1.

India – Land, both of Civilizations and Rivers – in its

historical perspective:
 Rivers in Pakistan:
1. Indus 2. Chenab 3. Jhelum 4. Ravi 5. Sutlej
 From Kashmir to Pakistan:
1. Indus 2. Chenab 3. Jhelum
 From India to Pakistan:
1. Ravi 2. Sutlej (Bias)

 Distribution of Kashmir:
 India:
5. Kashmir Valley: It consists of 95% Muslims and it covers an area of 15,948 km2.
1. Jammu & Kashmir: It consists of 28% Muslims and it covers an area of 101,338
km2.
2. Ladakh: It consists of 48% Muslims, 51% Buddhists and it covers an area of
86,909 km2. Siachen Glacier and Kargil lie in this region.
 China:
4. Aksai Chin (Deserted): It covers an area of 37,244 km2. Indians consider it as a
part of Ladakh.
 Pakistan:
6. Azad Jammu & Kashmir (AJK): It covers an area of 13,297 km2.
3. Gilgit Baltistan: It covers an area of 72,971 km 2.

 Earth:
 It consists of 29.1% land. And it consists of 70.9% water.
 Its crust consists of 3% fresh water and 97% salty water.

 South Asia:
 It is located in south of Himalayas and Afghanistan.
 It covers an area of 5.2 million km2(2 million mi2).
 It is about 11.71% of Asia and 3.5% of Earth’s total land area.
 There are 8 countries existing in South Asia.
 Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan
lie in south Asia.
 Sri Lanka’s old name was Ceylon:
  South Asian Association for Regional Corporation (SAARC):
 It was founded on 8th December 1985 in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
 Its headquarters are in Kathmandu, Nepal.
 There are 8 members of this organization.
 It’s 9 observers are: China, USA, European Union, Australia, Iran, Japan,
Mauritius, Myanmar and South Korea.
 Afghanistan was added as eighth member in 3rd April 2007.
 Sikham was a country between Nepal and Bhutan, and she was merged in India in
1975.
 Sikham and Myanmar/Burma were excluded and Afghanistan, Maldives were
made members.
 China and Myanmar have also applied for the status of full member of SAARC.
 Secretary-General is appointed for a three-year term by election.
 4th SAARC summit was held on 29-31 December 1988 in Islamabad, Pakistan.
 12th SAARC summit was held on 4-6 January 2004 in Islamabad, Pakistan.
 19th SAARC summit was supposed to be held on 15-19 November 2016 in
Islamabad, Pakistan. It was cancelled by India due to Uri Attacks 2016.

 URI ATTACKS 2016:

 The 2016 Uri attack was an attack by four heavily armed militants on 18
September 2016, near the town of Uri in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.
It was reported as “the deadliest attack on security forces in Kashmir in two
decades. The militant group Jaish-e-Mohammad was blamed by India of being
involved in the planning and execution of the attack.
  United Nations (UN):
 It was established on 24 October 1945 after WWII.
 Its headquarters are in Manhattan, New York City.
 Its main offices are situated in Geneva (Switzerland), Nairobi (Capital of Kenya)
and Vienna (Capital of Austria).
 There are 193 members of this organization.
 There are 2 observers (Palestine and Holy See also known as Vatican city).
 Vatican City has an area of 44 ha or 0.44 km2.
 UN has six principal organs: The General Assembly, The Security Council, The
Economic and Social Council, The Secretariat, The International court of Justice
and UN Trusteeship Council.
 The General assembly consists of all UN member states.
 The Security Council is made up of 15 members, consisting of 5 permanent
members – China, France, Russia, UK and USA – and ten non-permanent
members elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly. The five
permanent members held veto power over UN resolutions.

 Asia:
Sub-regions:
1. East Asia 2. West Asia 3. North Asia
4. South Asia 5. Central Asia 6. Southeast Asia
 There are 52 countries in Asia.
 It’s population is 4.5 billion (2016)
 It covers an area of 44.58 million km2.
 It covers 30% of Earth’s total land area and 8.7% of Earth’s total surface area.
 Indian ocean is the 3rd biggest ocean in the world.
 Russia exists in North Asia.
 There are 5 countries existing in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). They got freedom in 1991 from Russia and are
referred as ‘the stans’.
 There are 8 countries existing in South Asia.
 There are 11 countries existing in Southeast Asia.
 China exists in East-Asia.
 Afghanistan was a link between South Asia and Central Asia.
 Iran exists in West Asia and borders Caspian Sea.
 Burma was old name of Myanmar. It exists in South-east Asia.
 2. Rise and fall of the Muslims in the Indian Sub-continent or
South Asia (711-1858):
S.No. Name of Group Origin(Place) Ruling Total Ruling Places
Period Period
1. The Arabs: Arabia (711-12) - 293 years Sindh upto
Muhammad Bin 1005 Multan
Qasim
2. The Ghaznavids: Ghazni State 1005 - 1186 181 years Sindh upto
Mahmud of Ghazni (Afghanistan) Multan,
Punjab and
Peshawar
Region
3. Ghurids: Ghaur 1186 - 1206 20 years Sindh upto
Muhammad Shihab (Afghansitan) Multan,
ad-Din Ghori Peshawar
Region,
Punjab,
Delhi and
Ajmer
4. The SULTANATE Qutub-uddin 1206 - 1526 320 years Whole India
Empire: Aibak, Slave except
5 dynasties of Shihab ad- Deccan
34-35 Sultans Din
5. The Mughals: Mangolia 1526 – 1858 332 years Indian Sub-
(Central continent
Asia) Mangol
Empire
The Great Mughals: 6 rulers 1526 - 1707 181 – 15 =
1540 - 1555 166 years
The Latter Mughals: 15 rulers 1707 - 1858 150 years

 5 Dynasties of Delhi Sultanate:

1. Mamluk or Slave Dynasty (1206-1290):
2. Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320): Under this dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate became an
Imperial Power.
3. Tughlaq Dynasty (1321-1413):
4. Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451):
5. Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526):
  The Great Mughals (1526-1707):
1. Babar, The Lion Hearted (1526-1530): In 1526, Babar won the battle of
Panipat against Ibrahim Lodhi (The last emperor of Lodhi dynasty). He captured
Delhi and founded the greatest dynasty of North India
2. Humayun, The Wanderer (1530-1540 :: 1555-1556): Humayun was
overthrown in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri of the Suri dynasty but returned to the
throne in 1555 after the death of Islam Shah Suri. {Sher Shah suri 1540-1545} and
{Islam Shah Suri 1545-1555}.
3. Akbar, The Great (1556-1605):
4. Jahangir, The Just (1605-1627):
5. Shahjahan, The Magnificient (1627-1658):
6. Aurangzaib Alamgir, The Puritan (1658-1707):

 The Later Mughals (1707-1858):

 15 rulers belonged to this group.
 Bahadur Shah Zafar I (1707-1712): He was the first and last Mughal of the
later Mughal rulers to exercise real authority. He defeated his brothers to capture
the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers and Chin Quilich Khan, another
influential administrator in the Mughal court, also known as Nazim-ul-Mulk.
 Jahandar Shah (1712-1713): His birth name was Mirza Mu'izz-ud-Din Beig
Mohammed Khan.
 Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719): He came to power with the help of Sayyid Brothers
– the Kingmakers. In his reign, the Sayyid brothers conspired to send Nazim-ul-
Mulk to Deccan, away from the Mughal court, to reduce his influence. He
Granted a Firman to the East India Company in 1717 granting them duty-free
trading rights for Bengal, strengthening their post on the east coast. The Firman
or decree helped British East India company to import goods into Bengal without
paying customs duty to the government. He was deposed, blinded and executed
by his own Sayyid Brothers.
 Rafi ud-Darajat (1719): Rise of Sayyid Brothers as power brokers. He died of lung
disease.
 Shah Jahan II (1719): He was also known as Rafi-ud-Daulah. He was elder
brother of Rafi-ud-Darajat and he also died of lung disease.
 Muhammad Shah Rangila (1719-48): He was the most pleasure-loving ruler of
loose morals and is therefore called “Rangila”. His birth name was Roshan Akhtar.
Muhammad Shah, to take back control of his rule, arranged for the Sayyid
brothers to be killed with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was
murdered at Fatehpur Sikri in 1720, and Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha was fattaly
poisoned in 1722. The already declining Mughal Empire received another fatal
 blow when the Persian monarch, Nadir Shah invaded India in Februaru 1739.
Nadir Shah was attracted to India by her fabulous wealth for which she was
famous. He carried away with him the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond and the jewel
studded Peacock throne of Shahjahan.
 Ahmed Shah Bahadur (1748-1754): He was defeated by Marathas at the battle
of Sikandarabad.
 Alamgir II (1754-1759):
 Shah Jahan III (1759-60):
 Shah Alam II (1759-1806):
 Akbar Shah II (1806-1837):
 Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837-1857): The Last three emperors protected British
East India Company and received 1 Lac pension form them for 50 years.

 Sayyid Brothers:
 The term refers to Syed Hassan Ali Khan (Syed Abdullah Khan) and Syed Hussain
Ali Khan.
 The Sayyid Brothers became highly influential in the Mughal Court after
Aurangzeb's death and became king makers during the anarchy following the
death of emperor Aurangzeb in 1707.
 Aurangzeb's son Bahadur Shah Zafar I (1707-12) defeated his brothers to capture
the throne with the help of Sayyid Brothers.
 Jahandar Shah (1712-13), the successor of Bahadur Shah Zafar I, was assassinated
on their orders.
 Jahandar Shah’s nephew Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719) became the emperor with
brother’s help.
 In 1719, the Brothers blinded, deposed and murdered Farrukhsiyar. And arranged
his first cousin Rafi-ud-Darajat to be the next ruler.
 After the death of Rafi-ud-Darajat, due to lung disease, they made his elder
brother Rafi-ud-Daulah (Shah Jahan II) ruler. The later also died of lung disease in
1719.
 Afterall, Muhammad Shah (1719) ascended the throne at the age of seventeen
with the Sayyid Brothers as his regents until 1720.
 6 kings were related with Sayyid brothers.
 The Sayyid brothers becoming the sole authority of Mughal politics reduced the
status of the Turkic and the Irani noblemen in the Mughal court. This excited the
jealousy of these nobles, who used to enjoy high status under Emperor
Farukhshiyar. As a result, they formed a force of counter-revolution against the
Sayyid brothers. The leader of the counter-revolution was Nazim-ul-Mulk.
  Muhammad Shah, to take back control of his rule, arranged for the brothers to
be killed with the help of Nizam-ul-Mulk. Syed Hussain Ali Khan was ultimately
killed on 9th October 1720. Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha with a big army set out to
avenge his brother`s murder. But Syed Hassan Ali Khan Barha was defeated at
Hasanpur near Palwal (Haryana) in 15–16 November in the same year and later
he was poisoned to death on 12 October 1722. Thus the protracted career of the
Sayyid brothers came to an end.

 Panipat:
 It is a village located 80 km North of Delhi.
 Three battles were fought on the ground of Panipat.
 1st battle: Ibrahim Lodhi v/s Babar in 1526
 2nd battle: Akbar v/s Himu Baqal in 1556
 3rd battle: Ahmad Shah Abdali (Ruler of Afghanistan) v/s Marathas (Gaurillas)
 The 3rd battle was fought due to request of a scholar as well as a saint i.e: Shah
Wali Ullah who wrote many books and translated Holy Quran in Persian. His son
Shah Abdul Aziz translated Holy Quran in Urdu.

 Downfall of Muslims:
 Reasons and circumstances for the Mughals to fail miserably:
Internal Causes
Weak and incompetent successors of
Aurangzaib Alamgir.
Non-muslim groups: Hindus, Jats, Sikhs
and Marathas were against Muslims.
The state bank of India was almost empty.
External Causes
Hostile forces were threats from external
who gave setbacks to India.
1. Nadir Shah (Persia)
2. Ahmed Shah Abdali (Successor of Nadir
Shah).
3. European Traders (British East India
Company)
February 1739, Nadir Shah attacked India
in the rule of ‘Rangeela’. He asked for 2
crores as peacy treaty but he took 15
crores and the crown of Shah Jahan. The
total annual income (Land revenue and
tax) at that time was 9 crore.
Ahmed Shah Abdali attacked India 8 times.
In 3rd battle of Panipat and defeated
Marathas dividing them into 5 groups on
the request of Shah Wali Ullah of Dehlwi.
He took 40 lacs on his way back.
 General ignorance of Islam.
Sectarism into Shia, Sunni etc.
Lawlessness and no respect.
Selfish role of Nobles: Two communities were in anxiety because
-Irani : Shia of the 7 attacks, they were Sikhs and
-Turani (Turkistan) : Sunni Britishers.
-Hindustani : Hindu
Ali Brothers were the most powerful in the
Hindustani group.
Great distance from the capital.
Forces travelling for war took a lot of time.
Low moral tone of society.
Negligence of Muslims:
1. Lack of Education.
2. Not becoming a naval power.
3. No any university from 711 to 1858.

 Some other Reasons and Causes:

 Auranzaib’s religious intolerance and his policies (Deccan and religious). He
imposed zizya tax on Non-muslims and destroyed temples.
 He made enemies out of Rajputs and Sikhs. (War 1679-1681).
 Bijapur and Golcunda in 1686 and 1687 were taken possession of, in order to
decrease the Marathas’ income and military strength.
 Deccan wars (1680-1707) between Marathas and the Mughal empire drained
Mughal treasury.
 Lack of administrative efficacy.
 Rise of independent states in 18th century. (e.g: Hyderabad, Carnatic and Bengal
etc.)
 Jahangir allowed British to build forts and conduct trade in Surat, Agra and
Ahmedabad (1620).
 Poor means of communication.
  European Traders:
1. Portuguese: Portugal (Lisbon)
2. Dutch: Holland (Amsterdam)
3. Danes: Denmark (Copenhagen)
4. British: United Kingdom (London)
5. French: France (Paris)
6. German: Germany (Berlin)

 Non-Muslim Religions:
 Rajputs (Hinduism): They were known for protecting Hinduism against
Buddhism and Islam.
 Jats (Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs): 47% of Jats are Hindus, while 33% are
Muslims and 20% are Sikhs.
 Sikhs (Sikhism): It is a monotheistic religion. It broke from Hinduism due to its
rejection of caste system, in 15th century by Guru Nanak.
 Marathas (Hinduism): It is the world’s oldest and 3rd largest religion with about
900 million followers. They are originally referred to the speakers of ‘Marathi’
Language.

 Religions that gave birth in India:

 Hinduism: It is 3rd largest religion in the world, with about 900 million followers.
It is not a single religion but a compilation of many traditions and philosophies. It
is the oldest religion in the world.
 Buddhism: It is 4th largest religion in the world, with over 376 million followers
(over 6% of the global population).
 Jainism:
 Sikhism:

 Religions which are foreigners to India:

 Judaism: It is the religion of Jewish people. It is a monotheistic religion. It is the
10th largest religion in the world. It was founded over 3500 years ago. It was
founded by Moses.
 Christianity: It is the world’s biggest religion, with about 2.1 billion followers
worldwide. It is based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who lived in the Holy land
2000 years ago.
 Islam: It is the world’s 2nd largest religion, and with over 1.8 billion followers (or
24.1% of the world’s population). It makes up a majority of the population in 50
countries.
 Zoroastrianism: It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions. It was founded by
the prophet Zoroaster in ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago. For 1000
years, it was one of the most powerful religions in the world. It was the official
religion of Persia (Iran) from 600 BCE to 650 BCE. It is now one of the smallest
religions. In 2006, the New York times reported that there were probably less
than 190,000 followers worldwide at that time.
Note: Judaism, Christianity and Islam are Abrahamic religions.

 Gurus of Sikhism:
1. Guru Nanak (1469-1539)
2. Guru Angad (1539-1552)
3. Guru Amar Das (1552-1574)
4. Guru Raam Das (1574-1581)
5. Guru Arjan Dev (1581-1606)
6. Guru Har Govind (1606-1644)
7. Guru Har Rai (1644-1661)
8. Guru Har Krishan (1661-1664)
9. Guru Tegh Bahadur (1665-1675)
10. Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708)
11. Guru Granth Sahib (1708-till now): Final and last eternal living Guru.

 Opening trade with South Asia and Far-East Countries (e.g:

China, Japan, Philippines, Singapore etc):
 The European traders got Charters (Special privileges given by the government
for trade).
 In 1498 (Vasco da Gama), Portuguese entered. They gave tough time to Dutch
and British. But finally they were kicked out by Dutch and British.
 In 1798, Dutch were gone out because their business was declining so it was
banned by their own government.
 In 1845, the company of Denmark was sold to British and in 1850 they sold more
of their property.
 German tried to establish but couldn’t settle and failed.
 The two remaining companies were that of British and French.
 Sugar, Indigo, Grain, Opium, Gems, Spices, Woolen, Goods, Copper, Metals etc
were traded.
 Factories means storage places.
 The origin of East India Company is England.
 In 1707, It was named as Great Britain (GB) after the inclusion of Whales and
Scotland.
 In 1801, it was renamed as United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, due to
inclusion of Ireland.
 In 1822, it renamed as United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, due
to exclusion of Ireland (North-west Europe).
 In September 1599, European traders held meeting under John Mayers. They
decided to trade with India at the time of Queen Elizabeth I.
 They were given permission on 31st September 1600 by Queen Elizabeth to open
trade with India and Far East.
 1st Charter: On 31st December 1600, they were given a royal charter for a 15
years period with a cancellation period of 2 years(It means that the charter could
be cancelled within 2 years).
 2nd Charter: In 1609, they got their second charter by King James I. It was for
indefinite period with a cancellation period of 3 years.
 3rd Charter: In 1661, Third charter was approved by Charles II for indefinite
period with a cancellation period of 2 years.
 Characteristics of 3rd Charter: This charter was given under similar conditions
with unlimited powers. They could also appoint local person of India as soldiers
for their protection. The Britian also gave some part of soldiers to the British East
India Company, and then were also allowed to extend their armies, were also
allowed to get revenge. And the salary of British soldier was more than Indian
soldiers. Supreme Court was established in Calcutta, for resolving matters.
 4th Charter: In 1683, Fourth charter was approved by Charles II for indefinite
period with a cancellation period of 4 years.
 Characteristics of 4th Charter: If someone is interfering in their work, they
could declare war.
 They can treat harshly.
 There were two British East India Companies, but they were later merged.
 British East India Company went to the Java and Sumatra (Indonesian places) in
fear of Portuguese.
 In 1612, BEIC (British East India Company) defeated Portuguese in Naval war.
 In 1613, Jahangir permitted to establish factory in Surat.
 They established many factories until 1619.
 An ambassador named ‘Thomas Roe’ came to India to make relations better.
 Imperialism means to occupy a territory for financial gain. British is an
imperialistic power.
  5 Hindrances in the way of British East India Company:
1. Mirza Muhammad - Nawab Sirajuddin Daula of Bengal: He was defeated on
Battle of Plassey in 23rd June 1757. It was fought on the ground of Plassey, few
kilometers away from Murshidabad (The capital of Bengal). The commander-in-
chief of Bengal (Siraj’s) Army become allied with British East India Company and
betrayed Nawab. In this battle Nawab was killed.
2. Haider Ali (Fateh Ali) and his son Tipu Sultan (Fateh Bahadur), The rulers
of Mysore in Deccan: Four Anglo-Mysore wars were being fought from 1767-
99.
First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69): It was fought between BEIC and Haider Ali
and his son Tipu Sultan. Haider Ali won this battle and Treaty of Madras was
signed.
Treaty of Madras: The Treaty contained a clause requiring the British to assist
Haider Ali if he was attacked by his neighbors. Haider felt this agreement was
broken when he didn't receive any help when Mysore went to war with
the Marathas in 1771. Bad faith arising from the broken clause may have been a
reason behind the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Mysore War a decade later.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84): It remained almost neutral and culminated
with peace treaty “The Treaty of Manglore”.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (1789-92): There occurred accidental death of Haider
Ali, Carbuncle was being tasted by him. Tipu Sultan faced British but failed and
the “Treaty of Seringapatam (Capital of Mysore)” was signed. According to which
he had to surrender half of his kingdom the Britain and 30 Crore rupees.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (Feb: 1799 – Dec: 1799): Deewan (Finance minister of
Tipu Sultan) deceived Tipu Sultan and British won the battle at Seringapatam.
Mysore finally came under their control.
3. The French: British and French fought 3 battles. In 1769, the French government
dissolved its French East India company due to loss of 162 million.
First Battle (1745-48): French won and captured Madras. Treaty of Western
Eastern Germany was signed.
Second Battle (1748-53,54): Almost balanced and ended with peace in Paris.
Third Battle (1756-63): Britain won and ended with peace treaty. French General
Bussy was captured.
4. The Marathas: They were Hindus and were expert in Guerilla warfare activities.
Three battles were fought and in all battles Marathas were defeated miserably.
First Battle (1778-82): British won and the war began with Treaty of Surat and
ended with Treaty of Salbai.
Second Battle (1803-05): British General Lord Lake defeated Marathas.
Third Battle (1817-1818): It is also known as Pindari war. Formal victory of British
and its control over India.
5. The Mughals: In 1686, British challenged the very authority of Alamgir so war
was fought between them. He gave bad defeat to the Britain on land but was
unable to mark the same victory on seal also. Britain was a good naval power.
This war was known as “Child’s war”. War ended with peace treaty.

 Mistakes made by Muslims:

 They couldn’t establish a single university in their ruling period from 711-1857.
 University of Calcutta was established in 24th January, 1857.
 University of Bombay was established in 18th July, 1857.
 University of Madras was established in 5th September, 1857.
 University of Punjab was established in 1882.
 University of Allahabad was established in 23rd September, 1887.
 There was no literacy rate.
 Akbar was illiterate but he made few colleges during his reign from 1556-1605.
 The last two Gujarat Sultans, Ahmad Shah III and Mahmud Shah III, were raised to
throne when they were young so the nobles were ruling the Sultanate. The
nobles divided territories between themselves but soon started fighting between
themselves for supremacy. One noble invited the Mughal emperor Akbar to
intervene in 1572 which resulted in the conquest of Gujarat by 1573 and Gujarat
becoming the province of the Mughal Empire.
 British East India Company had control and power over India but the throne was
of the Mughal Empire. Shah Alam II in 1803 became pensioners and puppets of
EIC.

 Phases of British Rule in India:

 The first is the period of ‘merchant capital’ dating from 1757 to 1813. This
‘mercantilist’ phase was marked by direct plunder and the EIC’s monopoly trade
functioning through the investment of surplus revenues in the purchase of Indian
finished goods for export to England and Europe.
 The second is the period of ‘industrial capital’ dating from 1813 to 1858. This
period saw the classic age of free trader industrial capitalist exploitation. The
entire pattern of trade underwent a dramatic change under the mighty impact of
England’s industrial revolution. During this period, India was converted rapidly
into a market for British textiles and a great source for raw materials. Traditional
handicrafts were thrown out of gear—a period when the ‘homeland of cotton
was inundated with cotton’ (Karl Marx).
 The third period is the period of ‘finance capital’ starting from the closing years of
the 19th century and continuing till independence. During this phase, finance-
imperialism began to entrench itself through the managing agency firms, export-
 import firms, exchange banks, and some export of capital. However, this sort of
periodization of the colonial exploitation is somewhat arbitrary and over-
schematic as Rajani Palme Dutt himself believed.

1. First Sikh-Anglo War (11 Dec: 1845 – 9 March 1846): In the Treaty of
Lahore on 9 March 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the valuable region
(the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas River and Sutlej River. The Lahore Durbar
was also required to pay an indemnity of 15 million rupees. Because it could not
readily raise this sum, it ceded Kashmir, Hazarah and all the forts, territories,
rights and interests in the hill countries situated between the River Bias and Indus
to the East India Company, as equivalent to ten million of rupees.
 In a later separate arrangement (the Treaty of Amritsar), the Raja of
Jammu, Gulab Singh, purchased Kashmir from the East India Company for a
payment of 7.5 million rupees and was granted the title Maharaja of Jammu
and Kashmir.
 Gwadar was bought from Sultanate of Oman, in 1958.
2. Second Sikh-Anglo War (1848): It resulted in the fall of the Sikh Empire, and
the annexation of the Punjab and what subsequently became the NWFP, by EIC.
British won the war. British captured Multan and Punjab.

 Wakhan Corridor:
 It is a narrow strip of territory in Badakhshan province in the Northeastern
Afghanistan that extends to China and separates Tajikistan from Pakistan.
 It is 220 km long and 16-64 km wide.
 United Nations Environment Program team surveyed Wakhan corridor for 25
days (19 October 2002 – 13 November 2002).
 A UN report was published from Geneva, Switzerland in July 2003 about Wakhan
corridor. In accordance with it, Wakhan corridor is 210 km from East to West and
20-60 km from North to South.
 According to the report, it’s area is 10,300 sq: km, it’s population is 10,350 and
there are 1,335 houses located there.
 As of 2010, it had 12,000 inhabitants.
  War of Independence (1857-58):
 It took place on May 1857 between British and Indians (Muslims & Hindus). It was
limited but powerful. It ended on July 1858.
 According to British, it was a mutiny/conspiracy on the parts of Indians against
the British.
 According to Hindus, it was a national uprising against the British.
 According to Muslims, it was an attempt to regain the stolen state from the
British.
 British Parliament consisted of two houses (House of Lords & House of
Commons).
 Edward Stanley (15th Earl of Derby) came to India on 1852. He was appointed as
the secretary of state for India. He communicated for them.
 The main cause for war was the use of cartridges bullets coated in grease. It was
believed that the bullet had first to be chewed on to make it more efficient and
also that the grease was made from the fat of cow and pig. This made the Hindus
and Muslims furious due to religious causes.
 The revolt started from Meerut on 24th April 1857. The soldiers were brought in
for parade but they refused to do so. General Car Michael Smith considered it his
insult and so he requested for a court Marshall for these soldiers, His request was
accepted. 85 soldiers out of 90 soldiers were given punishment. On 9th May, 85
men were court-martialled. 80 soldiers were sentenced to 10 years imprisonment
with hard labor, and remaining 5 soldiers were given 11 years imprisonment. On
9th May 1857, they were publicly humiliated and stripped off their uniforms.
 Meerut, a military cantonment, is located 64 km (40 miles) north of Delhi. It is
third native cavalry.
 Brown Bess rifle was replaced with Enfield rifle because this rifle proved
successful in the Crimean war (Fought between British, France & Russia).
 So on 10th May, the captured Indians were freed from the jails by their
compatriot Indians, the revolt started travelling to Delhi to meet Bahadur Shah
Zafar (82 years Old) so that he may lead the revolt. His son Mirza Mughal was
made C-in-C of this revolt. They collected weapons and killed any British onsight.
 Some regions of the company-controlled India and others remained calm and did
not take part in the uprising. The states were Bengal Presidency, Bombay
Presidency, Madras Presidency, Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, Kashmir
(Princely States) & Rajputana (Smaller state).
 There were 2,83,000 soldiers in toto. Out of which 50,000 were British and rest of
the soldiers were Indians.
 British tried to consolidate the Indians that it was a mere rumor but this was
carved in Indians’ minds.
 Civilians gave their support to the soldiers due to their own grievances.
 Mughal flag was put on Red Fort, Hijri Calendar was put again into use, coins of
the king were made and Mirza Mughal was made C-in-C of the revolutionary
army.
 There took place 4 revolts against British in India before 1857 mutiny.
 The Battle of Buxar was fought on 22 October 1764 between the forces under
the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and the
combined armies of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal till 1763; the Nawab of Awadh;
and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. The battle was fought at Buxar, a "small
fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on the banks of the Ganges
river about 130 kilometers (81 mi) west of Patna. It was a decisive victory for the
British East India Company. The lack of basic co-ordination among the three
disparate allies was responsible for their decisive defeat. Shuja-ud-Daulah and
Shah Alam surrendered, and the war was brought to an end by the Treaty of
Allahabad in 1765.
 The Vellore (A seaport in Madras) Mutiny took place on 10th July 1806. It was a
violent mutiny by Indian sepoys against the British East India Company. The
revolt lasted one full day, during which mutineers seized the Vellore Fort and
killed or wounded 200 British troops. The immediate causes of the mutiny
revolved mainly around resentment felt towards changes in the sepoy dress
code, introduced in November 1805. Beards, Tilak and combing were banned by
British. Hindus were prohibited from wearing religious marks on their foreheads
and Muslims were required to shave their beards and trim their moustaches.
Hindus refused to go to Burma because their religion did not allow to travel open
seas in order to retain their caste.
 The First Anglo-Burmese War (5 March 1824 – 24 February 1826) was the first of
three wars fought between the British and Burmese Empire in 19th century. The
war, which began primarily over the control of Northeastern India, ended in a
decisive British victory, giving the British total control
of Assam, Manipur, Cachar and Jaintia as well as Arakan
Province and Tenasserim. The Burmese were also forced to pay an indemnity of
one million pounds sterling, and sign a commercial treaty.
 The Second Anglo-Burmese War (5 April 1852 – 20 January 1853) took place,
with the outcome of the gradual extinction of Burmese sovereignty &
independence.
 All these rebellions were suppressed by the British very easily but they could not
suppress the War of Independence 1857.
 British Generals in War of Independence were General George Anson, General
Patrick Grant, General Collin Campbell, Lord Canning, John Nicholson (Irish) &
Jung Bahadur Rana.
 Hindu rebels were Tantia Tope (Military advisor of Nana sahib), Lakshmi Bai (Rani
of Jhansi : Manikarnika) and Dhondu Pant (Nana sahib : Son of Peshwa Bajrao II).
 Muslims rebels were Bahadur Shah Zafar, General Bakht Khan Barech
(Muhammad Baksh Bin Abdullah), Mirza Mughal and Begum Hazrat Mahal (2nd
wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah).

 Causes of Indian Failure in War of Independence:

 Lack of Leadership (Central Command): Bahadur Shah Zafar was 82 years old, he
was emotionally, financially, physically and morally misfit for leading the rebels.
Jealousy, between Mirza Mughal (Commander-in-Chief) and General Bakht Khan,
also gave a setback to rebels.
 Financial Crisis: The Mughal emperors themselves were pensioners of British East
India Company. The financial conditions were quite miserable.
 Mutual Jealousy & Rivalry between Mirza Mughal & General Bakht Khan:
 Poor means of Communication: Telecommunications in India began with the
introduction of the telegraph. Earl of Delhousi (2nd last Governor General of India
: 1848 – 1856) introduced a telegraphic system that had access over 6400 km
(4000 miles) from Peshawar to Dhaka. The Indian postal and telecom sectors are
one of the world’s oldest. In 1850, the first experimental electric telegraph line
was started between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour. In 1851, it was opened for
the use of the British East India Company.
 Superior Ammunitions: The British were having modern kinds of ammunitions.
 British Naval Power:
 Reinforcements for the British from Crimea (1856):
 Changes in Plan: Original plan was on 31st May, 1857 but due to the 24th April
incident war broke out early without proper preparation.
 Treachery of Sikhs, Gorkhas, Marathas, Pathans and Nizam of Hyderabad:
 War was not spread throughout whole India:
 There was no alternative to feudalism put forth by the rebels (mutinous sepoys
demonstrated a lack of societal alternative to British occupation):
 Lack of educated people:
 Lack of Unity:
 Betrayal of Hazrat Zeenat Mahal:
  The General Services Enlistment Act if 1856:
 Lord Canning's General Services Enlistment Act (1856) orders all recruits of the
Bengal army to be ready for service both within and outside India.

 Grievances of Indian Soldiers:

 Indian soldiers were not given promotions. The only condition, which prevailed,
on which their promotion could be possible was accepting Christianity.
 Their pay was comparatively less than their British counterparts.
 The British officials often poked fun at the culture and civilization of Indian
soldiers.

 Reasons behind War of Independence 1857:

 There were two kinds of reasons (Immediate reasons & Long range reasons).
 It was incentive (limited but powerful) war.

 British East India Company (BEIC):

 In British East India Company, there were 24 directors called Court of Directors.
 In England, Charter Act of 1853 reduced the number of Directors of the Company
from 24 to 18. Out of these 18, six were to be appointed by the crown.
 The Charter act of 1853 provided for appointment of a separate governor for the
Presidency of Bengal, distinct from the Governor General. However, the court of
Directors and the Board of Control were authorized to appoint a lieutenant
General, till the appointment of Governor was made. And Lieutenant General
was appointed in 1854, but no Governor was appointed for Bengal till 1912.
 This act also empowered the Court of Directors either to constitute a new
Presidency (In lines of Presidency of Madras or Bombay) or appoint a Lieutenant
Governor. No new presidency was constituted but in 1859, a new Lieutenant
Governor was appointed for Punjab.
 According to this act, there were two councils of Governor General of India
(Legislative Council & Executive Council).
 Legislative council (Law making) consisted of 12 members, a Governor General, a
Commander-in-Chief, a chief justice and a regular judge of Supreme Court,
presidencies of 4 states and 4 members of executive council are members of
legislative council as well.
 Executive council (Administration) consisted of 4 members.
 Madras (now Chennai) was purchased by BEIC in 22nd August 1639.
 A complaint came that taxes were high etc.
 12.5% profit was given to Directors.
 In 1767, British got 4 lac pounds yearly from Bengal.
 In 1772, loan was asked from the British government due to the financial upset of
the British East India Company. To know the root reason of asking for loan they
sent a 31 member cabinet to India. They presented a repot in May 1774. BEIC got
1.4 million sterling pounds loan on a 4% interest.
 First Act of India known as Regulatory Act of 1773. In accordance with it,
Supreme Court of Kolkata was to be made (Chief Justice and 3 other Judges). In
1790-1796, There were three villages Kalikata, Gobindapur and Sutanuti
purchased by Britishers and thus developed the city of Kolkata. To regulate the
activities of Britishers, a Governor General of Bengal was appointed (Fort
William). His council will be of 4 members. Governor General was given
permission to give casting vote in case of tie. The governor-general had a council
of four and was given a casting vote but no veto. The PM of UK, at that time, was
Frederick North, Lord North (1770 – 1782).
 Till 1912, Calcutta was capital of India. And From 1912-1929, Delhi remained the
capital of Delhi. From 1929 onwards, New Delhi is the capital of India.
 Pitt’s India Act 1784, was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain intended to
address the shortcomings of the Regulating Act of 1773 by bringing the East India
Company's rule in India under the control of the British Government. Named for
British prime minister William Pitt the Younger, the act provided for the
appointment of a Board of Control, and provided for a joint government of British
India by the Company and the Crown with the government holding the ultimate
authority. A six member board of controllers was set up for political activities and
Court of directors for financial activities. The PM of UK, at that time, was William
Pitt, the younger. He became the youngest PM in 1783 at the age of 24 (1783 –
1801). He left his office in 1801, but was prime minister again from 1804 until his
death in 1806.
 Act of 1833, According to it William Bentinck (14th Governor General of Bengal)
was made the Governor General of India because they had control over more
than half of India. The PM of UK at that time was Charles Grey, 2nd Earl of Grey
(1830 – 1834).
 Act of 1858, According to it Viscount Canning (8th Governor General of India) was
made the Viceroy of India. The PM of UK, at that time, was (1855 – 1858).
 Lord Warren Hastings was the first Governor General of Bengal, 1773.
 Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) was the first Governor General of India and
last Governor General of Bengal.
 Viscount Canning (1837-1859) was the last Governor General of India and first
Viceroy of India.
 First president of board of control was Viscount Sydney (1784 – 1790).
 Last president of board of control was Lord Stanley (5th June 1858 – 2nd August
1858).

 Peshwa Bajirao II:

 He (10 January, 1775 – 28 January, 1851) was the last Peshwa of the Maratha
Empire, and governed from 1795 to 1818. 8 lac pension was given to him by
British East India company. He wanted to transfer his pension to his adopted son
Nana Sahib after his death but the British didn’t agree.

 Long range causes of War of Independence:

 Political Causes of War:
 There were 5 sub-heads regarding political causes of war.
 1. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan – Political survey and analysis: He wrote 3 political
writings. There was also a religious writing “Commentary on Bible” written by
him. 3 political writings are mentioned below:
 Tareekh-e-Sarkashi-e-Bijnor (History of Bijnor Rebellion): It was written in Bijnor
in 1858. It was published by Idarah-i-Abdiyat-i-Delhi in 1982.
 Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind (Causes of Indian revolt): It was written in 1858 in
Muradabad. It was published Mufassilat Gazette Press in Agra in 1859. He made
500 copies of this book. It was translated in English in 1873 by two friends of Sir
Syed (Sir Auckland Colvin & Lieut: Colonel GFI Graham).
 Series of Pamplets (The Loyal Muhammadans of India) from 1860-66:
 Reasons behind the writing of these books:
 There were allegations that Indians were allies of Russia and Persia.
 They alleged that this revolt was pre-planned.
 Basic reason (of War of Independence) according to Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan:
 Absence of any Indian representing the Indian point of view in the viceroy’s
legislative council.
 2. Annexation of States:
 States that were purchased and states that were forcibly or diplomatically
occupied.
 They purchased Madras (located in Bay of Bengal) in 1639-40.
 In May 1662, King Charles II of England married Catherine of Braganza, whose
family offered a large dowry (a gift made by the father of the bride to the groom).
Part of this gift was the Portuguese territory of Bombay (Near Arabian Sea).
However, Charles II did not want the trouble of ruling these islands and in 1668
persuaded the East India Company to rent them for just 10 pounds of gold a year.
 The British purchased 3 villages (Kalikata, Govindpura and Sutanati) in 1690-96.
And the City of Calcutta was made.
 The British won Battle of Plassey in June 1757, and captured Bengal.
 After 4 Mysore wars, finally the British captured Mysore in December 1799.
 In reign of 6th Governor General of Bengal, Marquees Richard Colley Wellesley
(1798-1805), British reign expanded. In 1802-03, Delhi & Agra came into their
occupation. In 1803, Shah Alam II (Blinded) came in control of the British.
 Three wars were fought between Afghan and the British.
 The First Anglo-Afghan War was fought between the British East India Company
and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1839-42. Following a protracted civil war
that began in 1816, the Barakzay clan became the ruling dynasty of Afghanistan,
with its most powerful member, Dost Moḥammad Khan, ascending the throne in
1826. With Great Britain and Russia maneuvering for influence in Afghanistan,
Dost Moḥammad was forced to balance his country between the two great
powers. In the years leading up to this conflict, both the British and Russians
approached Afghanistan's Emir Dost Mohammad Khan, hoping to form an
alliance with him. Britain's Governor-General of India, George Eden (Lord
Auckland), grew extremely concerned with he heard that a Russian envoy had
arrived in Kabul in 1838; his agitation increased when talks broke down between
the Afghan ruler and the Russians, signaling the possibility of a Russian invasion.
Following this great victory over the British, Afghanistan maintained its
independence and continued to play the two European powers off of each other
for three more decades. In the meantime, the Russians conquered much of
Central Asia up to the Afghan border, seizing what is now Kazakhstan,
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
 The Second Anglo-Afghan War was a military conflict fought between the British
Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880, when the latter was ruled
by Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty, the son of former Emir Dost
Mohammad Khan. This was the second time British India invaded Afghanistan.
The war ended after a series of military victories by the British against various
Afghan forces. The Afghans agreed to let the British attain all of their geopolitical
objectives from the Treaty of Gandamak. Most of the British and Indian soldiers
withdrew from Afghanistan. The Afghan tribes were permitted to maintain
internal rule and local customs but they had to cede control of the area's foreign
relations to the British, who, in turn, guaranteed the area's freedom from foreign
military domination as a buffer between the British Raj and the Russian Empire.
Afghanistan also officially ceded various border territories to the British Empire
and allowed permanent British mission in Afghanistan.
 Treaty of Gandamak: It officially ended the first phase of the Second Anglo-
Afghan War. Mohammad Yaqub Khan ceded various frontier areas
to Britain while retaining full sovereignty over Afghanistan. It was signed on 26th
May 1879 by King Mohammad Yaqub Khan of Afghanistan and Sir Louis
Cavagnari of British's Government of India at a British army camp near the village
of Gandamak, about 70 miles (110 km) east of Kabul.
 The Third Anglo-Afghan War began on 6 May 1919 when the Emirate of
Afghanistan invaded British India and ended with an armistice on 8 August
1919. The war resulted in the Afghans winning back control of foreign affairs
from Britain, and the British recognizing Afghanistan as independent. It was a
minor strategic victory for the British because the Durand Line was reaffirmed as
the political boundary between Afghanistan and the British Raj, and the Afghans
agreed not to foment trouble on the British side. The settlement was finally
concluded when the Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed.
 Treaty of Rawalpindi: It was an armistice made between the United Kingdom
and Afghanistan during the Third Anglo-Afghan War. It was signed on 8 August
1919 in Rawalpindi, British India (now in Punjab, Pakistan). The United Kingdom
recognized Afghanistan's independence, agreed that British India would not
extend past the Khyber Pass and stopped British subsidies to Afghanistan. This
treaty could be cancelled by both parties within three years of signing but neither
party cancelled it. So this became an internationally recognized border
agreement.
 The Durand Line is the 2,430 km (1,510 mi) international border
between Pakistan and Afghanistan. It was established in 1896 between
Sir Mortimer Durand, a British diplomat and civil servant of the British Raj,
and Abdur Rahman Khan, the Afghan Amir, to fix the limit of their
respective spheres of influence and improve diplomatic relations and trade.
Afghanistan was considered by the British as an independent state at the time,
although the British controlled its foreign affairs and diplomatic relations.
 Kashmir was captured in 1839.
 Sindh was captured in 1843.
 Gwalior, Balochistan & Patna was also captured by British East India Company.
 When Earl of Dalhousie (1848-56) became the 2nd last Governor General, Punjab
(Near Multan) was annexed in 1849. It comprised of five administrative
divisions Delhi, Jullundur, Lahore, Multan and Rawalpindi and a number of
princely states.
 Doctrine of lapse: It was an annexation policy applied by the Lord Dalhousie
in India before 1858. According to the doctrine, any Indian princely state under
the suzerainty of the British East India Company (the dominant imperial power in
 the subcontinent), as a vassal state under the British subsidiary system, would
have its princely status abolished (and therefore annexed into British India) if the
ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a male heir". The latter
supplanted the long-established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to
choose a successor. In addition, the British decided whether potential rulers were
competent enough. The doctrine and its application were widely regarded by
many Indians as illegitimate. The company took over the princely states
of Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Nagpur and Jhansi (1854), Tore
and Arcot(1855) and Udaipur (Chhattisgarh) under the terms of the doctrine of
lapse. On the basis of chronic disorder, that state would be property of British
East India Company (Effected Muslims) and Oudh (1856) was annexed in such a
way.
 3. Pensions: British East India Company abolished, detained and paid pensions.
Peshwa Bajirao II, used to get 8 lac pension, had three adopted sons, Nana Sahib
was among them. After Bajirao, Nana Sahib didn’t get pension due to the reason
he participated in War of Independence.
 Damodar Rao was the adapted son of Mahraja Gangadhar Rao & Rani Laxmibai of
Jhansi State. Born as Anand Rao to Vasudev Rao Newalkar, a cousin of Raja
Gangadhar Rao, he was adopted by the maharaja after his own son died. The
adoption of Anand Rao, who was renamed Damodar Rao, occurred on the day
before the Maharaja died. The adoption was in the presence of the British
political officer who was given a letter from the Maharaja instructing that the
child be treated with respect and that the government of Jhansi should be given
to his widow for her lifetime. After the death of the Maharaja in November 1853,
because Damodar Rao (born Anand Rao) was adopted, the British East India
Company, under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, applied the Doctrine of
Lapse, rejecting Damodar Rao's claim to the throne and annexing the state to its
territories. In March 1854, Rani Lakshmibai was given an annual pension of Rs.
60,000 and ordered to leave the palace and the fort.
 The pension of Rani Jindan Kaur, wife of Raja Ranjeet Singh (Punjab & Sindh was
snatched from him, was reduced from 15000 pounds to 1200 pounds.
 4. Abolition of Titles:
 5. Worse treatment with Mughals by the British:
  Economic Grievances of India:
 Indian people were involved in two types of professions (Industrial activist &
Agriculturist).
 Textile Industry (Four-Fifth of Indians): In the beginning of 19th century, The
British said that silk winders will not work in private factories. Eventually, many
factories were closed. As a result, there happened a shortage of silk in England,
UK. Previously which (silk) was being made by private factories and exported
from India. Consequently, they permitted silk winders to work in private factories
to overcome the deficiency of silk in UK. From 1813-1830 (duration of 18 years),
the average annual sale of private factories was 54,51,452 sterling (pounds). On
the other hand, the average annual sale of British EIC’s industries was 18,82,718
sterling (pounds). The average annual sale of private factories was approximately
2 times greater than that of British EIC’s factories. The difference was 35,68,734
sterling. In 1830, to avoid bankruptcy of English factories, they set a duty of 60%-
70% on every Indian export. Finally, they banned some goods and there raised
the duty to 400% on rest of the goods.
 Agriculture: In 1793, according to the British, tax on Bengal (Land Avenue / Land
tax) will be 90% on rental. And there will be 80% tax on rental cultivators in
Northern India (Delhi and its surroundings). In 1835, according to the British, the
tax on Bengal will be 35% + cesses (Public developmental works) on rental. And
there will be 50% + cesses tax on rental cultivators in Northern India.
 Maharaja Man Singh: He was the last independent Maharaja or Marwar
Kingdom and Jodhpur state. He had 577 villages, out of which 571 villages were
annexed by the British. The British were getting 34.66 pounds (sterling) tax on
each of 577 villages. After the annexation of 571 villages, Raja Man Singh had to
pay 50 pounds (sterling) tax on each of 6 villages.
 During the British occupation of Punjab after Maharaja Ranjeet Singh’s (Leader
of Sikh Empire) era, taxes were 25% less. On the other hand, Raja ordered for 5%-
15% cesses was taken in addition to the tax already taken from cultivators.
Jalandpur, Peshawar, Hazara, Kashmir & Punjab were parts of Sikh Empire.
 Act of 1813: The British allocated 1 lac rupees for Muslims. From 1813-35, the
money was stuck. It was not used anywhere.
 English Education Act 1835: It was a legislative Act of the Council of India in
1835 giving effect to a decision in 1835 by Lord William Bentinck, then Governor-
General of British India, to reallocate funds the East India Company was required
by the British Parliament to spend on education and literature in India (advised
by Thomas Babington Macaulay; appointed as the first law member of the couvil
of Governor General’s council). Formerly, they had supported traditional Muslim
and Hindu education and the publication of literature in the native learned
 tongues (Sanskrit and Persian); henceforward they were to support
establishments teaching a Western curriculum with English as the language of
instruction. Together with other measures promoting English as the language of
administration and of the higher law courts (replacing Persian), this led
eventually to English becoming one of the languages of India, rather than simply
the native tongue of its foreign rulers.
 Disadvantages of the Education Act of 1835: This gave a major setback to
Persian. In 1835, Persian was banned from courts. It gave Muslims a cultural
setback. It spread large scale unemployment. By 1839 Lord Auckland succeeded
Bentinck as Governor-General, during his tenure Persian was banned offices.
During Sir Henry Hardinge’s era, it was announced in 1844 that government jobs
will be given to those who are well-versed on the basis English language &
Science subjects. After the war, Persian was officially eradicated from the sub-
continent in 1858. In 1835, Urdu Language was introduced and made it practiced
by Shah Wali Ullah and Muhammad Akbar II announced Urdu as official language.
 Note: Hindi was product of nineteenth century.

 Socio-Religious Grievances:
 In 1806, during Sir George Barlow’s era (1805-07), 21 priests came to India.
 In Dalhousie’s era (1848-56), 142 priests, 3 bishops, 3 archdeacons came to India
to preach Christianity. People were compelled to accept Christianity. The
prophets of Muslims & Hindus were the targets of their Christianity. They tried to
destroy Taj Mahal in Agra, for the sake of 27 different types of marbles used in it.
Sir John Waven made efforts to protect it. They tried to destroy Jamia Masjid.
 In Bentinck’s era, Satti was banned. It was considered as a capital offence. Sir
Henry Harding also gave attention to its practice.
 More than 1500 thugs, during the Bentinck’s era, were decided to be punished
severely either by death penalty or were transported alive. They mostly belonged
to the Hindu community. They (Thugs) killed by way of strangling and looted.
 Infanticide as a Hindu Custom: Newly born babies were killed and buried. Due to
some reasons that A girl might be born and be a reason of disgrace for the family
or her marriage expenses.
 If a Hindu accepted Christianity, parents did not give him share of property.
 The British passed a bill to eradicate all these customs and rituals. All the
windows were permitted to remarry.
 People of all religions had same mess, offices, sitting places which created unrest
due to the Hindu caste system. Railways and Telegraph was considered a way of
converting Hindus into Christianity. 95% of the religious grievances were related
to Hindus and only 5% were related to Muslims.
  Grievances of Indian Soldiers:
 Indian soldiers were humiliated religiously & morally.
 Pay for Indian soldiers was 8-9 rupees, whereas the pay for the British soldiers
was 50 rupees.
 There was no any promotion given to Indian soldiers, the only condition on which
promotion was given, was accepting Christianity.
 Pensions were extremely less.

 War; Its Consequences and Effects:

 War ended on June 1858.
 Treatment of Winners with Losers: 24 Muslim princes were publicly hanged.
 Delhi population dropped from lacs to thousands.
 Hanging, killing and shooting continued from 1858-62.
 Many women committed suicide.
 Muslims were being targeted, unemployed & their properties were confiscated.
 Nana Sahib, Rani of Jhansi and General Bakht Khan’s deaths are unknown.
 Bahadur Shah Zafar II was tied in a military court. The British put 5 allegations on
him.
 He was the principle leader of the mutineers.
 His eldest son Mirza Mughal was Commander-in-Chief of revolutionaries.
 49 European children were murdered.
 He was exiled to Rangoon (Burma) and died there in 1862.
 Begum Zeenat Mahal died in 1886.

 Indian Act of 1858:

 Control of Indian Sub-continent was taken by Queen Victoria.
 East India Company was abolished and so were 77 reagents.
 Board of Council & Board of Control were abolished.
 Secretary of State was made to present a report.
 Strategic position of India was taken control over.

 Queen Victoria’s Proclamation of 1858:

 It was declared officially on 1st November 1858.
 It was a guarantee to the Indian people.
 It was translated in 70 languages.
 Text of Proclamation: We hereby announce to the Native Princes of India that
all treaties, engagements made with them by or under the authority of the
 Honorable East India Company are by us accepted, and will be scrupulously
maintained, and we look for a like observance on their part. We desire no
extensions of Our present territorial possessions; and while We will permit no
aggression upon Our dominions or Our Rights to be attempted with impunity, We
shall sanction no encroachment on those of others, We shall respect the rights,
dignity, and honor of Native Princes as Our own; and we desire that they—as well
as our own subjects—should enjoy prosperity, and that social advancement,
which can only be secured by internal peace and good government. We hold
ourselves bound to the Natives of Our Indian territories by the same obligations
of duty, which bind us to all our other subjects, and those obligations by the
Blessing of God, we shall faithfully and conscientiously fulfill. And it is our further
will that, so far as may be, our subjects, of whatever race or creed, be freely and
impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may be
qualified, by their education, ability, and integrity, duly to discharge.
 Counter Proclamation: It was presented by Begum Hazrat Mahal in 31st
December 1858. If only strength, strategy, grit, balance and vision could blend
with beauty, it would be a sketch of Begum Hazrat Mahal, the Queen of Awadh.
Not only did she give the British their toughest stint in India, she challenged the
Queen of England by issuing a counter proclamation against her. She also warned
people not to believe these promises.

 Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898):

 He was born in 17th October 1817 and died in 27th March 1898. He was also
known as “Syed Ahmed Taqvi”.
 The forefathers of Sir Syed worked for the Mughal courts and also they worked
for the British. Sir Syed also worked at the Mughal court but due to lack of
income, he left it. Even with the financial crises, he had an aristocratic look.
 He goes with the 36th generation of Hazrat Imam Hussain. During Umayyad
Caliphate, his family migrated from Arabia to Iran, Iran to Afghanistan, and finally
Afghanistan to the Indian sub-continent.
 The first one to approach sub-continent was Dost Muhammad during the reign
of Shah Jahan. He was awarded the title “Yaka Bahadur” (Brave alone) by the
Aurangzaib Alamgir. He went back to Afghanistan and never returned to India.
His sons (Syed Burhan, Syed Imad & Syed Hadi) decided to settle in the sub-
continent.
 He was son of Mir Mutaqi. Sayyid’s grandfather was Mir Hadi, who was awarded
a title “Nawab Jawad-ud-Daulah”. His maternal grandfather was Khawaja
Fareed-uddin Ahmed. His mother was Aziz-un-Nisa.
 Bahadur Shah Zafar II, the last Mughal emperor, awarded the title of ‘Arif Jung’
to Sir Syed.
 Maulana Altaf Hussain Hali wrote a biography on Sir Syed named “Hayaat-e-
Javed”.
 At the age of 17, he started a clerical job with the EIC due to the financial crisis
after the death of his grandfather and father.
 Soon he rose to the position of Serestadar (Petty Court Official) then be became
an Assistant (Naib Munshi). In 1840, he was promoted to title of ‘Munshi’.
 His uncle was a judge in Delhi. He requested to become civil revenue Assistant.
He wanted to become a Sub-judge. In December 1841, he passed Sub-Judge
Competitive Examination while his elder brother failed. He became Sub-Judge
and was posted in Rohtak. And later became Civil Judge & Senior Judge. He
served various stations of the Sub-continent. He was retired in July 1876.
 Haryana came into being in 1st November 1566. There were 22 districts of
Haryana and Rohtak was one of them. India was divided into 29 states and 6
Union territories.

 Writings of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

 Jam-i-Jum: It was written in 1840 in Persian and got published in 1841. It
contains brief biographic records/sketches of 43 rulers, every ruler described in
only 17 lines from Amir Timur to Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
 Intikhab-ul-Akhwain: It was written in 1842. It contains the material which was
collected by Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan for the examination of Sub-Judge and some
added material. He wrote the book for the sake of people who couldn’t afford
academies, and his own financial crisis. In 1884, He was invited as chief guest and
was paid high tribute by Anjaman-e-Islamia Lahore on his efforts to help and
guide other students.
 Asar-us-Sanadid: Its first edition was published in 1847 and second edition was
published in 1854. It was written in Persian. It contains the antiquity of Delhi and
Historical monuments of Delhi. It has 4 volumes and 100 sketches. First volume
contains the history of buildings inside Delhi. Second volume contains the history
of buildings outside Delhi. Third volume contains the history of 404 BC buildings.
Fourth volume contains the history of other buildings, Urdu language and about
Delhi climate. In 1861, M. Garcin-de-Tassy, famous French scholar, translated it
into French language. In 1864, Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland,
one of the ancient societies, conferred honorary membership on Sir Syed on the
basis of this writing.
 Akbarnama: It is about the rules/laws imposed by Mughal Emperor Akbar I. It
was commissioned by Akbar, written by Abu-ul-Fazl and edited By Sir Syed
 Ahmed Khan. It is stated that the book took seven years to be completed. It has 3
volumes. Its first volume (Amir Timur – Sher Shah Suri) deals with the birth
of Akbar, the history of Timur's family and the reigns of Babur and Humayun and
the Suri sultans of Delhi. Its second volume deals with the 46 ruling years of
Akbar (1556-1605; 50 years) because the writer was killed.
 Tarekh-e-Sarkashi-e-Bijnore:
 Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind:
 Series of Pamphlets (The Loyal Muhammadans of India) from 1860-66:
 The Aligarh Institute Gazettes (1866): In 1866, a building named the Aligarh
Institute was erected for the Scientific Society of Aligarh, which launched its
journal Aligarh Institute Gazette in the same year. It made 1 publication in 1 week
and later on 2 publications in 1 week. It had a characteristic that it had two
columns one in English and the other in Urdu.
 Tabyin-ul-Qalam: In 1862, he wrote a commentary on Bible known as “Tabyin-
ul-Qalam” which was incomplete.
 Tehzeeb-ul-Ikhlaak: It was a monthly magazine published by Sir Syed Ahmed
Khan between 1871 and 1897 for the Muslim behavior.
 Essays on the life of Muhammad: He also took a drastic step by writing
another book in London and published it in 1870. In 1871, he included another
material “Khutbaat-e-Ahmadia” a writing in Urdu.
 Tafseer-ul-Quran: In 1898, he was writing a commentary on Holy Quran. He
wrote a tafseer on about 17 surahs and met his death.

 Educational Contributions of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan:

 Establishing Schools: He established three schools Muradabad, Ghazipur and
Aligarh. The school of Muradabad was later merged into Persian School whose
head was Sir John Austache. The school of Ghazipur was also merged into other
local school. Only School of Aligarh (MAO school) retained its original position as
it was established. It was, established in 1875, inaugurated on the birthday of
Queen Victoria (24th May 1875) just to please the British. It became college in
1877 and became university in 1920. Hindus got a university in Banaras in 1916.
 MAO College Aligarh: It was inaugurated on 8th Jan, 1877 by Baron Litton I
(Viceroy; He also made Sir Syed the member of his legislative council). It’s
headmaster was Henry George Impey Siddons. The area of 74 bighas (1 Bigha = 4
Canals) of land was gifted to Sir Syed and his associates. It had 4 Bungalows, 3
bunglaows were bought and much later 4th was also bought. For income, at the
boundary shops were established and rent was collected. It was originally
affiliated with Calcutta University, and was transferred to the Allahabad
University in 1885. Its examination center was in Agra. It provided nursery for
 leaders (Moulana Mohammad Ali Johar & Moulana Shokat Ali Johar) in
movements like Pakistan.
 Income and Expenditure of MAO College: In 1875-76, the college received an
amount of 10,500 considered as Grant-in-aid. It received 5,600 as Tuition fees.
The College fund was 18,500 and amount of donations and buildings rents was
10,364 which make 44,964 in Toto. Whereas the total expenditure was 41,408.
In year 1898-99, income was 72,830 whereas expenditure was 66,941.
 From 1893-98: Out of 393 students who graduated, 77 were from MAO college
(19.5%). Admission policy was open for all.
 From 1884-88: There were 255 students in Toto. Out of 171 were Muslims & 84
were Hindus.
 Interest of People in Colleges: In 1898, there were 272 students in Toto. Out of
which 262 were in English and 10 in other departments.
 Alumni of MAO College: Hasrat Mohani, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Ziaddin Ahmed &
Maulana Abdul Haque are some graduates of MAO College.
 Aligarh Scientific Society: It was founded by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan in 1862. In
Muradabad, it was named as Translation society. Then in 1863 at Ghazipur, it
was named as Scientific Society. Finally in Aligarh in 1864, it was named as
Aligarh Scientific Society.
 Reasons for the establishment of Aligarh Scientific Society: To print and sell
works of our own authors in Persian, Urdu or other languages. To translate in
Urdu, the best works of America & European authors. E.g; History of India –
Mountstourt Elphistone.
 Aligarh British Indian Association: It was established in Aligarh in 1866. The
main purpose of this organization was to express the grievances and point of
view of Indians to the British parliament. On its behalf, on 1st August 1867 Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan requested the Viceroy Lord Lawerence by submitting an
application to give permission to establish an Urdu University in India, if it is not
possible then at least give us a Urdu faculty at Calcutta University. Viceroy replied
with some questions: What about fundind and literature material? What about
administration? Sir Syed’s transfers were also issues. The association solved many
problems like railway issues and duty was reduced by half (One aana per 10 tola
was reduced to One aana per 20 tola).
 Society of the Educational: It was established in Banaras. The main purpose of
its creation was the establishment of a college. It was converted into a residential
university because of Sir Sayyid’s visit to UK where he learned the system of
Cambridge (East England) and Oxford (South England), which were established in
twelfth century. The he favored English medium of instruction and he requested
for a Muslim residential university. In 10 February 1873, Sir Syed’s son Mahmud
 requested for the residential university during Viceroy Baron Northbrook’s
period. Problems were again of funding and administration, power to affiliate
college without any affected control of the British was not materialized.
 Indian Education Commission of 1882-83: 27th President of Indian Board of
Control, Sir Charles Wood (1852-55) wrote a dispatch (letter) in 1854 to the then
Governor General of India, Earl of Dalhousie (1848-56) that universities should be
established in the presidencies of Indian sub-continent. There must be an
appointment of a general to help and educate people. Private people should be
given government recognition.