42
AutoCAD you can create wireframe models by positioning 2D (planar) objects anywhere in 3D
space. AutoCAD also provides some 3D wireframe objects, such as 3D polylines (that can only
have a CONTINUOUS linetype) and splines. Because each object that makes up a wireframe
model must be independently drawn and positioned, this type of modeling can be the most time-
consuming.
Surface modeling is more sophisticated than wireframe modeling in that it defines not only the
edges of a 3D object, but also its surfaces. The AutoCAD surface modeler defines faceted
surfaces using a polygonal mesh. Because the faces of the mesh are planar, the mesh can only
approximate curved surfaces. With Mechanical Desktop, you can create true curved surfaces. To
differentiate these two types of surfaces, AutoCAD calls faceted surfaces, meshes.
Solid modeling is the easiest type of 3D modeling to use. With the AutoCAD solid modeler, you
can make 3D objects by creating basic 3D shapes: boxes, cones, cylinders, spheres, wedges, and
tori (donuts). You can then combine these shapes to create more complex solids by joining or
subtracting them or finding their intersecting (overlapping) volume. You can also create solids
by sweeping a 2D object along a path or revolving it about an axis. With Mechanical Desktop,
you can also define solids parametrically and maintain associativity between 3D models and the
2D views that you generate from them.

CREATING MESHES
A mesh represents an object's surface using planar facets. The mesh density, or number of facets,
is defined in terms of a matrix of M and N vertices, similar to a grid consisting of columns and
rows. M and N specify the column and row position, respectively, of any given vertex. You can
create meshes in both 2D and 3D, but they are used primarily for 3D.
Use meshes if you need hiding, shading, and rendering capabilities that wireframes don't provide
but do not need the physical properties that solids provide (mass, weight, center of gravity, and
so on). Meshes are also useful if you want to create geometry with unusual mesh patterns, such
as a 3D topographical model of mountainous terrain.
A mesh can be open or closed. A mesh is open in a given direction if the start and end edges of
the mesh do not touch, as shown in the following illustrations.

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AutoCAD provides several methods for creating meshes. Some of these methods can be difficult
to use if you are entering the mesh parameters manually, so AutoCAD provides the 3D
command, which simplifies the process of creating the basic surface shapes.

CREATING A PREDEFINED 3D SURFACE MESH

The 3D command creates the following 3D shapes: boxes, cones, dishes, domes, meshes,
pyramids, spheres, tori (donuts), and wedges. These are meshes that are displayed as wireframes
until you use HIDE, RENDER, or SHADEMODE .
In the following illustrations, the numbers indicate points you specify to create the mesh.

CREATING A RULED SURFACE MESH

With RULESURF, you can create a surface mesh between two objects. You use two different
objects to define the edges of the ruled surface: lines, points, arcs, circles, ellipses, elliptical arcs,
2D polylines, 3D polylines, or splines. Pairs of objects to be used as the "rails" of a ruled surface
mesh must both be either open or closed. You can pair a point object with either an open or a
closed object.

To create a ruled surface

1 From the Draw menu, choose Surfaces Ruled Surface.
2 Select the first defining curve. Then select the second (1 and 2).
3 Erase the original curve if necessary.
You can specify any two points on closed curves to complete RULESURF. For open curves,
AutoCAD starts construction of the ruled surface based on the locations of the specified points
on the curves.

CREATING A TABULATED SURFACE MESH

44
With the TABSURF command, you can create a surface mesh representing a general tabulated
surface defined by a path curve and a direction vector. The path curve can be a line, arc, circle,
ellipse, elliptical arc, 2D polyline, 3D polyline, or spline. The direction vector can be a line or an
open 2D or 3D polyline. TABSURF creates the mesh as a series of parallel polygons running
along a specified path. You must have the original object and the direction vector already drawn,
as shown in the following illustrations.

To create a tabulated surface mesh

1 From the Draw menu, choose Surfaces Tabulated Surface.
2 Specify a path curve (1).
3 Specify a direction vector (2).
4 Erase the original objects if necessary.
Command line TABSURF
System variables SURFTAB1 and SURFTAB2 control the mesh density (number of facets) in
the M and N directions, respectively.

CREATING A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION OF MESH

Use the REVSURF command to create a surface of revolution by rotating a profile of the object
about an axis. REVSURF is useful for surfaces with rotational symmetry.

To create a surface of revolution mesh

1 From the Draw menu, choose Surfaces Revolved Surface.
2 Specify a path curve (1).
The path curve, which defines the N direction of the mesh, can be a line, arc, circle,
ellipse, elliptical arc, 2D polyline, 3D polyline, or spline. If you select a circle, closed
ellipse, or closed polyline, AutoCAD closes the mesh in the N direction.
3 Specify the axis of revolution (2).

The direction vector can be a line or an open 2D or 3D polyline. If you choose a polyline,
the vector sets the rotation axis from its first vertex to its last vertex. AutoCAD ignores
any intermediate vertices. The axis of revolution determines the M direction of the mesh.

45
4 Specify the start angle. Then specify the included angle.

If you specify a nonzero start angle, AutoCAD generates the mesh at a position offset
from the path curve by that angle. The included angle specifies how far about the axis of
revolution the surface should extend.
5 Erase the original objects if necessary.

CREATING AN EDGE-DEFINED SURFACE MESH

With the EDGESURF command, you can create a Coons surface patch mesh, as shown in the
following illustration, from four objects called edges. Edges can be arcs, lines, polylines, splines,
and elliptical arcs, and they must form a closed loop and share endpoints. A Coons patch is a
bicubic surface (one curve in the M direction and another in the N direction) interpolated
between the four edges.

To create an edge-defined Coons surface patch mesh

1 From the Draw menu, choose Surfaces Edge Surface.
2 Select the four edges in any order.
The first edge you select determines the mesh's M direction.
SETTING ELEVATON & THICKNESS
Thickness and elevation are methods of simulating meshes in AutoCAD. The advantage of using
elevation and thickness instead of a mesh is that you can change them quickly and easily for both
new and existing objects.
The elevation of an object is the Z value of the XY plane on which the object base is drawn. An
elevation of 0 indicates the base XY plane of the current UCS. Positive elevations are above this
plane, and negative elevations are below it.
The thickness of an object is the distance that object is extruded above or below its elevation.
Positive thickness extrudes upward (positive Z), negative thickness extrudes downward (negative
Z), and 0 thickness means no extrusion. An object with elevation 0 and a thickness of –1 unit
appears identical to an object with an elevation of –1 and a thickness of 1 unit. The Z direction is
determined by the orientation of the UCS at the time the object was created.
Thickness changes the appearance of certain geometric objects, such as circles, lines, polylines,
arcs, 2D solids, and points. You can set the thickness of an object with the THICKNESS system
variable. AutoCAD applies the extrusion uniformly on an object. A single object cannot have
different thicknesses for its various points. Once you have set an object's thickness, you can
visualize the results in any view other than the plan view.

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Like any other meshes, objects with thickness can be hidden, shaded, and rendered.
Consider the following when you change or set elevation and thickness:
3D faces, 3D polylines, 3D polygon meshes, dimensions, and viewport objects ignore the current
thickness and cannot be extruded. Modifying the thickness of these objects with CHANGE does
not affect their appearance.

When you create new text objects or attribute definition objects, AutoCAD assigns the objects a
0 thickness regardless of the current thickness setting.
Line segments produced by SKETCH are extruded after the Record option is selected.
The current elevation established by the ELEV command remains in effect as you change from
one UCS to another, and it defines the drawing plane of the current UCS.
You can set the elevation and thickness for new objects you create in AutoCAD. You can see the
results in any view other than plan view.

CREATING SOLIDS
A solid object represents the entire volume of an object. Solids are the most informationally
complete and least ambiguous of the 3D modeling types. Complex solid shapes are also easier to
construct and edit than wireframes and meshes.
You create solids from one of the basic solid shapes of box, cone, cylinder, sphere, torus, and
wedge or by extruding a 2D object along a path or revolving a 2D object about an axis.
Once you have created a solid in this manner, you can create more complex shapes by combining
solids. You can join solids, subtract solids from each other, or find the common volume
(overlapping portion) of solids. For more information, see "Creating a Composite Solid."
Solids can be further modified by filleting, chamfering, or changing the color of their edges.
Faces on solids are easily manipulated because they don't require you to draw any new geometry
or perform Boolean operations on the solid. AutoCAD also provides commands for slicing a
solid into two pieces or obtaining the 2D cross section of a solid (see "Changing 3D Solids").
Like meshes, solids are displayed as wireframes until you hide, shade, or render them.
Additionally, you can analyze solids for their mass properties (volume, moments of inertia,
center of gravity, and so on). You can export data about a solid object to applications such as NC
(numerical control) milling or FEM (finite element method) analysis. By exploding a solid, you
can break it down to mesh and wireframe objects.
The ISOLINES system variable controls the number of tessellation lines used to visualize curved
portions of the wireframe. The FACETRES system variable adjusts the smoothness of shaded
and hidden-line objects.

BOX

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You can use BOX to create a solid box. The base of the box is always parallel to the XY plane of
the current UCS.

Box Cone Cylinder Sphere

CONE
You can use CONE to create a solid cone defined by a circular or an elliptical base tapering to a
point perpendicular to its base. By default, the cone's base lies on the XY plane of the current
UCS. The height, which can be positive or negative, is parallel to the Z axis. The apex
determines the height and orientation of the cone.

CYLINDER
You can use CYLINDER to create a solid cylinder with a circular or an elliptical base. The base
of the cylinder lies on the XY plane of the current UCS.

SPHERE
You can use SPHERE to create a solid sphere based on a center point and a radius or diameter.
Its latitudinal lines are parallel to the XY plane, and the central axis is coincident with the Z axis
of the current UCS.

TORUS
You can use TORUS to create a ring-shaped solid similar to the inner tube of a tire. The torus is
parallel to and bisected by the XY plane of the current UCS.

To create a lemon-shaped solid, use a negative torus radius and a positive number of greater
magnitude for the tube radius. For example, if the torus radius is –2.0, the tube radius must be
greater than 2.0.
A torus may be self-intersecting. A self-intersecting torus has no center hole because the radius
of the tube is greater than the radius of the torus.

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WEDGE
You can use WEDGE to create a solid wedge. The base of the wedge is parallel to the XY plane
of the current UCS with the sloped face opposite the first corner. Its height, which can be
positive or negative, is parallel to the Z axis.

CREATING AN EXTRUDED SOLID

With EXTRUDE, you can create solids by extruding (adding thickness to) selected objects. You
can extrude closed objects such as polylines, polygons, rectangles, circles, ellipses, closed
splines, donuts, and regions. You cannot extrude 3D objects, objects contained within a block,
polylines that have crossing or intersecting segments, or polylines that are not closed. You can
extrude an object along a path, or you can specify a height value and a tapered angle.

Use EXTRUDE to create a solid from a common profile of an object, such as a gear or sprocket.
EXTRUDE is particularly useful for objects that contain fillets, chamfers, and other details that
might otherwise be difficult to reproduce except in a profile. If you create a profile using lines or
arcs, use the Join option of PEDIT to convert them to a single polyline object or make them into
a region before you use EXTRUDE.
To extrude an object along a path
1 From the Draw menu, choose Solids Extrude.
2 Select the objects to extrude (1).
3 Enter p (Path).
4 Select the object to use as the path (2).
After the extrusion, AutoCAD may delete or retain the original object, depending on the setting
of the DELOBJ system variable.

CREATING A REVOLVED SOLID

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With REVOLVE, you can create a solid by revolving a closed object about the X or Y axis of the
current UCS, using a specified angle. You can also revolve the object about a line, polyline, or
two specified points. Similar to EXTRUDE, REVOLVE is useful for objects that contain fillets
or other details that would otherwise be difficult to reproduce in a common profile. If you create
a profile using lines or arcs that meet a polyline, use the PEDIT Join option to convert them to a
single polyline object before you use REVOLVE.
You can use REVOLVE on closed objects such as polylines, polygons, rectangles, circles,
ellipses, and regions. You cannot use REVOLVE on 3D objects, objects contained within a
block, polylines that have crossing or intersecting segments, or polylines that are not closed.

CREATING A COMPOSITE SOLID

You can combine, subtract, and find the intersection of existing solids to create composite solids.
With UNION, you can combine the total volume of two or more solids or two or more regions
into a composite object.
To combine solids
1 From the Modify menu, choose Solids Editing Union.
2 Select the objects to combine (1, 2).

With SUBTRACT, you can remove the common area of one set of solids from another. For
example, you can use SUBTRACT to add holes to a mechanical part by subtracting cylinders
from the object.

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To subtract one set of solids from another
1 From the Modify menu, choose Solids Editing Subtract.
2 Select the objects to subtract from (1).
3 Select the objects to subtract (2).

With INTERSECT, you can create a composite solid from the common volume of two or more
overlapping solids. INTERSECT removes the nonoverlapping portions and creates a composite
solid from the common volume.
To create a solid from the intersection of two or more other solids
1 From the Modify menu, choose Solids Editing Intersect.
2 Select the objects to intersect (1 and 2).

EDITING IN 3D

ROTATE3D
With ROTATE, you can rotate objects in 2D about a specified point. The direction of rotation is
determined by the current UCS. ROTATE3D rotates objects in 3D about a specified axis. You
can specify the axis of rotation using two points; an object; the X, Y, or Z axis; or the Z direction
of the current view. To rotate 3D objects, you can use either ROTATE or ROTATE3D.

3DARRAY

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With 3DARRAY, you can create a rectangular array or a polar array of objects in 3D. In addition
to specifying the number of columns (X direction) and rows (Y direction), you also specify the
number of levels (Z direction).

MIRROR3D
With MIRROR3D, you can mirror objects along a specified mirroring plane. The mirroring
plane can be one of the following:
 The plane of a planar object
 A plane parallel to the XY, YZ, or XZ plane of the current UCS that passes through a
point you select
 A plane defined by three points that you select

SECTION
With SECTION, you can create a cross section through a solid as a region or an anonymous
block. The default method is specifying three points to define the plane. Other methods define
the cross-sectional plane by another object, the current view, the Z axis, or the XY, YZ, or ZX
plane. AutoCAD places the cross-sectional plane on the current layer.

SLICE
With SLICE, you can create a new solid by cutting the existing solid and removing a specified
side. You can retain one or both halves of the sliced solids. The sliced solids retain the layer and
color properties of the original solids. The default method of slicing a solid is to specify three

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points that define the cutting plane and then select which side to retain. You can also define the
cutting plane by using another object, the current view, the Z axis, or the XY, YZ, or ZX plane.

SOLIDEDIT

With SOLIDEDIT command, you can edit your solid object by extruding, moving, rotating,
offsetting, tapering, deleting, copying it, or changing the color of the faces.
You can select individual faces on a 3D solid object or use one of the following AutoCAD
selection methods:
 Boundary set
 Crossing polygon
 Crossing window
 Fence
Boundary sets are sets of faces defined by a closed boundary, which consists of lines, circles,
arcs, elliptical arcs, and spline curves. When defining a boundary set on a solid object, you first
select an internal point on the solid, highlighting the face. If you select the same point on the face
again, AutoCAD highlights the adjoining face.
You can also select individual faces or edges with your pointing device or use a crossing
window, an irregular shaped polygon, or a fence that selects faces or edges it passes through.

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RENDERING

Most drafting time is spent working on wireframe representations of a model. On occasion,

however, you might need to see a more realistic image involving color and perspective—for
example, when verifying your design or when presenting a final drawing.
Creating realistic three-dimensional (3D) images helps you visualize your final design much
more clearly than you can with wireframe representations. In the wireframe, because all edges
and tessellation lines (lines that help visualize curved surfaces) are visible, it's hard to tell
whether you're viewing the model from above or below. The hidden-line image makes it easier to
visualize the model because the back faces are not displayed. Shading and rendering can greatly
enhance the realism of the image.
Of the image types, hidden-line images are the simplest. Shading removes hidden lines and
assigns flat colors to visible surfaces. Rendering adds and adjusts lights and attaches materials to
surfaces to produce realistic effects.

Rendering can make a design clearer than a simple hidden-line or shaded image can. Traditional
rendering of architectural, mechanical, and engineering drawings involves watercolors, colored
crayons and inks, and air-brush techniques to produce a final presentation-quality rendering.

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Rendering often requires the most computer time in a 3D project. It generally involves four
steps:
 Preparing models for rendering includes following proper drafting techniques, removing
hidden surfaces, constructing meshes for smooth shading, and setting view resolution.
 Illuminating includes creating and placing lights and creating shadows.
 Adding color includes defining the reflective qualities of materials and associating these
materials with the visible surfaces.
 Rendering usually includes rendering objects at intermediate steps to check your
preparation, illumination, and colors.
These steps are conceptual and aren't usually implemented as procedural steps during the
rendering process, nor must they occur in the order presented.

AutoCAD uses geometry, lighting, and materials to render a realistic image of a model.

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