1.

Classification of Loan words наступне питання- продовження по новому

Borrowed words (or loan words or borrowings) are words taken over from another
language and modified according to the patterns of the receiving language. When
analysing borrowed words one must distinguish between the two terms - "source of
borrowing" and "origin of borrowing". The first term is applied to the language from
which the word was immediately borrowed, the second - to the language to which the
word may be ultimately traced e.g. table - source of borrowing - French, origin of
borrowing - Latin
They penetrate into English through conquests, trade, literature, traveling…No language
is so complex as English, none is so varied as to its vocabulary. About 70% of English
vocabulary consists of borrowings.
French borrowings – 25%
Latin – 6.1%
Greek – 6%
Italian – 6.3%
Spanish – 8%
German – 5.5%
Reasons for borrowings: close contacts in multilingual situation; the domination of
some languages(cultural, political, religious); a sense of need(education/technology);
prestige connected with using words of other languages; to fill the gap in the vocabulary.
Latin: Latin Loans are classified into the subgroups.
1.Early Latin Loans. Those are the words which came into English through the
language of Anglo-Saxon tribes. The tribes had been in contact with Roman civilisation
and had adopted several Latin words denoting objects belonging to that civilisation long
before the invasion of Angles, Saxons and Jutes into Britain (cup, kitchen, port, wine).
2.Later Latin Borrowings. To this group belong the words which penetrated the English
vocabulary in the sixth and seventh centuries, when the people of England were converted
to Christianity (priest, bishop, nun, candle).
3.The third period of Latin includes words which came into English due to two
historical events: the Norman conquest in 1066 and the Renaissance or the Revival of
Learning. Some words came into English through French but some were taken directly
from Latin (major, minor, intelligent, permanent).
4.The Latest Stratum of Latin Words. The words of this period are mainly abstract and
scientific words (nylon, molecular, vaccine, phenomenon, vacuum).
Greek words penetrated mostly through Latin. These are bookish and scientifical terms:
analysis, gymnastics, scheme, lexicology, crisis, idiom, phenomenon…
French became spoken by upper classes in England after the Norman Conquest 1066.
Law terms: court, judge, session, crime, prison, arrest…
Administrative terms: state, government, parliament, cabinet, minister, power,
counsel… Education: science, library, lesson, pupil, pen, pencil…
Military terms: war, battle, army, officer, admiral, soldier, navy, enemy, troops, banner.
Also marriage, beauty, city, face, fruit, case…
German words: metals( cobalt, zink, nickel), kindergarten, rucksack, to stroll, poker.
Italian: ghetto, manifesto, pizza, broccoli zucchini, spaghetti, ravioli, pasta, confetti.
Spanish: potato, tomato, hurricane, tornado, sombrero, hammock.
Russian: tsar, kvass, taiga, vodka, izba, samovar, sputnik.
Arabian: algebra, alcohol, zero.
Chinese: tea, tongs, china, ketchup…
 1. The native word-stock
The elements of the vocabulary are native and borrowed. The term “native” is used to
denote words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes.
These native words are still in the core of the English language. Native word-stock
constitutes 25-30% of English vocabulary.

Native words are subdivided by diachronic linguists into those of Indo- European word
stock and those of common Germanic origin.

The following groups of Indo-European word stock can be indentified:

- Family relation terms (father, mother, daughter…)
- Animals, birds, fish, insects (cow, goose, bee…)
-Parts of the human body (foot, nose, knee)
-Plants (tree, willow, grass…)
-Heavenly bodies and names of natural phenomena (the sun, wind, rain…)
- Adjectives denoting qualities and properties (young, glad, sad…)
-The numerals from 1-100(except 2)
- Pronouns- personal(except they) and demonstrative
-names of things of everyday life (yard, box…)

The Germanic element represents words or roots common to all German languages
(English- star German-Stern Latin- stella )
(English- stand German-stehen Latin- staren )
The words of the Common Germanic stock, i.e. words having cognates in German,
Norwegian, Dutch and other Germanic languages are more numerous. This part of the
native vocabulary contains a great number of semantic groups. Examples:
the nouns are: summer, winter, storm, ice, rain, group, bridge, 
house, shop, room, iron, lead, cloth, hat, shirt, shoe, care, 
evil, hope, life, need, rest;
the verbs are: bake, burn, buy, drive hear, keep, learn, make, meet, 
rise, see, send, shoot, etc;
the adjectives are: broad, dead, deaf, deep.
 2. Derivation. The structure of word. Suffixes. Productivity of suffixes,
Morpheme may be defined as the smallest meaningful unit which has a sound form and
occurs in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word
may consist of a single morpheme. According to the role they play in constructing words,
morphemes are subdivided into roots and affixes ( prefixes, suffixes and infixes), and
according to their function and meaning, into derivational and functional affixes, the latter
are called endings.
The root morpheme is the lexical center of the word with which no grammatical
properties of the word are connected. Stem is that part of a word which remains unchanged
throughout its paradigm and to which grammatical inflexions and affixes are added. It
expresses the lexical and part of speech meaning.
Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a
derivational morpheme (usually suffix or prefix) to the root.
Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a suffix
to the root.
Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a new word is formed by adding a prefix
to the root.
Productivity of suffixes:
a) productive: -er dancer, -ize specialize, -ly wetly, -ness closeness;
b) semi-productive: -ette kitchenette, -ward sky-ward;
c) non-productive: -ard drunkard, -th length.
Noun-forming suffixes
-age (passage, marriage,); -ance/-ence (assistance,correspondence);-dom (freedom,
kingdom…)
-ee (employee, referee); -eer/er (teacher, worker, dancer manager…); -ess (actress)
-ist (economist, scientist) -hood (adulthood, childhood) -ing (building, meaning)
-ion (production)-ism (criticism) -ment (agreement, employment)
-ness (happiness, kindness) -ship (ownership, friendship) -ty/-ity (productivity,
prosperity…)
Adjective-forming suffixes
-able/-ible(probable,miserable)-al(economical,seasonal)-ant/-ent(pleasant,dependent)
-ate/-ete(separate,complete)-ful(careful,powerful,beautiful)-ish(childish,reddish)
-ive(effective,extensive)-less(effortless,powerless)-like(businesslike,lifelike)
-ly(costly,manly)-ous/-ious(obvious,nervous)-some(quarrelsome,tiresome)
-y (dreamy, worthy)
Verb-forming suffixes
-en(brighten,moisten)-ify/-fy(intensify,qualify)-ize/-ise (rationalize, advertise, stabilize)
Adverb forming suffixes
-ly(frequently,perfectly)
-ward/-wards (windward, backward, homewards)
-wise (vote-wise, percentage-wise)

НАСТУПНЕ ПИТАННЯ ЦЕ ПРОДОВЖЕННЯ ЦЬОГО по новый методичцы

 2. Derivation. The structure of words. Prefixes. The origin of prefixes.
Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root; therefore the simple word and its
prefixed derivative usually belong to the same part of speech. The group of class-changing
prefixes is rather small, e.g.:
be- (belittle, befriend), de- (defrost, descale).
Negative prefixes give negative, reverse or opposite meaning
a-(apolitical,asexual)de-(destabilise,declassify)dis-(disenfranchise,disinvest)
il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m: imperceptible)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir-(before r:
irresponsible)non-(non-economic,non-profit)un- (unacceptable, undemocratic)
Non-negative prefixes
Degree, measures or size:
hyper-(hypercreative,hyperdevoted); over- (overestimate, overcompensate); semi-
(semiskilled, semi-annual); super- (super-dominant, supercharged); ultra- (ultra-
conservative)
Repetition or possibility: em-(before p,b,m)/en- (embark, enclose)
Time, place, order relation: ex- (ex-employer, ex-tenant); inter- (inter-office, inter-
government); post- (post-budget, post-election); pre- (pre-delivery, pre-budget)
Number and numeral relation: bi- (bilateral, bilingual); multi- (multi-dimensional,
multi-media); uni- (unilateral)
Attitude, counteraction: anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment); auto- (autodial,
autonomy); counter- (countercharge, counteroffer); pro- (pro-business, pro-liberal)
-Pejoration: mis- (miscalculation, mismanage); pseudo- (pseudo-creativity, pseudo-
democratic)
Etymologically prefixes can be native (mis, out, under, over, be, with) and borrowed
( in, de, re, dis, bi, ex, en, anti, pro, pre, post).
 3.Composition. Types of composition. The criteria of compounds.
Word-composition is a productive type of word-building, in which new words are
produced by combining two or more stems. E.g.: campsite, bluebird, whitewash, in-laws,
jumpsuit.
Types of composition:
-------Neutral -------Morphological -------Syntactic
Neutral compounds- two stems are joined together without any connecting elements:
scarecrow, goldfish, crybaby (плакса).
Subtypes of neutral compounds:
--simple neutral compounds - consist of simple affixless stems: sunflower, bedroom,
blackbird
--derivational, or derived compounds - have affixes in their structure: long-legged,
broad-minded, globe-trotter
--contracted compounds - have a shortened stem in their structure (усеченный корень):
H-bag (handbag), TV-set (television set), A-bomb (atomic bomb), V-day (victory day).
Morphological compounds - components are joined by a linking element (‘o’, ‘i’, ‘s’):
Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive videophone,
microchip; tragicomic, handicraft; craftsman.
Syntactic compounds are formed by the whole fragments of speech: man-of-war
(военный корабль), forget-me-not, mother-in-law.
There are syntactic compounds whose members stay in the same grammatical relations
as words in a phrase, having articles, particles, prepositions, adverbs, as in the nouns lily-
of-the-valley, Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law etc.
Semantically: non idiomatic compounds – a sum of its constituents (townspeople, a
milktooth, a handbag, halfpenny); idiomatic:
1. one of its components has changed its meaning(a chatterbox, football, blackboard,
ladykiller, secondhand)
2. completely idiomatic, when we cannot deduce the meaning of the whole compound
from its parts (a tollboy, a wall-flower, a horse-mary - a person not suit for his job).
Types of compounds according to their meaning
----Non-idiomatic - compounds whose meanings can be described as the sum of the
meanings of their components: classroom, bedroom, homeland, evening-gown.
----Idiomatic - the meaning of the compounds cannot be described as a mere sum of its
components: blackboard, football, lady-killer; ladybird, tallboy (тумбочка), bluestocking.
The phonetic criterion for compounds may be treated as that of a single stress( on the
st
1 element). The criterion is convincingly applicable to many compound nouns, yet does
not work with compound adjectives that have double stress.
Graphic criterion: spelling in English compounds is not very reliable because they
can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt
through a hyphen and also with a break, insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a
break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of
compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are
spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, penguin suit etc.
English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning.
They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes
grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the
sentence and only the second component changes grammatically.
 4. Figures of speech. Metaphor. Types of similarity.
In literature and writing, a figure of speech is the use of any of a variety of techniques to
give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling.
Sometimes a word diverges from its normal meaning, or a phrase has a specialized
meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Examples are metaphor,
simile, or personification.
Stylistic devices often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity.
Here is a list of some of the most important figures of speech:
----allusion: Indirect reference to another work of literature or art
----аnalogy A comparision
----humour: Provoking laughter and providing amusement
----hyperbole: Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis
----metaphor: Stating one entity is another for the purpose of comparing them in quality
----neologism: The use of a word or term that has recently been created, or has been in
use for a short time. Opposite of archaism
----onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meaning
----oxymoron: Using two terms together, that normally contradict each other
----simile: Comparison between two things using like or as (He fights like a lion).
Metaphor is the most common of the figures of speech. Metaphor
A metaphor and a simile are quite similar actually. A metaphor also uses compares to
things that are in no way similar. It does so to bring out the symbolism. A metaphor is a word
or phrase used to show its similarity to another thing. It helps to explain an idea, but if you
take a metaphor at its literal meaning it will sound absurd.
An example of a metaphor is “Alex is a chicken”. Literally, this sounds so very absurd.
But this is a metaphor which suggests that Alex is a coward, or frightened. It compares or
implies that Alex is a chicken to bring out the symbolism. Some other examples are ‘love is a
battlefield”, “all the world’s a stage”, “that technology is a dinosaur” etc.
While a simile and metaphor seem to be very similar, there is one basic difference
between the two. In a simile, the comparison happens with the help of the words “as” and
“like”. A metaphor will not have either of those two words.
Similarity is achieved through:
-shape (teeth of a saw, a nose of a ship, a tongue of a shoe)
-size (elephantine appetite, flood of words, sea of troubles, as hungry as a hunter)
-function (back of a chair, head of school, hand of a clock)
-color (a red book, a black list, an orange dress)
-character of movement (to move as a butterfly/ caterpillar/ snail)
-position (foot of the hill)
-duration in time/space (a long speech, a short distance, a short time)
-result (a film star, pop-star, king of animals, beauty queen)
 5. Metonymy. Types of association. The metonymic usage of words. Common and
different features between metaphor and metonymy.
Metonymy is the transference of word usage on the basis of contiguity. The transference
may be conditioned by different connections.
The types of association of contiguity /ˌkɒntɪˈɡjuːɪti/:
-in time (the 15th of April, the 7th of January)
-in place (Theatre Day, the House was full, the streets are singing)
-in function (a good ear, a sweet tooth, on foot)
- in space, denoting the material from which the things are made (a glass of milk, a few
coppers),
-agent/instrument (the greatest pens and minds, one’s handwriting),
-symbol ( the crown, the hope of the family).
The simplest way of metonymy is synecdoche – when the name of a part is applied to a
whole (singular stands for plural, name of material for the thing made): I like Kyiv. I’d
like to drink just a cup; to drop a line.
Common names may be derived from geographical or proper names: China(porcelain),
Champagne(wine), Bikini(swimsuit). Many physical and technical units are named after
scientists: Pascal, Om, Ampere, Newton, Walt; designers: She’s dressed in Versace;
jeans…
Both metaphor and metonymy are figures of speech used in analogy. A metaphor is
considered a substitution of one concept with another while a metonymy associates one
concept with another. Metaphors are expressions which show similarity between two
things and metonymies are figures of speech which refer to a thing not by name but by an
associated word. It is a relationship based on continuity. While a metaphor is a conceptual
view which presents ideas as objects, a metonymy presents a salient connection between
two concepts.
A metaphor is the expression of an understanding of one concept in terms of another
concept, where there is some similarity or correlation between the two. For example, we
use the phrase "a blanket of snow" to describe a snowfall that covers the ground evenly, as
if the snow were a fabric.
Metonymy is a figure of speech involving the substitution of a word or phrase with
another closely associated with it, as in "The Crown is against a hitching post in the
courtyard," when referring to a king or queen.
Because a logical (spatial, temporal, causal) connection already exists between the two
identified things, metonymy is usually not as surprising as metaphor (the surprise effect of
metaphors is the result of the distance between tenor and vehicle).  Because metonymy is
not based on similarity, thus, the ground of the identification is not a separate thing or
quality (as “brightness” or “having human lips”), we don’t speak of tenor, vehicle and
ground in the case of metonymies. Instead, the analysis of metonymy involves the
identification of the type of connection between the two things. 
 6. Synonyms. Groups of synonyms. Antonyms. Types of antonyms.
Synonyms are groups of words based on similarities of meaning and contrast of
phonemic shape. Synonyms are similar but not identical in meaning expressing the same
notion. They belong to 1 category of speech. Sometimes interchangeability is applied.
According to this synonyms are interchangeable at least at some context. All synonymic
groups have a central word-the dominant synonym (a piece-slice-bar-chank-lump-bit-
part). Its dominant synonym expresses notion common to all members of group in the
general way without additional information as to circumstances, durability, shape…It can
be characterized by high frequency of usage, polysemy, lack of connotation, broad
combinability.
The only existing classification system for synonyms was established by V. V.
Vinogradov, the famous Russian scholar. In his classification system there are three types
of synonyms:
ideographic(which he defined as words conveying the same concept but differing in
shades of meaning),
stylistic(differing in stylistic characteristics)
absolute(coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic
characteristics).
There are absolute and idiographic synonyms.
Total synonyms are those members of a synonymic group which can replace each other
in any given context, without the slightest alteration in denotative meaning or emotional
meaning and connotations.They are very rare. Examples can be found mostly in special
literature among technical terms and others (fatherland – motherland; noun — substantive;
functional affix -, inflection; scarlet fever – scarlatina.
Idiographic s. have different shades of meaning; they differ in absence or presence of
stylistic colouring. E.g. cry-shout-scream-yell-weil-shreak-roar.
Contextual or context-dependent synonyms are similar in meaning only under some
specific distributional conditions.It may happen that the difference between the meanings
of two words is contextually neutralized (buy and get would not generally be taken as
synonymous, but they arc synonyms in the following examples – I'll go to the shop and
buy some bread and I'll go to the shop and get some bread).)
Phraseological s. are stable expressions (to be in high spirits (neutral) – to be on high
ropes (colloquial);)
Territorially limited s. are used only in one of English speaking countries
(film=movie, truck=lorry, biscuit=cookie, rubber=eraser, football=soccer)
Antonyms  are regarded as words of opposite meaning, nearly identical in distribution.
Morphological classification of antonyms by V. N. Komissarov (Dictionary of
English Antonyms):
root antonyms (absolute antonyms) are antonyms having different roots, e.g. clean –
dirty; late – early; day – night;
derivational antonyms are antonyms having the same root but different affixes, e.g. to
fasten – to unfasten; flexible – inflexible; useful – useless.
Leonard Lipka is one of the linguists, who describes different types of oppositeness, and
subdivides them into three types:a) complementary, e.g. male - female, married - single,
b) antonyms, e.g. good - bad, c) conversives, e.g. to buy - to sell, above – below,
predecessor – successor, parent – child, teacher – student (they indicate such a relationship
that one of them cannot be used without suggesting the other).