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Barry R. Holstein
arXiv:gr-qc/0607045v1 11 Jul 2006
Department of Physics—LGRT
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA 01003
February 3, 2008
Abstract
The interactions of gravitons with matter are calculated in parallel
with the familiar photon case. It is shown that graviton scattering
amplitudes can be factorized into a product of familiar electromagnetic
forms, and cross sections for various reactions are straightforwardly
evaluated using helicity methods.
1
1 Introduction
The calculation of photon interactions with matter is a staple in an intro-
ductory (or advanced) quantum mechanics course. Indeed the evaluation of
the Compton scattering cross section is a standard exercise in relativistic
quantum mechanics, since gauge invariance together with the masslessness
of the photon allow the results to be presented in terms of simple analytic
forms[1].
On the surface, a similar analysis should be applicable to the interactions
of gravitons. Indeed, like photons, such particles are massless and subject to
a gauge invariance, so that similar analytic results for graviton cross sections
can be expected. Also, just as virtual photon exchange leads to a detailed
understanding of electromagnetic interactions between charged systems, a
careful treatment of virtual graviton exchange allows an understanding not
just of Newtonian gravity, but also of spin-dependent phenomena associated
with general relativity which are to be tested in the recently launched gravity
probe B[2]. However, despite this obvious parallel, examination of quantum
mechanics texts reveals that (with one exception[3]) the case of graviton
interactions is not discussed in any detail. There are at least three reasons
for this situation:
i) the graviton is a spin-two particle, as opposed to the spin-one photon,
so that the interaction forms are somewhat more complex, involving
symmetric and traceless second rank tensors rather than simple Lorentz
four-vectors;
ii) there exist few experimental results with which to compare the theo-
retical calculations;
iii) as we will see later in some processes, in order to guarantee gauge
invariance one must include, in addition to the usual Born and seagull
diagrams, the contribution from a graviton pole term, involving a triple-
graviton coupling. This vertex is a sixth rank tensor and contains a
multitude of kinematic forms.
However, recently, using powerful (string-based) techniques, which simplify
conventional quantum field theory calculations, it has recently been demon-
strated that the elastic scattering of gravitons from an elementary target of
arbitrary spin must factorize[4], a feature that had been noted ten years pre-
viously by Choi et al. based on gauge theory arguments[5]. This factorization
1
permits a relatively painless evaluation of the various graviton amplitudes.
Below we show how this factorization comes about and we evaluate some rel-
evant cross sections. Such calculations can be used as an interesting auxiliary
topic within an advanced quantum mechanics course
In the next section we review the simple electromagnetic case and develop
the corresponding gravitational formalism. In section 3 we give the factor-
ization results and calculate the relevant cross sections, and our results are
summarized in a concluding section 4. Two appendices contain some of the
formalism and calculational details.
L = ∂µ φ† ∂ µ φ + m2 φ† φ (1)
which becomes
2
(a) (b) (c)
becomes
L = ψ̄(i 6 ∇ − e A
6 − m)ψ (5)
whereby the interaction Lagrangian is found to be
L = −eψ̄ A
6 ψ (6)
The single-photon vertices are then
µ
< pf |Vem |pi >S=0 = e(pf + pi )µ (7)
for spin zero and
µ
< pf |Vem |pi >S= 1 = eū(pf )γ µ u(pi ) (8)
2
for spin 1/2—and the amplitudes for photon (Compton) scattering—cf. Fig-
ure 1—can be calculated. In the case of spin zero, three diagrams are
involved—two Born terms and a seagull—and the total amplitude is
2ǫi · pi ǫ∗f · pf ǫi · pf ǫ∗f · pi
2 ∗
AmpCompton (S = 0) = 2e − − ǫf · ǫi (9)
pi · k i pi · k f
Note that all three diagrams must be included in order to satisfy the
stricture of gauge invariance, which requires that the amplitude be unchanged
under a gauge change
ǫµ −→ ǫµ + λkµ
Indeed, we easily verify that under such a change for the incident photon
pi · ki ǫ∗f · pf
2 ki · pf ǫf · pi ∗
δAmpCompton (S = 0) = λ2e − − ki · ǫf
k i · pi pf · k i
= λ2e2 ǫ∗f · (pf − pi − ki ) = λ2e2 ǫ∗f · kf = 0 (10)
3
In the case of spin 1/2, there exists no seagull diagram and only the two
Born diagrams exist, yielding[7]
∗
6 ǫf (6 pi + 6 ki + m) 6 ǫi 6 ǫi (6 pf − 6 ki + m) 6 ǫ∗f
1 2
AmpCompton (S = ) = e ū(pf ) − u(pi )
2 2pi · ki 2pf · ki
(11)
Again, one can easily verify that this amplitude is gauge-invariant—
6 ǫf (6 pi + 6 ki + m) 6 ki 6 ki (6 pf − 6 ki + m) 6 ǫ∗f
∗
1 2
δAmpCompton (S = ) = λe ū(pf ) − u(pi )
2 2pi · ki 2pf · ki
= ū(pf ) 6 ǫ∗f − 6 ǫ∗f u(pi ) = 0
(12)
The corresponding cross sections can then be found via standard methods,
as shown in many texts[7]. The results are usually presented in the labora-
tory frame—pi = (m, ~0)—wherein the incident and final photon energies are
related by
ωi
ωf = (13)
1 + 2 m sin2 21 θ
ωi
dσlab (S = 0) α 2 ωf 1
= 2 ( )2 (1 + cos2 θ) (15)
dΩ m ωi 2
and
dσlab (S = 1/2) α ωf 2 ωf ωi
= 2
( )[ + − 1 + cos2 θ)]
dΩ 2m ωi ωi ωf
α2 ωf2 1 2 ωi 2 1 ωi2 1
= 2 2
[ (1 + cos θ)(1 + 2 sin θ) + 2 2
sin4 θ]
m ωi 2 m 2 m 2
(16)
4
2.1 Helicity Methods
For use in the gravitational case it is useful to derive these results in an
alternative fashion, using the so-called ”helicity formalism,” wherein one de-
composes the amplitude in terms of components of definite helicity[8]. Here
helicity is defined by the projection of the particle spin along its momentum
direction. In the case of a photon moving along the z-direction, we choose
states
λi
ǫλi i = − √ (x̂ + iλi ŷ), λi = ± (17)
2
while for a photon moving in the direction
we use states
λ λf
ǫf f = − √ (cos θx̂ + iλf ŷ − sin θẑ), λf = ± (18)
2
Working in the center of mass frame we can then calculate the amplitude for
transitions between states of definite helicity. Using
p
ǫ± ∗±
i · pf = −ǫf · pi = ∓ √ sin θ
2
1 1
ǫ∗± ±
f · ǫi = − (1 + cos θ), ǫ∗± ∓
f · ǫi = − (1 − cos θ)
2 2
we find for spin zero Compton scattering
p2 sin2 θ
2
A++ = A−− = −e 1 + cos θ +
pi · k f
p2 sin2 θ
2
A+− = A−+ = −e 1 − cos θ − (19)
pi · k f
While these results can be found by direct calculation, the process can be
simplified by realizing that under a parity transformation the momentum
reverses but the spin stays the same. Thus the helicity reverses, so parity
conservation assures the equality of Aa,b and A−a,−b while under time re-
versal both spin and momentum change sign, as do initial and final states,
guaranteeing that helicity amplitudes are symmetric—Aa,b = Ab,a .
5
Using the standard definitions
s − m2 = 2mωi , u − m2 = −2mωf
1 1
m4 − su = 4m2 ωi ωf cos2 θ, m2 t = −4m2 ωi ωf sin2 θ (23)
2 2
Since
2ωi2 (1 − cos θ) ωf2
dt d
= − = (24)
dΩ 2πd cos θ 1 + ωmi (1 − cos θ) π
the laboratory cross section is found to have the form
dσlab dσ(S = 0) dt α2 ωf2 1 1
(S = 0) = = 2 2 (cos4 θ + sin4 θ) (25)
dΩ dt dΩ m ωi 2 2
6
and, using the identity
1 1 1
cos4 θ + sin4 θ = (1 + cos2 θ)
2 2 2
Eq. 25 is seen to be identical to Eq. 15 derived by conventional means.
A corresponding analysis can be performed for spin 1/2. Working again
in the center of mass frame and using helicity states for both photons and
spinors, one can calculate the various amplitudes. In this case it is conve-
nient to define the photon as the ”target” particle, so that the corresponding
polarization vectors are
λi
ǫλi i = − √ (−x̂ + iλi ŷ)
2
λ ∗ λ f
ǫf f = − √ (sin θx̂ + cos θẑ − iλf ŷ) (26)
2
for initial (final) state helicity λi (λf ). Working in the center of mass, the
corresponding helicity amplitudes can then be evaluated via
2ǫi · pi 6 ǫ∗f 2ǫi · pf 6 ǫ∗f 6 ǫ∗f 6 ki 6 ǫi 6 ǫi 6 ki 6 ǫ∗f
Bsf λf ;si λi = ū(pf , sf )[ − + − ]u(pi , si )
pi · k i pi · k f pi · k i pi · k f
(27)
Useful identities in this evaluation are
∗ pλi λf A+Σ λi (A + Σ)
O1 ≡ 6 ǫf 6 ki 6 ǫi =
2 −λi (A + Σ) −(A + Σ)
∗ pλi λf A−Σ −λi (A − Σ)
O2 ≡ 6 ǫi 6 ki 6 ǫf =
2 λi (A − Σ) −(A − Σ)
∗ p sin θλi λf 0 Υ
O3 ≡ ǫi · pf 6 ǫf = (28)
2 −Υ 0
where
A = λi λf + cos θ
Σ = (cos θλi + λf )σz + λi sin θσx − i sin θσy
Υ = − cos θσx + sin θσz − iλf σy (29)
We have then
E + m † −2sf p †
Bsf λf ;siλi = χf E+m χf
2m
1 1 χi
× O1 − (O2 + O3 ) 2si p (30)
s − m2 u − m2 E+m i
χ
7
and, after a straightforward (but tedious) exercise, one finds the amplitudes[11]
√
2 se2 p cos 21 θ 1 m 1
B 1 1; 1 1 = B− 1 −1;− 1 −1 = 2
(− + sin2 θ)
2 2 2 2 m −u m s 2
2e2 mp 1 1
B 1 1; 1 −1 = B− 1 1;− 1 −1 = B 1 −1; 1 1 = B− 1 −1;− 1 1 = − 2 √ sin2 θ cos θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (m − u) s 2 2
√ 2
−2 se p 1
B 1 −1; 1 −1 = B− 1 1;− 1 1 = 2
cos3 θ
2 2 2 2 m(m − u) 2
2e2 p 1 1
B 1 1;− 1 1 = −B− 1 −1; 1 −1 = B− 1 1; 1 1 = −B 1 −1;− 1 −1 = − 2 sin θ cos2 θ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (m − u) 2 2
2
−2e p 1
B 1 −1;− 1 1 = −B− 1 1; 1 −1 = 2 sin3 θ
2 2 2 2 m −u 2
2 2
2e m p 1
B 1 1;− 1 −1 = −B− 1 −1; 1 1 = − 2
sin3 θ (31)
2 2 2 2 s(m − u) 2
Summing (averaging) over final (initial) spin 1/2 states we define spin-averaged
photon helicity quantities
2p2 e4 s sin2 12 θ 4
2 2 4 1 4 1 m s
|B++ |av = |B−− |av = 2 2 1 + cos θ + sin θ 2 (1 − 2 2 )
m (m − u)2 2 2 s m
4 1
2p2 e4 sin 2 θ m2 m4
2 1 1
|B+− |2av = |B−+ |2av = 2 2
2 cos θ + (1 + 2
) sin2 θ (32)
(m − u) s 2 s 2
which, in terms of invariants, have the form
e4
|B++ |2av = |B−− |2av = (m4 − su)(2(m4 − su) + t2 )
2m2 (u − m2 )2 (s − m2 )2
e4 t2 (2m2 − t)
|B+− |2av = |B−+ |2av = (33)
2(s − m2 )2 (u − m2 )2
The laboratory frame cross section can be determined as before (note that
this expression differs from Eq. 25 by the factor 4m2 , which is due to the
different normalizations for fermion and boson states—m/E for fermions and
1/2E for bosons)
dσ(S = 1/2) 4m2 ωf2
= [|B++ |2av + |B+− |2av ]
dΩ 16π 2 (s − m2 )2
α2 ωf2 1 2 ωi 2 1 ωi2 4 1
= [ (1 + cos θ)(1 + 2 sin θ) + 2 sin θ]
m2 ωi2 2 m 2 m2 2
(34)
8
which is seen to be identical to the previously form—Eq. 16.
So far, all we have done is to derive the usual forms for Compton cross
sections by non-traditional means. However, in the next section we shall see
how the use of helicity methods allows the derivation of the corresponding
graviton cross sections in an equally straightforward fashion.
3 Gravitation
The theory of graviton interactions can be developed in direct analogy to
that of electromagnetism. Some of the details are given in Appendix A. Here
we shall be content with a brief outline.
Just as the electromagnetic interaction can be written in terms of the
coupling of a vector current jµ to the vector potential Aµ with a coupling
constant given by the charge e
where
√ p 1
−g = −detg = exp trlogg (39)
2
is the square root of the determinant of the metric. This prescription yields
the forms
9
for a scalar field and
1 ← → 1 ← → i ←→
Tµν = ψ̄[ γµ i ∇ ν + γν i ∇ µ − gµν ( 6 ∇ − m)]ψ (41)
4 4 2
for spin 1/2, where we have defined
←→
ψ̄i ∇ µ ψ ≡ ψ̄i∇µ ψ − (i∇µ ψ̄)ψ (42)
The matrix elements of Tµν can now be read off as
< pf |Tµν |pi >S=0 = pf µ piν + pf ν piµ − ηµν (pf · pi − m2 ) (43)
and
1 1
< pf |Tµν |pi >S= 1 = ū(pf )[ γµ (pf + pi )µ + γν (pf + pi )µ ]u(pi ) (44)
2 4 4
We shall work in harmonic (deDonder) gauge which satisfies, in lowest order,
1
∂ µ hµν = ∂ν h (45)
2
where
h = trhµν (46)
and yields a graviton propagator
i
Dαβ;γδ (q) = 2 (ηαγ ηβδ + ηαδ ηβγ − ηαβ ηγδ ) (47)
2q
Then just as the (massless) photon is described in terms of a spin-one polar-
ization vector ǫµ which can have projection (helicity) either plus or minus one
along the momentum direction, the (massless) graviton is a spin two particle
which can have the projection (helicity) either plus or minus two along the
momentum direction. Since hµν is a symmetric tensor, it can be described
in terms of a simple product of unit spin polarization vectors—
helicity = +2 : h(2) + +
µν = ǫµ ǫν
helicity = −2 : h(−2)
µν = ǫ− −
µ ǫν (48)
and just as in electromagnetism, there is a gauge condition—in this case Eq.
45—which must be satisfied. Note that the helicity states given in Eq. 48
are consistent with the gauge requirement, since
η µν ǫµ ǫν = 0, and k µ ǫµ = 0 (49)
With this background we can now examine various interesting reactions in-
volving gravitons, as we detail below.
10
3.1 Graviton Photoproduction
Before dealing with our ultimate goal, which is the treatment of graviton
Compton scattering, we first warm up with a simpler process—that of gravi-
ton photoproduction
γ + s → g + s, γ+f →g+f
The relevant diagrams are shown in Figure 2 and include the Born dia-
grams accompanied by a seagull and by the photon pole. The existence
of a seagull is required by the feature that the energy-momentum tensor is
momentum-dependent and therefore yields a contact interactions when the
minimal substitution is made, yielding the amplitudes
−2ǫ∗f · ǫi ǫ∗f · (pf + pi ) S = 0
< pf ; kf , ǫf ǫf |T |pi; ki , ǫi >seagull = κe (50)
ū(pf ) 6 ǫ∗f ǫ∗f · ǫi u(pi) S = 21
For the photon pole diagram we require a new ingredient, the graviton-photon
coupling, which can be found from the expression for the photon energy-
momentum tensor[6]
1
Tµν = −Fµα Fνα + gµν Fαβ F αβ (51)
2
This yields the photon pole term
1
< pf ; kf , ǫf ǫf |T ||pi; ki ǫi >γ−pole = e < pf |jα |pi >
(pf − pi )2
κ
× [2ǫ∗α (kf · ki ǫ∗f · ǫi − ǫ∗f · ki ǫi · kf ) + 2ǫi · kf (ǫ∗f · ǫi kfα − ǫi · kf ǫ∗α
f )] (52)
2 f
Adding the four diagrams together, we find (after considerable but simple
algebra—cf. Appendix B) a remarkably simple result
∗ αβ
< pf ; kf , ǫf ǫf |T |pi; ki , ǫi >= H × ǫf α ǫiβ TCompton (S) (53)
11
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
is obvious, since it follows directly from the gauge invariance already shown
for the corresponding photon amplitudes together with that of the factor H
under
ǫf → ǫf + λkf .
Also we note that in Eq. 53 the factorization condition mentioned in the
introduction is made manifest, and consequently the corresponding cross
sections can be obtained trivially. In principle, one can use conventional
techniques, but this is somewhat challenging in view of the tensor structure
of the graviton polarization vector. However, factorization means that he-
licity amplitudes for graviton photoproduction are simple products of the
corresponding photon amplitudes times the universal factor H, and the cross
sections are then given by the simple photon forms times the universal factor
H 2 . In the CM frame we have ǫ∗f · pi = −ǫ∗f · ki and the factor H assumes the
form
1
κ ǫ∗f · ki kf · pf κ p sin θ s − m2 κ m4 − st 2
|H| = | |= √ = (55)
4e ki · kf 4e 2 −t 2e −2t
2 κ2 m2 cos2 21 θ
|Hlab | = (56)
8e2 sin2 12 θ
12
and the graviton photoproduction cross sections are found to be
dσ 1
= Gα cos2 θ
dΩ 2
ω
(
( ωfi )2 [ctn2 12 θ cos2 12 θ + sin2 21 θ] S=0
× ω 2ωi ω2
( ωfi )3 [(ctn2 21 θ cos2 12 θ + sin2 12 θ) + m
(cos4 21 θ + sin4 12 θ) + 2 mi2 sin2 12 θ] S = 1/2
(57)
The form of the latter has previously been given by Voronov.[12]
13
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
14
Here the factor F has the form
κ2 (s − m2 )(u − m2 )
F = 4 (64)
8e t
whose laboratory frame value is
κ2 m2 1
Flab = (65)
8e4 sin2 21 θ
dσlab ωf2 2 1
(S = 0) = F (|C++ |2 + |C+− |2 )
dΩ π 16π(s − m2 )2
ωf 1 1 1
= G2 m2 ( )2 [ctn4 θ cos4 θ + sin4 θ] (66)
ωi 2 2 2
for a spinless target and
dσlab 1 ωf2 2 1
(S = ) = F (|D++ |2av + |D+− |2av )
dΩ 2 π 16π(s − m2 )2
ωf 1 1 1
= G2 m2 ( )3 [ctn4 θ cos4 θ + sin4 θ)
ωi 2 2 2
ωi 1 1 1 ω2 1 1
+ 2 (ctn2 θ cos6 θ + sin6 θ) + 2 i2 (cos6 θ + sin6 θ)]
m 2 2 2 m 2 2
(67)
for a spin 1/2 target. The latter form agrees with that given by Voronov[12].
We have given the results for unpolarized scattering from an unpolarized
target, but having the form of the helicity amplitudes means that we can
also produce cross sections involving polarized photons or gravitons. That
is, however, a subject for a different time and a different paper.
4 Summary
While the subject of photon interactions with charged particles is a standard
one in any quantum mechanics course, the same is not true for that of gravi-
ton interactions with masses despite the obvious parallels between these two
topics. The origin of this disparity lies with the complications associated with
15
the tensor structure of gravity and the inherent nonlinearity of gravitational
theory. We have argued above that this need not be the case. Indeed in
an earlier work we showed how the parallel between the exchange of virtual
gravitons and photons could be used in order to understand the phenomena of
geodetic and Lense-Thirring precession in terms of the the related spin-orbit
and spin-spin interactions in quantum electrodynamics[2]. In the present pa-
per, we have shown how the treatment of graviton scattering processes can
benefit from use of this analogy. Of course, such amplitudes are inherently
more complex, in that they must involve tensor polarization vectors and the
addition of somewhat complex photon or graviton pole diagrams. However,
it is remarkable that when all effects are added together, the resulting am-
plitudes factorize into simple products of photon amplitudes times kinematic
factors. Using helicity methods, this factorization property then allows the
relatively elementary calculation of cross sections since they involve simple
products of the already known photon amplitudes times kinematical factors.
It is hoped that this remarkable result will allow introduction of graviton re-
actions into the quantum mechanics cirriculum in at least perhaps a special
topics presentation. In any case, the simplicity associated with this result
means that graviton interactions can be considered a topic which is no longer
only associated with advanced research papers.
Appendix A: Gravitational Formalism
Here we present some of the basics of gravitational field theory. Details can
be found in various references[13, 14]. The full gravitational action is given
by
4 √
1
Z
Sg = d x −g R + Lm (68)
16πG
where Lm is the Lagrange density for matter and R is the scalar curvature.
Variation of Eq. 68 via
gµν → ηµν + κhµν
yields the Einstein equation
1
Rµν − gµν R = −8πGTµν (69)
2
where the energy-momentum tensor Tµν is given by
2 ∂ √
Tµν = √ ( −gLm ) (70)
−g ∂g µν
16
We work in the weak field limit, with an expansion in powers of the gravita-
tional coupling G
where here the superscript indicates the number of powers of G which appear
and indices are understood to be raised or lowered by ηµν . We shall also need
the determinant which is given by
√ 1 1
−g = exp tr log g = 1 + κh(1) + . . . (72)
2 2
The corresponding curvatures are given by
(1) κh (1) λ (1) λ
i
Rµν = ∂µ ∂ν h(1) + ∂λ ∂ λ h(1)
µν − ∂ ∂
µ λ h ν − ∂ ∂
ν λ h µ
2
R(1) = η µν Rµν(1)
= κ 2h(1) − ∂µ ∂ν h(1)µν
(73)
(1) 1
0 = ∂ β hβα − ∂α h(1) (74)
2
Using these results, the Einstein equation reads, in lowest order,
(1) 1 (1) β (1) 1 (1) β (1) 1 (1) matt
2hµν − ηµν 2h −∂µ ∂ hβν − ∂ν h −∂ν ∂ hβµ − ∂µ h = −16πGTµν
2 2 2
(75)
which, using the gauge condition Eq. 74, can be written as
(1) 1 (1) matt
2 hµν − ηµν h = −16πGTµν (76)
2
or in the equivalent form
1
2h(1)
µν
matt
= −16πG Tµν − ηµν T matt
(77)
2
17
The coupling to matter via one-graviton and two-graviton vertices can be
found by expanding the spin zero matter Lagrangian
√ √
1 µν 1 2 2
−gLm = −g Dµ φg Dν φ − m φ (78)
2 2
via
√ 1
−gL(0)
m = (∂µ φ∂ µ φ − m2 φ2 )
2
√
κ (1)µν 1
−gL(1)
m = − h α
∂µ φ∂ν φ − ηµν (∂α φ∂ φ − m φ ) 2 2
2 2
√ 2
κ 1 (1) (1)µν
−gL(2)
m = h(1)µλ (1)ν
h λ− h h ∂µ φ∂ν φ
2 2
κ2
(1)αβ (1) 1 (1)2
− h hαβ − h (∂ α φ∂α φ − m2 φ2 ) (79)
8 2
1 ρ
− (ηαβ Iρσ,γδ + ηγδ Iρσ,αβ ) p′ pσ
2
1 1 ′ 2
− Iαβ,γδ − ηαβ ηγδ p · p − m (80)
2 2
18
µν
We also require the triple graviton vertex ταβ,γδ (k, q) whose form is
µν iκ 1 µ ν µ ν µ ν 3 µν 2
ταβ,γδ (k, q) = (Iαβ,γδ − ηαβ ηγδ ) k k + (k − q) (k − q) + q q − η q
2 2 2
λσ, µν, λσ, µν, λµ, σν, σν, λµ,
+ 2qλ qσ I αβ I γδ + I γδ I αβ − I αβ I γδ − I αβ I γδ
+ [qλ q µ (ηαβ I λν, γδ + ηγδ I λν, αβ ) + qλ q ν (ηαβ I λµ, γδ + ηγδ I λµ, αβ )
− q 2 (ηαβ I µν, γδ + ηγδ I µν, αβ ) − η µν q λ q σ (ηαβ Iγδ,λσ + ηγδ Iαβ,λσ )]
+ [2q λ (I σν, αβ Iγδ,λσ (k − q)µ + I σµ, αβ Iγδ,λσ (k − q)ν
− I σν, γδ Iαβ,λσ k µ − I σµ, γδ Iαβ,λσ k ν )
+ q 2 (I σµ, αβ Iγδ,σ ν + Iαβ,σ ν I σµ, γδ ) + η µν q λ qσ (Iαβ,λρ I ρσ, γδ + Iγδ,λρ I ρσ, αβ )]
2 2 σµ, ν σν, µ 1 µν
+ [(k + (k − q) ) I αβ Iγδ,σ + I αβ Iγδ,σ − η Pαβ,γδ
2
− (k 2 ηγδ I µν, αβ + (k − q)2 ηαβ I µν, γδ )]
(81)
For the case of spin 1/2 we require some additional formalism in order to
extract the gravitational couplings. In this case the matter Lagrangian reads
√ √
eLm = eψ̄(iγ a ea µ Dµ − m)ψ (82)
and involves the vierbein ea µ which links global coordinates with those in a
locally flat space[15, 16]. The vierbein is in some sense the “square root” of
the metric tensor gµν and satisfies the relations
ea µ = δµa + κc(1)a
µ + ... (86)
and we find
gµν = ηµν + κc(1) (1)
µν + κcνµ + . . . (88)
For our purposes we shall use only the symmetric component of the c-
matrices, since these are physical and can be connected to the metric tensor.
We find then
1 (1) 1 (1)
c(1) (1)
µν → (cµν + cνµ ) = hµν
2 2
We have
κ
det e = 1 + κc + . . . = 1 + h + . . .
2
and, using these forms, the matter Lagrangian has the expansion
√ i ←→
eL(0)
m = ψ̄( γ α δαµ ∇ µ − m)ψ
2
√ (1) κ (1)αβ ←→ κ i ←
→
eLm = − h ψ̄iγα ∇ β ψ − h(1) ψ̄( 6 ∇ − m)ψ
2 2 2
√ (2) κ2 (1) (1)αβ ←→ κ 2
←→
eLm = hαβ h ψ̄iγ γ ∇ λ ψ + (h(1) )2 ψ̄iγ γ ∇ γ ψ
8 16
κ2 (1) ←
→ 3κ 2
(1) ←→
− h ψ̄iγ α hα λ ∇ λ ψ + hδα h(1)αµ ψ̄iγ δ ∇ µ ψ
8 16
κ2 (1) (1)αβ κ2 (1) 2
+ h h ψ̄mψ − (h ) ψ̄mψ
4 αβ 8
2
iκ (1) (1)ν
+ hδν (∂β h(1)ν
α − ∂α hβ )ǫαβδǫ ψ̄γǫ γ5 ψ (89)
16
20
The corresponding one- and two-graviton vertices are found then to be
′ −iκ 1 ′ ′ 1 1 ′
ταβ (p, p ) = (γα (p + p )β + γβ (p + p )α ) − ηαβ ( (6p+ p6 ) − m)
2 4 2 2
1 1
ταβ,γδ (p, p′ ) = iκ2 − ( (6p+ p6 ′ ) − m)Pαβ,γδ
2 2
1
− [ηαβ (γγ (p + p′ )δ + γδ (p + p′ )γ )
16
+ ηγδ (γα (p + p′ )β + γβ (p + p′ )α )]
3
+ (p + p′ )ǫ γ ξ (Iξφ,αβ I φ ǫ,γδ + Iξφ,γδ I φ ǫ,αβ )
16
i ρσηλ ν ′ ν
+ ǫ γλ γ5 (Iαβ,η Iγδ,σν k ρ − Iγδ,η Iαβ,σν kρ ) (90)
16
(ǫ∗f · pf )2 ǫi · pi
Born − a : Ampa = 4eκ
2pi · ki
(ǫf · pi )2 ǫi · pf
∗
Born − b : Ampb = −4eκ
2pi · kf
Seagull : Ampc = −2eκǫf · ǫi ǫ∗f · (pi + pf )
∗
eκ ∗
γ − pole : Ampd = [ǫ · (pi + pf )(ki · kf ǫ∗f · ǫi − ǫ∗f · ki ǫi · kf )
ki · kf f
+ ǫ∗f · ki (ǫ∗f · ǫi ki · (pi + pf ) − ǫ∗f · ki ǫi · (pi + pf )] (91)
21
Graviton Photoproduction: Spin 1/2
ǫ∗f · pf
Born − a : Ampa = eκ ū(pf )[6 ǫf ∗ (6 pi + 6 ki + m) 6 ǫi ]u(pi )
2pi · ki
ǫ∗f · pi
Born − b : Ampb = −eκ ū(pf )[6 ǫi (6 pi − 6 kf + m) 6 ǫ∗f ]u(pi )
2pi · kf
Seagull : Ampc = −eκū(pf ) 6 ǫ∗f u(pi )
1
γ − pole : Ampd = eκ ū(pf )[6 ǫ∗f (ki · kf ǫ∗f · ǫi − ǫ∗f · ki ǫi · kf )
ki · kf
+ 6 kf ǫ∗f · ǫi ǫ∗f · ki− 6 ǫi (ǫ∗f · ki )2 ]u(pi ) (92)
(ǫi · pi )2 (ǫ∗f · pf )2
Born − a : Ampa = 2κ2
pi · k i
(ǫ · pi )2 (ǫi · pf )2
2 f
∗
Born − b : Ampb = −2κ
pi · k f
2 ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ 2
Seagull : Ampc = κ ǫf · ǫi (ǫi · pi ǫf · pf + ǫi · pf ǫf · pi ) − ki · kf (ǫf · ǫi )
2
2
4κ
g − pole : Ampd = ǫ∗ · pf ǫ∗f · pi (ǫi · (pi − pf ))2 + ǫi · pi ǫi · pf (ǫ∗f · (pi + pf ))2
ki · kf f
+ ǫi · (pi − pf )ǫ∗f · (pf − pi )(ǫ∗f · pf ǫi · pi + ǫ∗f · pi ǫi · pf )
− ǫ∗f · ǫi ǫi · (pi − pf )ǫ∗f · (pf − pi )(pi · pf − m2 )
+ ki · kf (ǫ∗f · pf ǫi · pi + ǫ∗f · pi ǫi · pf ) + ǫi · (pi − pf )(ǫ∗f · pf pi · kf + ǫ∗f · pi pf · kf )
+ ǫ∗f · (pf − pi )(ǫi · pi pf · ki + ǫi · pf pi · ki )
∗ 2 1
+ (ǫf · ǫi ) pi · ki pf · ki + pi · kf pf · kf − (pi · ki pf · kf + pi · kf pf · ki )
2
3
+ ki · kf (pi · pf − m2 )2 (93)
2
22
Graviton Scattering: Spin 1/2
ǫ∗f · pf ǫi · pi
Born − a : Ampa = κ2 ū(pf )[6 ǫf ∗ (6 pi + 6 ki + m) 6 ǫi ]u(pi )
8pi · ki
ǫ∗f · pi ǫi · pf
Born − b : Ampb = −κ2 ū(pf )[6 ǫi (6 pi − 6 kf + m) 6 ǫ∗f ]u(pi)
8pi · kf
2 3 ∗
Seagull : Ampc = κ ū(pf ) ǫf · ǫi (6 ǫi ǫ∗f · (pi + pf )+ 6 ǫ∗f ǫi · (pi + pf ))
16
i ∗ ρσηλ ∗ ∗
+ ǫ · ǫi ǫ γλ γ5 (ǫiη ǫf σ kf ρ − ǫf η ǫiσ kiρ ) u(pi )
8 f
κ2
ū(pf ) (6 ǫi ǫ∗f · ki + 6 ǫ∗f ǫi · kf )(ǫi · pi ǫ∗f · pf − ǫi · pf ǫ∗f · pi )
g − pole : Ampd =
ki · kf
− (ǫf · ǫi ) ki · kf (6 ǫ∗f ǫi · kf + 6 ǫi ǫ∗f · pi )
∗
Acknowledgement
References
[1] See, e.g., B.R. Holstein, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-
Wesley, New York (1992).
23
[3] M. Scadron, Advanced Quantum Theory and its Applications
through Feynman Diagrams, Springer-Verlag, New York (1979).
[4] A review of current work in this area involving also applications to higher
order loop diagrams is given by Z. Bern, “Perturbative Quantum Gravity
and its Relation to Gauge Theory,” Living Rev. Rel. 5, 5 (2002); see
also H. Kawai, D.C. Lewellen, and S.H. Tye, “A Relation Between Tree
Amplitudes of Closed and Open Strings,” Nucl Phys. B269, 1-23 (1986).
[5] S.Y. Choi, J.S. Shim, and H.S. Song, “Factorization and Polarization
in Linearized Gravity,” Phys. Rev. D51, 2751-69 (1995); See also Z.
Bern, “Pertubative Quantum Gravity and its Relation to Gauge The-
ory,” [arxiv:gr-qc/0206071].
[6] J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, wiley, New York (1970) shows
that in the presence of interactions with an external vector potential
~ the relativistic Hamiltonian in the absence of Aµ
Aµ = (φ, A)
p
H = m2 + ~p2
is replaced by q
~ 2
H − eφ = m2 + (~p − eA)
Making the quantum mechanical substituations
∂ ~
H→i p~ → −i∇
∂t
we find the minimal substitution given in the text.
[8] M. Jacob and G.C. Wick, “On the General Theory of Collisions for
Particles with Spin,” Ann. Phys. (NY) 7, 404-28 (1959).
[9] D.J. Gross and R. Jackiw, “Low-Energy Theorem for Graviton Scatter-
ing,” Phys. Rev. 166, 1287-92 (1968).
[10] M.T. Grisaru, P. van Niewenhuizen, and C.C. Wu, “Gravitational Born
amplitudes and Kinematical Constraints,” Phys. Rev. D12, 397-403
(1975).
24
[11] H.D.I. Abarbanel and M.L. Goldberger, “Low-Energy Theorems, Dis-
persion relations, and Superconvergence Sum Rules for Compton Scat-
tering,” Phys. Rev. 165, 1594-1609 (1968).
[16] D.J. Leiter and T.C. Chapman, “On the Generally Covariant Dirac
Equation,” Am. J. Phys. 44, 858-62 (1976).
25