PLANNING AND ORG~NIZATION

Structure 1
1 .I lntroduction

1.2 Objectives

1.3 Meaning and Scope of Curriculum

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1.3.1 Defining Curriculum
I .3.2 Components of Curriculum
1.3.3 Curriculum Development
1.3.4 Cnrriculum, Syllabus and course

1.4 Curriculum Planning and Organization

1.4.1 Principles of Curriculum Planning
1.4.2 Goals and Objectives

1.5. Role of School Head in Curriculum Planning and ~ r ~ h i z a t i o n

1.6 Let Us Sum Up 1

1.7 Unit-end Exercises
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1.8 Suggested Readings
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1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
Human beings have created curricula - that is, schedule ork and courses of study
- down through the ages. The advancement of during the late 1800s
and into the twentieth century broughj with it role of the home and
increased attention to the school. subject matter to be

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taught and the value- be attention. There
emerged a sustained concern with the nature of curricul and, accompanying it, a
literature on curriculum sufficient to make a distinct field f study. Its legitimacy was
established in the United States with the appearance in 19 7 of a yearbook prepared
by a committee of the National Society for the Study of E ucation that sought to pull
together the extant ideas about constructing curricula (Rugg 927). Although the volume
of writings produced in subsequent years appears to ha e remained greater in the
United States than in other countries, there were paralle developments elsewhere,
particularly in the Western countries. Ultimately, interes among governments and
educators in understanding as well as improving processes became
virtually worldwide, as demonstratedby the Training
and Curriculum Development and
Sweden, during the summer of
than 20 countries (Bloom 1971).
Undoubtedly, the curriculum is one of the most importan in ensuring quality
education in schools. Obviously, as an effective school Head Teacher has
to devote time and serious thinking in order to plan the curriculum. In
this unit we will study these in some detail. We will an insight into
the concept. planning and organization of
the School Head in this process.
Planning and Organizing
Curriculum OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to

explain the meaning and scope of curriculum;

recall some accepted definitions of curriculum;
list the components ofcurricul~im;
distinguish between curriculum, syllabus and course;
develop an insight into curriculum planning;
discuss the factors that contribute towards a good curriculum;
appreciate the role of School Head in the context of curriculum; and
learn to organize the curriculum in your school in an effective manner. 1
1.3 MEANING AND SCOPE OF CURRICULUM
According to Leithwood, the term "curriculum" is used very broadly in literature to
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refer to instructionally related educational experiences of students. It encompasses
educational philosophy, values, objectives, organizational structure, materials, teaching
strategies, student experiences, assessment and learning outcomes. According to Bestor,
tlie curriculum must consist essentially of disciplined study in five great areas: i)
command of the mother tongue and the systematic study of grammar, literature and
writing; ii) mathematics; iii) sciences; iv) history; v) foreign language.

1.3.1 Defining Curriculum

The Latin root of the word "curriculum" is "currere" that means "racecourse" or a
"runway", which one takes to reach a goal. Thus, a curriculum is the instructional
programme through which tlie pupils achieve their goals. The definition of curriculum
varies with the concepts that a researcher or a practitioner uses in his or her curricular
thinking and work. There is, therefore, not only one way of specifically defining
curriculum outside the context of a particular study, paper, presentation or policy
document under discussion. Some writers stipulate their working definition while others
define the term by implication in what they say and do. Definitions flow from the
concept in use. Let us take a look at some of these definitions found in literature.
Curriculum is a tool in thehands of the artist (teacher) to mould his material (the
pupil) in accordance with his ideal in his studio (the school) (Cunningham 1945).
Curriculum is the life and programme of the school ............. an enterprise in
guided living; the curriculum becomes the very stream of dynamic activities that
constitute the life ofyoung people and their elders (Rugg 1947).
It must be clearly understood that according to the best modern educational
thought, curriculum in this context does not mean only the academic subjects
traditionally taught in the school but it includes the totality ofthe experiences that
a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on in the school - in the
classrooin, library, laboratory, workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal
contacts between teachers and pupils. In this case, the whole life of the school
becomes the curriculum that can touch the life of the students at all points and
help in the evolution of balanced personality (Secondary Education Commission
1953).
A sequence of potential experiences is set up in the school for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting. This set of
8 experiences is referred to as the curriculum (Smith et al. 1957).
 A general over all plan of the content or specific of instruction that the -
CurricuIum Concept,
Planning and Organization
school should offer the student by way of for graduation or
certification or for entrance into a field (Good 1959).
A curriculum is a plan for learning (Taba 1962).
The formal curriculum coiisists of the units of that are offered, the courses
that are made availableto students. The syllabi courses, the bibliographies
and materials used, and the evaluative selected. The informal
aspect of the curriculum includes the happen in classes, in
the hallways, on the playground, in way to and from
school (Kimball Wiles in The

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The curriculum is considered to be the increasingly ide range of possible modes
of thinking about men's experiences - not the con lusions, but the models from
which conclusions derive, and in the context of hicli these conclusions, so-
called truths, are grounded and validated (Belth

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We conceive of the school curriculum as the tvtalit of learning experience that
the school provides forthe pupils through all them lifold activities in the school
or outside, that are carried o ! ~under its supervision From this point of view, the
distinction between curricular and extra-curricula work ceases to exist and a
school camp and games and sports are curricular r ther co-curricular activities
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( l h e Education Commission, Government of India 966).

i 1969).
n
All the experiences a learner has under the guid nce of the school (Foshay

Wk hold that curriculum is a ~nethodologicalinquirJexploring the range of ways

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in which the subject matter elements of teacher, stu ent, subject and milieu can
be seen (Westbury and Steimer 1971).
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Curriculum is a slippery word. Broadly defined, it

education process as a whole. Narrowly defined, usually done, the term is
regarded as being Inore or less synonymous 'syllabus', 'a scheme of
work' or simply 'subjects'. According to one, distinction can be drawn
between curricular, co-curricular and all of which are
held to play their part in the pupil's
time between formal instruction
more firmly. The difference
between child-centred and

1I.
'The planned and guided learning experiences and i tended !earning outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction of nowledge and experience,
under the auspices of the school, for the learner's co tinuous and willful growth
in personal-social competence (Tanner and Tanner 1975).
A simple way of considering the curriculum is to s e in terms of four facets:
content, methods, purposes, evaluation (A Dictionar of Education by P.J. Hills
1982).
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Dimensions of the Definition of Curriculum
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There are two major dimensions along which curricular dbfinitions fall, -"means-
ends" and "existential - personal".
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Ends and Means
Curriculum ends are often defined in terms of intenucu learning outcomes (ILOs).
lntended learning outco~nesmay be expressed in terins of doals, aims and objectives.
When curriculum is defined this way, the form of its conteat may be behavioural, that
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Planning and Organizing is "to be able to do something"; expressive, that is "to have rich but undefined potential"
Curriculum
or substantive, that is "to know this or that".

The definition of curriculum in terms of intended learning outcomes implies that the
subject matter be chosen to reflect those outcomes. Subject matter as a means to
achieve curricular ends may be defined as planned experiences for learners; the
knowledge needed to achieve the ILOs; or the beliefs, understandings and habits
required.

Alternatively, curriculum may be defined as the means to achieving ends. It is necessary,

therefore, to read curriculum research and curriculum policy documents carefblly
since curriculum content for some is the means to achieve certain ends rather than the
achieved.

Those who define curriculum in terms of means may represent only a semantic issue.
That is, intended learning outcomes and means to achieve them may simply be switched
in the definition. However, conceptual issues may be at stake, for example, when
content is taken as given and the outsomes are seen as expressions of, rather than
pre-determiners of, the means. Consider, for example, a means defined biology
curticulum where the outcomes of studying biology are expressions of its learning. In
this case, the ends issue becomes a matter of outcomes and achievement rather than
one of intention. Overall, this shifts the discussion ofcurriculum and its content from
one of planning to that of evaluation. Planning issues are central to the notion of
curriculum defined in terms of intended learning outcomes while evaluation issues are
central to the notion of curriculum defined as means. In this context, the eQaluation
assumes more importance and the curriculum becomes a means to prepare for 1
evaluation, rather than evaluaion being an integral part of the curriculum. Weean take
the example of languages, where the curriculum content in the text is actually a meahs
to attain proficiency in the language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. !
Existential-Personal

Here, the dimension of curriculum varies depending on whether the emphasis is on the
things studied or on the student studying. When curriculum is defined existentially, it
will refer to textbooks and materials of instruction and to their content such as concepts,
theories, and facts. This kind of definition highlights the issue of teaching methodology
and instruction since the problem of the students' interaction with the content is the
main instructional concern.

Curriculum may, instead, refer to the students' experience rather than to the things in
the students' instructional environment. This kind of definitional emphasis raises the
issue of "meaning". The curricular content becomes the meaning that the instructional
situation has for the student. For example, if the Quantum theory were part of the
curriculum for a 6-year-old, an existential definition would simply label this theory as
the curriculum content. Extraordinary instructional methods would, of course, be a

developed for the 6-year-old's interaction with the theory. For personal experiential
definition of curriculum, the Quantum theory would not be considered to be the content
since this could have little meaning for the student. Rather, whatever the student
made out of his or her instructional interaction with the Quantum theory, that is, whatever
the meaning Quantum theory had for the student, would be defined as the curriculum
content.

This dimension has consequences for policy making and research. According to the
existential definition of curriculum, content is defined and outlined according to
knowledge categories, whereas, when curriculum is defined in personal terms, it is
necessary to understand the student's level of experience and to study in detail the
curriculum's meaning for the student.
 -
Curr$ulum Concept,
Check Your Progress 1 Planning and Organization

Note: Write your answers in the space given below.

1. What is the root meaning of the word "curriculum"?
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. Comment on the definition of curriculum as given by W. Rennet
Richamond.
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...............................................................................................................
3. What are the four facets of curriculum accor ing to A Dictionary of
Education by P.J. Hills?
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................................................................................................................
............................................................ ....................
................................
- 4. What &e the various dimensions of curriculum'/' Differentiate between
them. I
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1.3.2 Components of Curriculum 1

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A curriculum is not merely plain simple content or subje t matter. In its broadest
sense, widely agreed upon, it consists of at least five dimen Ions or components:
A framework of assumptions about the learner and sobiety
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) Purposes (Aims and objectives)
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Learning Experiences (Content or subject matter its selection, scope and
sequence)

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(
Organization (Modes of transaction, e.g. methodology d learning environments)
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Evaluation,
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Each of these components gives form and substance to s llabi, teachers' guides,
textbooks, workbooks and supplementary materials. Thes documents exemplify
instrumentalities that embody the curriculum component . The components are
interdependent in a manner analogous to the systems (muscula ,respiratory, circulatory,
etc.) ofthe human body. Any alteration in one system (compo ent) affects the structure
and functioning of the others. They all must be well coordin ted for the organism to
live and develop; yet, they may be separated for purposes o description, study and
research. When separated for study, curriculum components also serve a productive
analytic function.
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Planning and Organizing The curriculum works at several levels like:
Curriculum
a The intended curriculum as formally stated by the timetable, in syllabuses and
schemes of studies, in aims, or as it exists in general but unstated intentions of
teachers;
a The actual curriculum as experienced by pupils when they are involved in learning
activities;
a The hidden curriculum where pupils experience and 'learn' through such activities
as lining up to enter school, wearing school uniform, standing up when a teacher
enters the classroom, or indulging in informal interaction at break and lunch times;
a The outcome of learning in terms of the understandings, attitudes, etc. that pupils
develop.
Activity
~ n a l i z the
e curriculum of your school at the elementary stage. Spell out the following
briefly:

i) A framework of assumptions about the learner and society.

ii) Aims and objectives in the context bf the school's philosophy.

iii) Learning Experiences.
iv) Organization.
v) Evaluation.

vi) Also bring out separately the intended curriculum, the actual curriculum and the
hidden curriculum in the context of i) to v) above.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: Write your answers in the space given below.
1. List the five dimensions of curriculum.
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................
2. Mention at least three levels at which the curriculum works.
................................................................................................................
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1.3.3 Curriculum Development

The development of curriculum will, obviously, involve decision-making about all the
five components enumerated above. The first step will be to develop a framework
based on the curriculuin framers' understanding of the learner in the context of society.
This framework will have todepend heavily on the knowledge and understandingthat
emerges from the study of the Foundations of Education. The subject areas that
contribute most to the foundations of education are Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology,
History and Economics. Therefore, the curriculum framework shall have a discussion '

of the knowledge derived from these disciplines.

 Once the basic framework has been developed, the aims and objectives will have to Curriculum - Concept,
Planning and Organization
be determined. These will, of course be based on the framebork. They will also take
into consideration the needs and aspirations of the as well as of the nation.
Every nation and community has its respective and so notions
about what education should lead to - what
evolved through the education being provided.
1 Once the goals and objectives have been
I other learning experiences that will help
laid down. Thus, if one goal is to

I environmental studies will find an

When the content has been finalized, there is a need to find the modes oftransaction
I in order to provide meaningful learning experiences to the for actual fulfillment
of the prescribed goals and objectives.
t

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The last but not the least is evaluation. This is equally rtant, as it is this that will
give us a feedback on how successful the curriculum has been. Evaluation
can be both formative as well as summative. The curriculum should include the scheme
of evaluation. '
Who all should be involved in the process of curriculjm development? All the

d
stakeholders, namely community, including parents, teacher as well as students should
be actively involved in this process. The Government,Gove ent Agencies, educational

4
administrators, educational thinkers, etc., are in any case involved. Of course, who
should be and who should not be involved, is a matter of ebate. A strong opinion is
that only professionals should be involved and not But professionals
will do a good job only if they are competent as

4
The dynamics of the curriculum development process a e similar in most nations,
regardless ofwhether curriculum planning is the legal responsibility of local, regional
or national governments. Curriculum decision-making is inuhdated with social, political
and human factors. These stem from both formally corjstituted bodies with legal
obligations for curriculum development as well as from cbmmunity based informal,
often loosely structured, interest groups who claim the right and authority to participate
in curriculum development by virtue of their representalive voices and powers of
,, persuasion. As the educational enterprise becomes mdre complex, the need for
cooperation and collaboration among different constituencies and professionals within

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a society, as well as among societies, is essential. It i evident that curriculum
development is indeed a dynamic process of political, soci 1 and personal negotiations
that must occur in a cooperative and collaborative mann r if it is to produce viable

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education plans.

I 1.3.4 Curriculum, Syllabus and Course

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t)
We have learnt what the curriculum means in its br adest sense and what its
components are. Two other related terms are generally c nfused with, or even used
synonymously with, curriculum. These are syllabus and cpurse. Teachers are mainly
concerned with the syllabus andlor course. The syllabus iis a detailed description of
the content and subject matter. Syllabus is what teachets teach in classrooms and
students study for the examinations, which are the most common tool of evaluation
I used in our schools.
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While terminology for curriculum areas is not standardi ed or even consistent, the
term "subject" is widespread and central. Subjects are oft n classified under "fields"
and are usually first subdivided into "courses". 'The 'course" is a fundamental
instructidnal category because it represents the level at which "credit" for acceptable
achievement is con~monlyawarded, recorded and rep0 ed. It is usually associated
wit11 a specified period of time, during which instruction 1 occur and some acceptable
amount of learning is expected to be demonstrated.
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Planning and Organizing Courses are usually subdivided either into substantively logical "topics" and "subtopics"
Curriculum
or into somewhat larger and substantive diverse ccinstructionalunits" which reflect
application contexts or are believed to offer certain pedagogical advantages. Topics
usually comprise a number of "lessons," each occupying an instructionalperiod, whereas
units may be divided into various learning activities or experiences requiring about one
class period for completion.

Every course and sub-component has associated with it certain curricular content,
representing whatever is intended to be learned within it. This content may derive
from a single "subject" or from more than one subject withina "field" (hsion) or even
from more than one field (unified studies).

The syllabus is undoubtedly one of the oldest teaching tools in formal education. It is
the vehicle by which the organization and structure of intended learnings are
communicated from teacher to teacher and teacher to learner. As frameworks, syllabi
are by definition the organizing documents in areas of instruction. Under some systems
of instructionthey become highly formalized, authority-orientedinstruments that control
the amount of decision making that teacher and learner take. In other systems they
are more informal documents operating only as a general guide.

Syllabi take many forms and shapes and are of varying lengths. They may be simple
one-page coJrse descriptions; they may describe a course that runs for a given period
of time, such as one semester or one year; they may be lengthy documents covering
the full range and organizatioilof subject matter and suggested ways of implementing
it in classroomsover several years such as syllabi on a science or mathematics program
in grades kindergarten through to eighth grade. Despite the apparent difference in the
documents that could range from one page to 300 pages, they do have a common
concern and that is transmission of knowledge on how to formulate and organize an
iilstructional area. In some countries the organization and issuing of syllabi are invested
in a central authority. In other decentralized systems of education the building of
syllabi and their use is left almost exclusively to the teacher who is directly concerned
with the transmitting of subject matter in the classroom. Between these two extremes
there are a number of positions on how to develop syllabi, for they are frequently the
chief products of curriculum development activity in instructional departments of a
school or school system. Generally, committees of professionals - teachers and
specialists - cooperatively finalize or decide what is to be taught, i.e., the syllabus.

As organizers of irstruction, syllabi have a long tradition in formal education. In a

sense, textbooks were an outgrowtl~of and an attempt to organize the instructional
area conceptually so that many teachers could transmit it in a more efficient, consistent
manner. Syllabi gave educational authorities some confidence that there was a body
of knowledge being consistently transmitted to a number of learners by different
teachers. Control of syllabi has been seen as a way of controlling curriculum, and
attempts to shape curriculum rely heavily upon syllabi as the vehicles. Most syllabi
come in written form: course outlines, units of work, guides, lists of materials to be
taught or used as aid, suggested or prescribed methodology for the teacher. A new
development is the electronic storage and production of subject matter whereby control
of subject matter and the way students can interact with it are largely within the
programmed computer, whereupon the traditional role of the syllabus is as a code
book to the computer program. The building of syllabi constitutes, in most educational
systems, the major curriculum development efforts. There are different philosophical
positions on how best to develop a syllabus in order to guarantee its implementation in
the educational system and this is the subject of curriculum development literature.
The common framework of a syllabus includes the provisioning of curriculum constructs.

Not all the curriculum components are included in every syllabus but there are implicit
assumptions as decisions are made on the way subject matter and learning activities
are organized in a unit of instruction. The first step in organization ofthe syllabus is to
establish a rationale Curriculum - Concept,
c~~rrici~lum Planning and Organization
matter should be taught. Usually
will live or the learners need for
are quite crucial because they
co~istructswithin the
the learner which reconcile and
eminence of one or the other in the
the rationale is explicated,the other constructs of aims organization of
specific sub-jectmatter (scope and sequence), modes
instri~ction),and evaluation are usually provisioned
can be developed for learners as well as for teachers. Generally, it is the same for the
two, but it is desirable to prepare a separate one for each. The syllabi meant for the
teachers should include hints for appropriate teaching aids as well as methodology, i.e.
how the curriculum is to be transacted in the classroom fbr optimal effectiieness in
learning.

Activity
Ask the teachers to analyze and evaluate the syllabus of their respective subjects.
Ask them to make out a report keeping in mind the followihg points:

i) Does the syllabus refer to or make use of the local knowledge and resources,
e.g, the local history and geography?

ii) Is the language used in the textbook communicativk, appropriate for.the age
group and learner friendly?

iii) Can the text be extended to bring in the local knowleidge and resources?
Also, ask them to include, in the report, suggestionslabout ways and means to
make the syllabus more interesting, relevant and leaqer-friendly.
Check Your Progress 3 1
Note: Write your answers in the space given below.
1. Explain what is meant by i) Course and ii) Syllabus. Differentiate one
I
from the other as well as with curriculum.

2. Comment on the definition of curriculum a s given by W: Rennet

Richamond.

1.4 CURRICULUM PLANNING AND

ORGANIZATION
Both Government as well as Non-Government OrganizationsWGOs) play an important

1
role in curriculum planning & organization. There is an ap x government body that
designs the curriculu~n.For instance, in India, the Nationa Council of Educational
Research & Training (NCERT) does this work; at the Stbte level, there are State
Planning and Organizing Councils of Educational Research &Training (SCERTs). Then there are the Education
Curriculum Boards, which decide what curriculum is to be studied by the pupils. The Boards are
the examining bodies and so the ultimate authorities for determining the curriculum. In
most countries, there areNGOs working in the field ofeducation. Since the community
is a major stakeholder in education, its role also becomes significant. International
organizations like the UNESCO also play a significant role in educational as well as
curriculum reform.
'1.4.1 Principles of Curriculum Planning
Curriculum planning is one ofthe most important aspects of school education which a
school head should give due attention to. This is because the curriculum is meant to
retlect the pattern of life - a "carefully selected pattern". According to Dewey, " It is
not a mere scheme of studies or a list of studies or a list of subjects but an entire range
of activities and experiences - balanced, simplified and purified." It is very essential
that the curriculum should be based on sound principles. Some principles that should
be kept in mind while planning and organizing the curriculum are as follows:
Bnlnnce between trarfition andmodernity: Education has at least two functions
to fulfill. On the one hand, education is meant to transmit and propagate the
traditional culture and values, while on the other hand education should aim at
change towards modernity and progress. Agood curriculum has to keep a balance
between these two.
Flexible and creative: A good curriculum should be flexible and lead to the
development of creativity among pupils. The school head can guide and mothate
teachers to make it interesting and student friendly.
Learner-centred and activity oriented: Curriculum has to cater to the needs
and aspirations of the learners and so learner-centred. For this it is important that
it is activity-oriented and ensures total participation on the part of the learner.
Age & stage specific: The curriculum has to keep in mind the age ofthe learners
and the stage of development they are in.
lndividunl d$ferences: Psychology tel Is us that every individual is different. A
good curriculum has to cater to these differences.
Relevant and life-oriented: The curriculurn should be relevant and so life-
oriented. It should help the learner to get an insight into life and live it meaningfully
and fully.
Wlzolesontenessand comprehensiveness: The school curriculum is aimed at
the all round balanced development of personality. Obviously, it will have to be
comprehensive and wholesome in order to help the learners to understand the
world and their environment in totality. All aspects of our reality should be taken
care of. The curriculum should be able to take care of the pupils' physical, mental
(intellectual &L emotional) and spiritual development.
Value-orientation& character building: In the present day world of conflicts
and tensions at all levels, there is a dire need for value-development of our future
generations. The school curriculurn should take care of cultural, social and moral
values. The curriculum should be such that it inculcates values and develops
humane persons who love humanity. I

Fourpillnrs: The Report of the UNESCO Commission on Education in the 21 st

century (popularly called Delor's Commission after the name of the French
Chairperson of the Commission) - Tlze Treasure Witlzin - mentions four pillars
of education - Learning to Know, Learning to Do, Learning to Live Together,
Learning to Be. These pillars should be kept in mind while planning the curriculum.
Nationalgonls: Every nation has its cherished goals and ideals. These need to
be reflected in the curriculum, which should lead the learner to a love for hislher
coui~try,even a sense of pride in it.
 I
Judicious mix of centralized and localized ele ents: Since national goals -
Curriculum Concept,
Planning and Organization
have to be taken care of, there has to be some kind of centralization in the
process of curriculum development. However, ide Ily, the curriculum should be
able to make use of the local knowledge, skills as well as values and these, too,
need to be reflected in the curriculum. Therefore, t ere should be a judicious mix
and flexibility, wherein, some degree of freedom s ould be left with the teachers,
students and the local community to make some decisions about the curriculum,
particularly in the early stages.
Incorporating the latest developments in various fields of knowledge: The
curriculum has to keep pace with the ongoing kndwledge explosion in all fields
and areas. This requires constant updating-adding1new knowledge and discarding
the deadwood in the existing content. This has alsb led to the development of the
concept of Frontline Curriculum.
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I Joyful learning and curriculum load: Globally, t is now believed that learning
should not be a burden to the learner, but it should be joyful. A good curriculum
needs to be designed with this idea in mind.
Learner-centred approaclz: The curriculum should be more learner-centred
than teacher-centred or even subject-centred. I/t has to include subjects and
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their content, yet it should be kept in mind that tNe learner is the most important
and hislher needs, interests and abilities are imp/srtant for the curriculum to be
effective. 1
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Continuous, perioclical change/modzjkation/r vision: The curriculum needs
to be revised constantly, keeping in mind the fast hanging scenario ofthe global,
national, local and social milieu, the accelerated gdvancement in knowledge and
!
the learner.
Activity
Conduct a workshop of the teachers of your sclloOl to discuss the principles of
curriculum planning given in 1.3.1 and evaluate the I arning experiences provided to
the pupi,ls in the school in this context. Li
Check Your Progress 4

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Report? Explain briefly what they mean.

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Planning and Organizing 1.4.2 Goals and Objectives
Curriculum

As you have learnt, goals and objectives are an integral part of the curriculum; they
are rather tkbeginning ofthe curriculum. They are derived from the aims of education.
The content in the curriculum is based on these goals and objectives. Objectives are
general as well as specific. The general objectives are the long-term aims that are
meant to be attained through the curriculum. The specific objectives are the goals
resolved to be fulfilled through a particular course.

Every subject has its own set of unique objectives. For instance, languages are taught
for developing proficiency in communication through the four skills of listening speaking,
reading and writing; Mathematics aims at developing the logical ability; while the
natural or physical sciences are based on the ability to make observations,
experimentation and drawing inferences of generalization; social studies aims at
developing good human beings and citizens. It is important to understand in the context
of school education that the subjects are artificial divisions made for convenience.
They are various aspects of our reality, and true education should aim at developing a
holistic wprldview to understand life.

Goals and objectives may be seen in various ways: Stage-wise (Elementary, Secondary,
University); Class-wise; Subject-wise. The current trend is to determine instructional
objectives in behavioral terms. Behavioral terms imply that the objective can be
einpirically tested, verified or measured. This idea led to the idea of Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Taxonomy means classification like the taxonomy in biological
sciences where plants and animals are classified into species, etc. for better
understanding. Bloom 's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is widely used.
Taxonomies have been developed for three domains - Cognitive (thinking), Affective
(feeling) and Psychomotor (doing).

The objectives under the three domains are:

Cognitive : Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, synthesis, and

Evaluation.

Affective : Receiving, Responding, Valuing, Organizing, Characterizing.

Psychomotor : Imitation, Manipulation, Precision, Articulation, and Naturalization.

Some behavioral terms commonly used under the cognitive domain

are given below:

Knowledge : Recall, Recognize, List, Define, State.

Comprehension/Understanding:IdentifL, Illustrate, Explain, Contrast,

Classify,And Discriminate.

Application : Generalize, Predict, Demonstrate, Construct, And Compute.

Analysis : Analyze, Resolve, Break down, Critically examine.

Synthesis : Combine, Summarize, Discuss, Organize, Derive, Relate.

Evaluation : Evaluate; Determine.

Behavioral terms have their limitations. Huinan behaviour and learning is best seen as
holistic. When we try to break it up into parts, there is bound to be a limitation. Therefore,
we must understand that behavioral terms cannot be comprehensive. We must give
due regard to those aspects of learning that are not measurable but are equally important,
may be even more important. Also, the three domains are interrelated, being different
18
aspects of personality.
 Curtjculum - Concept,
Check Your Progress 5 Planning and Organization

Note: Write your answers in the space given below.

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I. Mention the three domains for which ~ l o o b ' sTaxonomy has been
developed. I
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..........................................................................II. ......................................
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2. What are the behavioural objectives under the dognitive Domain?
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1.5 ROLE OF SCHOOL HEAD INJCURRICU~LUM

PLANNINGAND ORGANIZATION
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The importance of the curriculum in the school cannot beloverstated. In the school,
the Head Teacher has the respo~isibilityto ensure the most enqiched learning experiences
for the pupils. The Head Teacher has to plan, organize and implement the curriculum
in the school.
There are many variations to the school-based curriculu~decision-making. At the
narrow end of this spectrum, it may merely comprise thd products of curriculum
development as a set of documents or syllabi, which outlind the decisions reached by
the principal (Head Teacher) and a few others (if any) At the broad end of the
spectrum, it is a continual dynamic set of decision-making processes about the
development, implementation and evaluation of the whole cbrriculum and all related
matters, involving members of the school community (incldding principal, teachers,
parefits and students) desiring to participate in decisions abqut their own school.
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The school-based curriculum decision-makingcontrasts with d e concept of the centrally

devised and prescribed curriculum, in which the school is a h e r e implel;enter. Even
with the centralized curriculum, however, the teacher's opqational curriculum and
the learner's experienced curriculum emerge substantially idfluenced by the internal
factors and thus active participation on the part ofthe teachetsland principal. Similarly,
school-based curriculum decision making may involve decisions to select, adopt or
adapt externally devised ideas, resources, and materials devaloped at regional, state,
or national levels and/or to create new ideas or resources.
Most ofthe time, the schools are not free to design their own $urriculum. The School
Head is bound by several constraints. Principal among these oonstrai~itsare the rules
& regulations under which the school has to function as well as the conditions of
recognition, affiliation and accreditation laid down by concerned (Education/Examination
Board or Council that the school has to fulfill and maintain. $e School Head, as the

a
leader, has to guide and supervise the teachers working under himlher in order to
select the best curriculu~namong the available alternatives, i any, or to transact the
given curriculum in such amanner that optimum learning takes lace and the objectives
of the curriculu~nas well as those of the school are f~~lfilled. This has to be done
keeping in mind their ow11limitations as well as resources aq also the needs of the
school and students. For example, while selecting textbooks various classes, wise
discretion has to be exercised for the best selection. should
be foremost while the selection is being done. 19
Planning and Organizing Evidently, in any situation, the teachers and School Head have to be actively involved
Curriculum
in the process in order to bring quality into it. The School Head or the Principal has to
be an effective leader in this context. The quality of the learning experiences of the
pupils will greatly depend on hisker guidance and leadership. In order to be effective,
he/she will have to have a deep understanding of the process of education and its
relation to the curriculum. Also, the commitment to the school, to the students and to
the cause of education.

1.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have learnt the meaning of curriculum and its various definitions. We
have seen that in the broadest sense, curriculum is all inclusive with all the learning
experiences provided to the pupils in the school. It includes the goals and objectives,
the content, the methodology as well as the evaluation devices. We went ahead to
understand the factors that need to be kept in mind while planning and developing the
curriculum. A good curriculum should take care of the holistic, all round balanced
development of the pupils - physical, mental and spiritual. The four pillars mentioned
in the UNESCO Report, "Educationfor the 21st Century: Learning. The Treasure
Within " - Learning to Know, Learning to Do, Learning to Live Together, Learning to
Be - should guide the curriculum. We learnt about instructional objectives and the
behavioral terms used for comprehending them. Finally, we learnt the role of the Head
Teacher in this process. The School Head has to be an effective leader and guide in
order to bring quality in the curriculum.

1.7 UNIT-END EXERCISES

I. Which definition of curriculum appeals to you the most? Give reasons.
2. Elaborate on the Means-Ends & Existential-Personal dimensions of the
definitions of curriculum.
3. Explain the various levels at which the curriculum works.
4. List and explain the principles that should be kept in mind while planning and
organizing the curriculum.
5. Discuss instructional objectives.
6. Write an essay on how you will plan, organize and implement the curriculum in
your school as the Head Teacher in order to provide quality education to the
pupils.

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bloom, R .S. (ed.) (1 956): Tmonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classif~cation
of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. McKay, New York.
Brubacher, J.S. (1947): A History of the Problems of Education. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
Harrow, A.J. (1973): Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain: A Guide for
Developing Behavioural Objectives. McKay, New York.
Krthwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. Masia, B. (1964): Taxonomy of Education Objectives:
The Class~~cation of Educational Goals, Handbook 2: Affective Domain. McKay,
New York.
Phenix, P.H. (1964): Realms of Meaning: A Philosophy of the Curriculum for
General Education. McGraw-Hill, New York.