GLOBEFISH RESEARCH PROGRAMME

The global status of seaweed

production, trade and utilization

Volume 124
FAO GLOBEFISH RESEARCH PROGRAMME VOL. 124

The global status of seaweed production,

trade and utilization

by

Fatima Ferdouse
Susan Løvstad Holdt
Rohan Smith
Pedro Murúa
Zhengyong Yang

FAO Consultants
Products, Trade and Marketing Branch
Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy and Resources Division
Rome, Italy

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2018
FAO. 2018.
The global status of seaweed production, trade and utilization, by Fatima Ferdouse,
Zhengyong Yang, Susan Løvstad Holdt, Pedro Murúa and Rohan Smith, FAO
Consultants.
Globefish Research Programme Volume 124. Rome, Italy.

ABSTRACT

This report is an update of the status of the global seaweed market: production figures
from culture and capture, the size of the international market for seaweed and its
commercially important extracts, the leading nations by region, developments in
processing and utilization technology, and innovations in the industry, as well as the
challenges and outlook for the industry.

As it is not possible to feature all individual countries of importance in the seaweed sector,
several have been selected as being representative of the different regions of the world:
Asia [China, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and
Thailand); South America (Chile); Europe (Denmark, the European Union); and Africa
(Morocco, South Africa and Zanzibar (Tanzania)]. The sections on Chile, China, Denmark
and South Africa are based largely on previous studies commissioned by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Layout: Gloria Loriente

Copy Editor: Margie Peters-Fawcett
Cover photograph: ©IFAD/Joanne Levitan

iii
 Cyanobacteria

Saccharina japonica, Undaria pinnatifid

Sargassum fusiforme Porphyra , Eucheuma , Kappaphycus
alvarezii Gracilaria ; Enteromorpha clathrata Monostroma
nitidum Caulerpa . Saccharina japonica,
Laminaria japonica
Eucheuma Kappaphycus alvarezii
Undaria pinnatifida wakame Porphyra
nori Spirulina

Spirulina.

Gelidium, Gracilaria Pterocladis,

Eucheuma Kappaphycus

Saccharina japonica kombu Undaria pinnatifid

wakame Sargassum fusiforme hiziki Ulva ,
Enteromorpha , Monostroma , Caulerpa Codium sp
E.cotonii, E. spinosum Chondrus crispus,

Gracilaria

Gracilaria

Eucheuma
Gracilaria Undaria pinnatifid
Source

Lessonia nigrescens
huiro palo (Lessonia trabeculata
Gracilaria Laminaria digitata) luga
negra (Sarcothalia crispata Macrocystis spp Saccharina
japonica Ascophyllum nodosum Gigartina skottsbergii
Gracilaria

Eucheuma
Gracilaria
Undaria pinnatifid wakame Kappaphycus
Porphyra nori
 nori. Undaria
pinnatifid wakame Gracilaria

Nori is a staple in Japanese cuisine.

© FAO/Fatima Ferdouse
 Saccharina japonica

Saccharina japonica, P haitanensis, Gracilaria Sargassum

,

Gracilaria

Gracilaria
Porphyra

et al

Seaweed farmer in the Philippines regaining her livelihood after typhoon Haiyan.
© FAO
Source

Porphyra , Saccharina japonica Undaria spp nori,

kombu wakame Nori kombu
wakame kombu

nori

Ecklonia Durvillea antarctica,

Eucheuma Kappaphycus
Chondrus Gigartina
 Gracilaria
Hypnea, Porphyra Acanthophora Caulerpa Gracilaria

Porphyra ,
Saccharina japonica Undaria spp

Saccharina japonica Undaria Porphyra

Gracilaria Sargassum,

Gracilaria

Sargassum

Saccharina japonica)

Source
Main commercial seaweed species in China

Saccharina japonica
Gracilaria Undaria (wakame)
Porphyra nori
Saccharina japonica

Eucheuma sp, Hizikia

fusiforme Enteromorpha sp

Source
 Saccharina japonica

Hai Dai

Saccharina japonica

Materia Medica’

Undaria pinnatifida

Porphyra

Porphyra haitanensis
Porphyra yezoensis

Gracilaria sp

Gracilaria

Eucheuma

Gelidium

Gelidium
Sargassum
Sargassum

Processing of seaweed

spirulina

Porphyra haitanensis
Instant sea tangle (brand: Guanwu Kelp).
© Yoycart

Porphyra yezoensis
 Porphyra spp

Dried sea tangle. Sea tangle knots.

Dried and pressed laver. Seasoned laver soup.

© Yang © Yang

Sargassum fusiforme

Sargassum fusiforme

Sargassum fusiforme
 Undaria pinnatifida

Dried Undaria.
© Yang

Sargassum fusiforme

Materia Medica Saccharina japonica Ecklonia

kunbu Sargassum (haizo),

Porphyra
(zicai)

Marketing and trade of seaweed and seaweed products

not
Source
Source: .

nori
 Eucheuma
nei
Gracilaria

Source

Eucheuma spp
Kappaphycus spp Gracilaria spp

Eucheuma and Kappaphycus

Processing of seaweed extracts

Trade in raw and processed seaweed

Source

Gracilaria
Source

Eucheuma

E cottonii

E. cottonii

Source
New market trends

cottonii Gracilaria

© Sudari Pawiro

Potential and challenges

Production of seaweed (farmed)

E spinosum E cottonii (Kappaphycus)

Source:

Caulerpa Ulva) Sargassum, Tubinaria, Dictyota

Padina) Gracilaria, Eucheuma Laurencia

Monoline culture of seaweed. © INFOFISH

© Fatima Ferdouse
Seaweed mariculture and drying facilities in Semporna, Malaysia.
© Fatima Ferdouse.

Eucheuma

Gelidium and Gracilaria

Agar agar is popular as a dessert item

and as a content of drinks in Malaysia.
© Fatima Ferdouse

© Fatima Ferdouse

Import-export trade
Source

Source
Outlook for the seaweed sector

Gracilaria

wakame, nori

Source:
Source:

Source

Seaweed from aquaculture

Eucheuma
spp Caulerpa, Gracilaria
Sargassum
Eucheuma spp E. cottonii (Kappaphycus) E. denticulatum,
E cottonii
(Kappaphycus)
 Sargassum, Gracilaria,
Gelidium Porphyra

Eucheuma
Caulerpa
Gracilaria

Source:

C.crispus Gigartina

Eucheuma
Eucheuma

Eucheuma
International trade

Source:
Source

Domestic market

Gracilaria spp

Gracilaria, Codium, Caulerpa, Porphyra ,

Hyroclathrus, Hypnea, Laurencia Eucheuma
 Porphyra, Ulva, Laurencia, Colpomenia, Acanthophora Halymenia

Sargassum

Caulerpa makes a colourful and crunchy

addition to salads.

Eucheuma
 kimbap
kimchi kim

kim nori
Source

Source
Some of the many innovative seaweed products manufactured and sold in Europe.

Furcellaria
lumbricalis

Kappaphycus
Eucheuma
 et al

et al

Main commercial seaweed species

Saccharina latissima
Fucus vesiculosus)
Fucus serratus) Palmaria palmate)
Palmaria palmate
F. vesiculosus Laminaria digitata

Saccharina latissima Palmaria palmata Fucus

vesiculosus

Source

Saccharina latissima
S. latissima
S. latissima

Processing

Fucus Saccharina latissima

Fucus serratus
 Saccharina latissima Laminaria spp Porphyra purpirea
Palmaria palmate

Palmaria palmata

Marketing and trade of seaweed and seaweed products

nori
wakame
Source

HS 121229)

Source

nori wakame
 (Haliotis
midae

nori
© veldandsea.com

Main commercial seaweed species

Ecklonia Laminaria, Gracilaria,

Gelidium, Gigartina Porphyra

Ulva Gracilaria

Ulva, Porphyra Laminaria

 Ulva Gracilaria

South Africa: Seaweed aquaculture production system.

© Anderson and Rothman, 2013

Ulva

Gracilari

Ecklonia
et al

Ecklonia maxima (kelp) being harvested by boat.

© Anderson & Rothman, 2013
Processing

Marketing and trade of seaweed and seaweed products

Porphyra spp, Plocamium corallorhiza

Laminaria pallid

Source

© Anderson & Rothman, 2013

 Ecklonia
Gracilaria spp

kim nori

Ulva, Porphyra, Gracilaria, Laminaria,

Ecklonia
 Gelidium sp

Gracilaria
Macrocystis pyrifera
Main commercial seaweed species

Durvillaea antarctica cochayuyo Porphyra

luche

Durvillaea antarctica
Porphyra

Durvillaea antarctica
porphyra

Gigartinales

Chondracanthus chamissoi

Callophyllis variegata

Callophyllis variegata
A: Durvillaea antarctica. B: Lessonia trabeculata. C: Gracilaria chilensis. D:
Mazzaella laminarioides. E: Porphyra F: Macrocystis pyrifera. G: Lessonia
nigrescens. H: Gigartina skottsbergii. I: Callophyllis variegata. J:
Chondracanthus chamissoi. K: Gelidium L: Sarcothalia crispata.
© R. Westermeier (Images A-H; L) & M.E. Ramirez (Images I-K)

Gigartinaceae Gigartina skottsbergii luga roja

Sarcothalia crispata luga negra Mazzaella laminarioides luga
cuchara
Gigartina skottsbergii

Gigartina skottsbergii

Gigartina skottsbergii

Sarcothalia
crispata Mazzaella laminarioides

Sarcothalia crispata

Macrocystis pyrifera Gigartina skottsbergii

Mesophyllum
 M. laminarioides

Gracilaria chilensis Gelidium spp,

Gracilaria chilensis,
pelillo lamella

Gracilaria chilensis

Gracilaria

Gracilaria chilensis

Gracilaria chilensis

Gelidium chasca

Gelidium

Lessonia nigrescens
Lessonia trabeculata Macrocystis pyifera Lessonia nigrescens huiro negro
chascón Lessoniaceae

Durvillaea antarctica Lessonia nigrescens

Lessonia trabeculata (huiro palo Macrocystis pyrifera huiro

Lessonia trabeculata and Macrocystis pyrifera
Lessoniaceae

A: Pilot culture of Macrocystis pyrifera in Dalcahue, Chiloé Island. B: Commercial facility of

Gracilaria chilensis at Pelluhuin.
© R. Westermeier
Processing

A:Sundried luga roja (Gigartina skottsbergii) for carrageenan manufacturing in Faro Corona,
Chiloé Island. B: Fresh giant kelp (M. pyrifera) bound for abalone facilities at Bahia Chasco,
Atacama coast. C: Packages of dried Lessonia trabeculata to be sent to kelp processors in Bahia
Salado, Atacama. D: Harvesting of subtidal Gracilaria chilensis by local fishermen at Maullin.
© R. Westermeier (Images B - D)

Lessonia trabeculata
Macrocystis

Marketing and trade of seaweeds and seaweed products

Porphyra
Durvillaea antarctica

Gelidium
 Macrocystis

Source

Lessonia

C.
chamissoi,

Lessonia

Lessonia spp M.
pyrifera Durvillaea antactica G. skotsbergii

Lessonia
Euchema Kappaphycus nori

Durvillaea antarctica Porphyra

spp

A: Porphyra (luche in Spanish) and lamb

cazuela (soup).
B: Durvillaea antarctica (cochayuyo in Spanish)
salad.

Porphyra

Durvillaea antarctica
 Chilean seaweed products in local markets
(A: Luche ‘bread’; B: tied cochayuyo).
© F. Küpper

Dyctiopteris Auke

Auke harvested on Easter Island (A: Full bag collected by a local Islander. B: Morphology of
Dyctiopteris
© M.E. Ramirez

Lessonia spp

Gracilaria chilensis Gigartina/Sarcothalia

Source

wakame, nori
Source

Source
Source

wakame, nori

Laminaria, Porphyra , hizikia

kombu nori hiziki Undaria spp
wakame)
Source

Source
Sources

Sources
Source
Source

Source
Source

Undaria Hizikia

Gracilaria
Source

Source

Source
Source

wakame nori

Source
Source
Source

Kappaphycus alvarezii E.
deliticulatum E.spinosum

Source

E.spinosum
Source
Crispy Seaweed Spicy Flavour;
Tao Kae Noi Brand carries a halal label.
 nori kombu
wakame

Dried seaweed lines the shelves of Japanese-themed outlets

in many Asian supermarkets, in this case in Malaysia.
© Fatima Ferdouse

Gracilaria
ogonori ogo
gulaman

Gracilaria
Gracilaria
© Fatima Ferdouse

Chondrus

Kappaphycus alvarezii (cotonii) Eucheuma

denticulatum spinosum

Chondrus Furcellaria Gigartina Sarcothalia Mazzaella Iridaea

Mastocarpus Tichocarpus
 In Southeast Asia, carrageenan is used as a binder for
items such as burgers.
© Fatima Ferdouse

Eucheuma

Eucheuma
September 2017, Zanzibar FAO Director-General, Josè Graziano da Silva, inspecting a
variety of products made from seaweed during his visit to Paje Beach.
©FAO/Kevin Midigo

(Ecklonia)
 Eucheuma Kappaphycus
Gracilaria
 African Journal of Agricultural Research

Description of the commercial seaweed sector

Vækst i blå biomasser- kortlægning af potentialer og

udfordringer i værdiskabelse af tang og skaldyr (Growth within blue biomass-mapping
of potentials and challenges in value creation of seaweed and shellfish). .

China Fishery
Statistical Yearbook (2003-2015).

Encyclopedia of Ecology Ecological Engineering

et al Safeguarding the future of

the global seaweed aquaculture industry

Status of the South

African Marine Fishery Resources.
Dubai Chamber report
shows increasing preference for halal food as global market grows to USD1.1 trillion
in 2013

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department

Boletin de Exportación de Productos

Pesqueros y Acuícolas de Chile
A guide to the seaweed industry

Regulation regarding seaweed as

food and for the trade in Denmark
 Profile of Business and
Investment Opportunities on Seaweed Industry in Indonesia III

Seaweed processing in Chile, with emphasis on human consumption

products

Blå biomasse – potentialer og udfordringer for opdræt af muslinger og tang

DTU Aqua-
rapport

Desembarque de algas por especie

entre 1996 – 2006

Datos Estadísticos del Desembarque, Producción y Cosecha de

Algas Marinas Chilenas

Anuario Estadístico de Pesca. Servicio Nacional de Pesca

Micronutrient deficiencies.

Seaweed Industry: The Case of China

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The GLOBEFISH Research Programme is an activity ISBN 978-92-5-130870-7
initiated by FAO's Products, Trade and Marketing
Branch, Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy and Resources

9 7 8 9 2 5 1 3 0 8 7 0 7
and Associate Members. CA1121EN/1/08.18